Research Paper

The Role of Free Press in the American Political System

Author

Institution

The Role of Free Press in the American Political System

Freedom of the press is of immense importance in today’s world, and by no means can this freedom enjoyed by press be overestimated. Press has played a pivotal role in designing the policies of the American government. It is imperative to comprehend the role of the free press in the performance of American institutions prior to the understanding of the political decision-making process in the USA. The free press has emerged as one of the greatest powers in Western countries, and more often than not considered more powerful than the other three tiers of the state i.e. legislature, executive and judiciary. The power press holds and the freedom it enjoys provide people with a rational reason to question themselves as to whom the press is accountable ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GYXtzDpM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Norris, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Norris, 2006)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":596,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/DKAMN8N3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/DKAMN8N3"],"itemData":{"id":596,"type":"paper-conference","title":"The role of the free press in promoting democratization, good governance, and human development (*)","source":"Semantic Scholar","abstract":"Synopsis: What is the role of the free press in strengthening good governance, democracy and human development? To explore these issues, Part I presents the analytical framework, develops the core testable propositions, and summarizes the previous research literature on the topic. Part II outlines the comparative framework, evidence, and research design. This study utilizes a large-N cross-sectional comparison to analyze the impact of press freedom on multiple indicators of democracy and good governance. Freedom House provides the principle measure of Press Freedom with annual data available from 1992 to 2005. Part III describes the distribution of press freedom and regional trends. Part IV analyzes the impact of these patterns. The regression models control for many factors commonly associated with processes of democratization and good governance, such as wealth, ethnic fractionalization, and colonial histories. The results confirm that the free press does matter for a range of indicators of good governance, and it is integral to the process of democratization. The Conclusion summarizes the key findings and considers their consequences for strengthening political and human development and thereby alleviating poverty.","author":[{"family":"Norris","given":"Pippa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Norris, 2006). The influence of the press on the political system has greatly been increased because the focus of political campaigns has been shifted from party to the individual. Candidates in the election are now obsessed with voter’s attention. The full potential of a free press can only be grasped following a thorough comprehension of what the press is and who the press is. This essay will provide the reader with an analysis of the synergetic effects of the press in the American political system.

Discussion

The prime responsibility of the press is to provide us with information and facts following or prior to the occurrence of an event. The information or facts that press present us with, shape our opinions. The rational domain is influenced by the information or facts revealed by the press. The attitude of policymakers towards policy making is also influenced by the press. Press has the power to design government and political decisions in a number of ways . A few ways through which press influence the political system of America are as follows.

Influence on the Political Opinions of Voters

It is no surprise that the press finds it hard to alter the political rationale of people who actively take part in politics. For instance, people who have developed their political affiliations with either of the two major political parties of the US are quite choosy concerning what they want from the press ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bKR0X91K","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Oswald, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Oswald, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":592,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/PY84XAH9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/PY84XAH9"],"itemData":{"id":592,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mass Media and the Transformation of American Politics","container-title":"MARQUETTE LAW REVIEW","page":"31","volume":"77","source":"Zotero","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Oswald","given":"Kristine A"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Oswald, n.d.). Despite that, press achieves its goals by swaying people who have no or little political affiliation with any of the two parties. Surprisingly, election results depend upon the decision of people who are uncommitted so the influence of the press on election results cannot be overestimated.

Influence on the Behavior of Candidates

The success or failure of any politician is determined by the press and if politicians learn how to use press during election campaigns, they can, for sure, succeed. Similarly, following the elections when politicians are elected and assume office, they still can succeed by using press effectively in getting things done in their favor. The two best examples in this regard are president Franklin D. Roosevelt and President Ronald Reagan. Roosevelt used to press and radio in the best possible way to soothe the pain of the great economic depression by communicating with the American population. Ronald Reagan also had good communication skills and communicated with American voters in a very effective manner.

Highlighting Public Issues

Print media is the best source for American people if they want to learn about social problems. Undoubtedly, the focus of the press on certain issues and dissemination of information and facts concerning that issue will influence the government policies towards the issue. It is probably not the policymakers who decide what needs to get done but the press or media. More often than not, press and media are accused of accentuating scandals by putting the more important political problem on the back burner. This will greatly affect the government’s ability to prioritizing the issues and problems.

Biased Ideology

Most of the people are of the view that it is impossible to carry out objective journalism entirely. For it requires journalists and editors to report and disseminate issues completely uninfluenced by values. In addition, the economic interests of media play a pivotal role in the control over the dissemination of information. Such economic interests and concentrations have welcomed negative reactions from the industry and political spheres ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8vc4zH9s","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levendusky, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Levendusky, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":600,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/NDVDR9UE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/NDVDR9UE"],"itemData":{"id":600,"type":"article-journal","title":"Why do partisan media polarize viewers?","container-title":"American Journal of Political Science","page":"611–623","volume":"57","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Levendusky","given":"Matthew S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levendusky, 2013). Liberalists are of the view that press freedom hinders political diversity, for it promotes commercial or corporate interests. Another argument put forward by the liberalists that press only disseminate information and facts concerning conventional perspectives for it wants to sustain its status quo ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"R2AsCeKT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Oswald, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Oswald, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":592,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/PY84XAH9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/PY84XAH9"],"itemData":{"id":592,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mass Media and the Transformation of American Politics","container-title":"MARQUETTE LAW REVIEW","page":"31","volume":"77","source":"Zotero","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Oswald","given":"Kristine A"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Oswald, n.d.).

Conservatives are of the view that the press favors the liberals’ perception of political issues. The argument can be supported by the words of George W. Bush when he criticized media and labeling it biased against the Republican Party.

National Security and Press Autonomy

The case of Daniel Ellsberg is worth mentioning here. He provided New York Times with classified documents which would later recognize as Pentagon Papers and exposed the facts about US involvement in Vietnam. Pentagon Papers exposed that government lied to the general public regarding the losses they would bear in the war. Pentagon Papers revealed that the public was misled about the degree of U.S. involvement in Vietnam by the administrations of Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, J.F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson. Pentagon Papers created an outrage in the general public and compelled American administration to pull the forces out of Vietnam and save tax money.

Conclusion

The press, undisputedly, enjoys a great deal of power in American politics. Some experts are of the view that such a power enjoyed by media is not a good thing for government owing to the abuse of power by media. For it is the profit motives which drive the media to provide general masses with what they want not with what they require. However, some people laud the freedom enjoyed by print media, for they consider print media pivotal for the system of “checks and balances” in American politics. They argue rather call the print media a watchdog that makes sure that no one from the executive, legislature or judiciary abuses his powers. In addition, the transition has been witnessed in the communication networks owing to technological advancement. Both, the government and media influence each other which influence the public policy as a result. Hence, it can be argued that public policy is being developed in an ad hoc manner. Citizens are required to become active participants in political development because the press or media will not be fair if they enjoy complete freedom.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bode, L. (2016). Political news in the news feed: Learning politics from social media. Mass Communication and Society, 19(1), 24–48.

Chadwick, A., Dennis, J., & Smith, A. P. (2016). Politics in the age of hybrid media. The Routledge Companion to Social Media and Politics, 7–22.

Levendusky, M. S. (2013). Why do partisan media polarize viewers? American Journal of Political Science, 57(3), 611–623.

Norris, P. (2006). The role of the free press in promoting democratization, good governance, and human development (*).

Oswald, K. A. (n.d.). Mass Media and the Transformation of American Politics. MARQUETTE LAW REVIEW, 77, 31.

Research Paper

The role of free press in the United States political system

The role of a free press in the United States political system

Introduction

The Press is considered as an important tool of communication between politicians and the public. In the present times, there is hardly any phenomena that have remained uninfluenced by the press. This is true for every country whether politically stable or not. With time, the press has turned itself as an important instrument of the statecraft. It’s a portrayal of events greatly impact largely on the political sphere of the country. The importance of this can be gauged by its role in the happening of international events. It portrays incidents in such a manner that people start formulating opinion which is based on the analysis printed or otherwise telecasted live. A. Jones argues that this is how the press has become an important element of the statecraft ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IyNUNav4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jones, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Jones, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/SMLIUPKV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/SMLIUPKV"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"book","title":"Powers of the press: newspapers, power and the public in nineteenth-century England","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Powers of the press","author":[{"family":"Jones","given":"Aled"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jones, 2016). This role of the press is just not limited to the international events, but it also plays an important role in the political makeup of the country. In many smaller countries of the world, the ruling elite or the influential elite use this tool to increase the confidence of their voters.

In the United States, the press role in the political system is different from other countries. In the US, the political system is much different from many countries in the world, therefore the role of the press remains too narrow or regularized ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gdA0mGLf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jones, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Jones, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/SMLIUPKV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/SMLIUPKV"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"book","title":"Powers of the press: newspapers, power and the public in nineteenth-century England","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Powers of the press","author":[{"family":"Jones","given":"Aled"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jones, 2016). To understand the role of the press in the political process, it is important to analyze the role of political statecraft. The statecraft includes political offices and state institutions. The importance of it can be judged only if one understands what the press is and what role does it needs to play. Since it has turned itself as a business and a private entity, therefore at many places its role can either be questioned or can be misleading. The political system in the US is so transparent, that press and many other influential factors can play many definite roles. As this research paper is related to analyzing the role of a free press in the US, therefore it will be hypothesized that the biased role of the press in the US threatens the political stability of the country.

Press as the fourth pillar

The role of any persons related to press swings between two extents. Either it can be neutral or otherwise, it can play the role of an active participant. For example, it is believed that some media channels (the latest form of the press) played the role of influencers to drag the country into the war with Iraq and Afghanistan ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dhrv4XOV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Peterson, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Peterson, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":219,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S5CBY62Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S5CBY62Q"],"itemData":{"id":219,"type":"article-journal","title":"Speaking of news: Press, democracy, and metapragmatics in a changing India","container-title":"American Ethnologist","page":"673–687","volume":"42","issue":"4","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Speaking of news","author":[{"family":"Peterson","given":"Mark Allen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Peterson, 2015). Similarly, such active participation has been observed many times during the political campaigning previously in the country. The concept of the fourth pillar can be gauged from the text of the first amendment in the US constitution which calls that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise, or abridging the freedom of speech ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UYb63Khz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Henkin, Glennon, & Rogers, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Henkin, Glennon, & Rogers, 1990)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":220,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/H28NKE7Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/H28NKE7Z"],"itemData":{"id":220,"type":"book","title":"Foreign affairs and the US Constitution","publisher":"Transnational Publishers","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Henkin","given":"Louis"},{"family":"Glennon","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Rogers","given":"William D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Henkin, Glennon, & Rogers, 1990)”. The freedom of speech is not just limited to the general masses, but it equally transcends upon the elected representatives. This shows that what exactly are the factors which justify the importance of press or media as the fourth pillar.

With time the constructs of media have also evolved. The role of the present time press is just not related to transmitting news or broadcast the real-time happenings. It has now expanded to include spreading awareness in the general masses. This aspect of it is debatable. Since awareness is not specific to some pre-defined phenomenon, but also it requires educating people politically ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DcNAmfjP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Peterson, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Peterson, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":219,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S5CBY62Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S5CBY62Q"],"itemData":{"id":219,"type":"article-journal","title":"Speaking of news: Press, democracy, and metapragmatics in a changing India","container-title":"American Ethnologist","page":"673–687","volume":"42","issue":"4","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Speaking of news","author":[{"family":"Peterson","given":"Mark Allen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Peterson, 2015). This aspect of it is debatable, as one thing or a fact might be right for one person and false for another person. According to this view, media is considered the fourth pillar of the statecraft. It has changed the public’s perspective on different things. In the present times, it is also right to argue that political governments sometimes enjoy less authority compared to the media organizations. Some political commentators and the influential persons related to media or press industry also argue that since it this business attracts major profits; therefore, this attraction has given birth to it say in the matters of public importance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JqBX9zoN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Peterson, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Peterson, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":219,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S5CBY62Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S5CBY62Q"],"itemData":{"id":219,"type":"article-journal","title":"Speaking of news: Press, democracy, and metapragmatics in a changing India","container-title":"American Ethnologist","page":"673–687","volume":"42","issue":"4","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Speaking of news","author":[{"family":"Peterson","given":"Mark Allen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Peterson, 2015).

The United States political system

The political system in the US is much depending, neither of the founding institutions of the state enjoys authority. The public representatives elected to the Congress go through a vibrant and a fair process before they are elected to Congress. The elections of the President are also much fair and enjoy the complete faith of the public. Parallel to this political system is the judiciary, executive and the legislative branch which works under the constitution of the US. Fowler argues that the press is not referred to as the direct organ of the statecraft in the US ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gtZ2YGVx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fowler, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Fowler, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":221,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/KBWEDGKH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/KBWEDGKH"],"itemData":{"id":221,"type":"book","title":"Political advertising in the United States","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Fowler","given":"Erika Franklin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fowler, 2018). The constitution of the US, however, talks about the freedom of speech and the freedom of expression enshrined in the first amendment. Opposite to all its generally specific role, it has evolved to a level never experienced before. Today, media and the press enjoy a strong and vibrant presence in almost every country of the world, and the United States is no exception ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0WaVDkNq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fowler, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Fowler, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":221,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/KBWEDGKH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/KBWEDGKH"],"itemData":{"id":221,"type":"book","title":"Political advertising in the United States","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Fowler","given":"Erika Franklin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fowler, 2018).

In this complete scenario, it is much noticeable that the press does not enjoy any authority in the public domain. Different to many other countries where the political system is not mature, or any other institution has the charge of information dissemination, the press has enjoyed massive powers. As the above paragraphs show that the political system in the US is much strong and transparent, therefore it has a little say in the matters of state importance. In the US, undeniably the role of the press is limited to just information dissemination and public awareness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WYAuC03T","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fowler, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Fowler, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":221,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/KBWEDGKH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/KBWEDGKH"],"itemData":{"id":221,"type":"book","title":"Political advertising in the United States","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Fowler","given":"Erika Franklin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fowler, 2018). Other roles which it takes on from time to time include working as the watchdog, propaganda against the rival states and provoking public for thoughtful decisions. Rather than acting as a tool to manipulate political results, it provides the platform to political rivals to showcase and debate in support of their narratives. Conclusively, considering American politics and the role of the press, it is viable to argue that the press is just a form of political expression.

Free press and the political system

Free press and the political system are two distinctive, but a knitted phenomenon. The political system in one way or another remains dependent on the press or media to communicate with the public. Similarly, the political system is what which brings viewership and readership to press. Since the last two or three decades, there has been an increase in the business related to the press. Berger writes that the reason for such an increase is the new term Media which is largely attributed to it ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ZHEjfPwW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berger, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Berger, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/QDYZBXYU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/QDYZBXYU"],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"book","title":"Political parties: A sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Political parties","author":[{"family":"Berger","given":"Arthur Asa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Berger, 2017). Some new terms, for example, biases and unbiases have also attributed to the Press ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mThfmcEi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berger, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Berger, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/QDYZBXYU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/QDYZBXYU"],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"book","title":"Political parties: A sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Political parties","author":[{"family":"Berger","given":"Arthur Asa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Berger, 2017). These terms indicate how the public now see the role of the press. Some events in recent history have proved that press manipulates things in specific manners. It creates and motivates public opinion in a certain direction. This is where it leaves the space for the political elites to impinge into the system and mould things in their favour ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"j9ts1xOQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berger, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Berger, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/QDYZBXYU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/QDYZBXYU"],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"book","title":"Political parties: A sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Political parties","author":[{"family":"Berger","given":"Arthur Asa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Berger, 2017). This suggests that how the press is linked with the upbringing of a political system.

Many scholars and the political analysts argue that where ever the role of media or press has remained biased or opposite to what the state policy is, it has damaged badly the statecraft ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"75QJ1pwZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bettig, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Bettig, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":225,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/9VHV9NT5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/9VHV9NT5"],"itemData":{"id":225,"type":"book","title":"Copyrighting culture: The political economy of intellectual property","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Copyrighting culture","author":[{"family":"Bettig","given":"Ronald V."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bettig, 2018). Countries of the third world and militarily strong are proof of this fact. Similarly, some analysts argue that if at any stage of the political life of America, the press played a biased role it will damage the United States of America more than any other country. They base their reason on the fact that America of the present time is most dependent on its fourth pillar compared to any country of the world. Some recent facts related to countries like Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, and some countries of South Asia are also proof of this fact. This dependency is just not in America but in many other countries too. Whenever the state press turns toward either side or restricts the presence of some political figures it impacts negatively on the internal politics and the global image of the country. This is how the press impacts on the statecraft.

Conclusion

Technological advancements are impacting the performance in each sphere. On one side it has reduced the distances and has turned the world into a real-time global village. Like every field in this world, this technological advancement has impacted the field of the press. Things at present are quite different from what they were some decades ago. The press has evolved itself into a watchdog, which monitors the performance of state institutes at one side and the public’s participation on the other side. With all its expanded role, it has the power now raise the public sentiments against any elected or selected government. This has been proved with some events of the recent past. Ideally, the press should contribute to the search of truth and should expand its role for the political stability in the country. By this way, it can support the state’s search of the truth as well.

The events mentioned above, or the examples referred to suggest that an unbiased role of the press is mandatory for sustenance and sustainability of many processes which takes place with in a state. These events also suggest that wherever the role of Press has remained suggestive, biased or in case restricted it has affected negatively on its performance. This research, therefore, proofs the hypothesis that biased threatens the political stability of the country.

References:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Berger, A. A. (2017). Political parties: A sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy. Routledge.

Bettig, R. V. (2018). Copyrighting Culture: The political economy of intellectual property. Routledge.

Fowler, E. F. (2018). Political advertising in the United States. Routledge.

Henkin, L., Glennon, M. J., & Rogers, W. D. (1990). Foreign affairs and the US Constitution. Transnational Publishers.

Jones, A. (2016). Powers of the press: newspapers, power and the public in nineteenth-century England. Routledge.

Peterson, M. A. (2015). Speaking of news: Press, democracy, and metapragmatics in a changing India. American Ethnologist, 42(4), 673–687.

Research Paper Question

Restore Hope in Somalia

Your Name here

Date Here

Restore Hope in Somalia

Introduction

The research question gives us a clear picture of what went wrong in 1993 when the humanitarian mission to Somalia ended up firefight. The country hadn’t had a functioning government since 1991. This tragedy changed the international order, especially the United Nations’ humanitarian missions around the world. According to Walter Clarke and Jeffrey Herbst, Journal article stated, “The American-led operation in Somalia that began when U.S. Marines hit the Mogadishu beaches in December 1992 continues to affect the debate over humanitarian intervention profoundly”. This school of thought focused on how the operation of restores hopes of Somalia shaped the American policy towards involvement in future armed humanitarian interventions. The strength of this school is the operation saved their lives a thousand of the Somali people who were dying of starvation. The weakness of the thought is when President Clinton refused to intervene in the Rwanda genocide in which a million people died because of the lesson learned from Somalia in 1993. “The Clinton administration's refusal to respond to the genocide in Rwanda that began in April 1994 was due in part to its retreat from Somalia, announced after the deaths of 18 U.S. Army Rangers on October 3-4,1993”.

The second school of thought was the behavior of America troops towards local populations and their political complexity. “One pattern reflected a warrior strategy in which soldiers generalized the behavior of gunmen and rioters to all Somalis and treated the entire population as potential enemies”. The strength of this school is the soldiers’ eagerness to save lives; however; the weakness of this school is generalizing the entire population as the enemy.

Discussion

Over the last quarter of a century, Somalia had paralyzed with internal fighting and poor economic and social conditions for its people. The worlds consisted into at least fourteen warring factions. Based on clan alliance, which regularly changed. The last functional government of Somalia was overthrown in 1991 when warring factions seized power. Since that time, no single leader governed in Somalia due to a prolonged civil war and clan politics. A thousand people were dying during these difficult years through killing, starvation, drought, and displacement. The catastrophic situation in Somalia concerned international attention where the United Nations passed a resolution of emergency humanitarian support to the Somali people. More than 25000 of American troops were sent to Somalia for humanitarian assistance.

Historical Description

First school: The strength of this school of thought is the operation saved the lives of thousands of Somali people who were dying of starvation. “The intervention saved thousands of lives have generally focused on the alleged mission change as a way to salvage some good from a seemly devastating foray into the foreign morass”. The American troops with their alliance provided food, shelter, nutrition diet to starving people. Many more people were given to protect especially women and children who were the venerable people for the situation. The international media outlets gave the news the rest of the world for the current issue.

The operation had access to reach the food for badly needed people. The situation was a human disaster before American troops went to Somalia. A thousand people fled from Somalia to neighboring countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia, and Yemen. The real hope emerged when American troops landed in the Somali capital Mogadishu. The strength of this school of thought is a clear indication of how many people were saved through the operation of restores hope in Somalia. The specified role of the US soldiers, to open aid lines and defend food convoys to feeding centers. Many Somalis got financial benefits of the operation such as interpreters and massive food supplies, and subcontractors. “The intervention in Somalia was not an abject failure; an estimated 100,000 lives were saved”. This shows how the operation was important to the Somali people because of extreme starvation existed. It also refers to my question of understanding the actual conditions in Somalia before answering the real question of why the operation ended up firefight.

Literature Review

The weakness of the thought is related to rethinking future operations due to the lessons learned from Somalia. This idea paralyzed the international order of protecting human lives, such as Rwanda and Bosnia. The democratic and stronger countries, both militarily and economically have superior responsibility for weak nations. That responsibility lies in the hands of individual countries as well as the United Nations. If Somalia operation of restoring hope failed partially, this doesn’t mean that stopping major human disasters such as Rwanda and Bosnia. For instance, the mass genocide that happened in Rwanda could be protected and saved human lives if international responsibility addressed urgently. Lack of this responsibility caused the death of close to one million people. “The task now is to reevaluate the mission in the harsh light of the facts, separate and acknowledge the errors unique to the Somalia mission, and distill some guiding principles for other would-be intervenors”.

My question has proud of understanding of how human disasters can be protected while international actors have full knowledge of the situation. This will reduce any misunderstanding between the local population and peacekeeping forces. The fight erupted in Somalia in 1993 was a lack of understanding of the political reality of Somalia. It is not only helping the starving people but to dig deep the real condition of the country. Somalia civil war originated from the power struggle between Somalis. Power struggle plays a major role in warring functions as well as their supporters.

“The distinction between humanitarian intervention and nation-building that is central to so many critiques of the Somalia operation and intervention is problematic. The implication of those who support only humanitarian intervention is that Somalis were starving because of an act of nature. But the famine that gripped Somalia in 1992 resulted from the degeneration of the country's political system and economy”.

Second School: it looks that both schools have the same strength of saving human’s lives. This thought has reflected the concept of sending international forces to Somalia to save human’s lives. This idea consists of both ethical and moral leadership of the international system as well as individual countries. The cost of operation was about billions of dollars from American taxpayers' money. This policy shows the high stake of President Bush’s administration towards saving starving Somali people. American foreign policy was less interest in Somalia because lack of oil and outstanding resources; however; the administration was keen to demonstrate its moral leadership towards the condition of Somalia. This concept is partially relevant to the question of looking at the possibilities caused the fight. “The initial goal was to help and end the widespread starvation caused by the internecine clan war and anarchy”.

The weakness of this school is about generalizing the entire population as an enemy. This perception is where the main idea of my question emerges, especially the correlation stereotype between international forces and local populations. The Somali population is estimated roughly twelve to fifteen million who shares the same homogenous culture, language and religion. The country disintegrated on clan-based politics in which fifteen warlords emerged during the anarchy situation, particularly the southern part of the country. The north named Somaliland declared its independence from the rest of the country since 1991 when the last functional government of Somalia collapsed. The power vacuum complicated every effort to restore law and order. The situation of the country was chaos, and internal fighting paralyzed every effort to restore the effective government. This situation escalated the prolonged civil war in the history and absence of functional government until today. All these important actual conditions needed to address before any humanitarian crises. The complex issues needed to understand clearly before any action taken to save lives. “Operation restores hope in Somalia was a confusion mission for American military personnel. Trained to be warriors for national security, they were sent on an international humanitarian mission”. This clearly shows the misunderstanding between both sides of the operation. This misunderstanding escalated the situation and begun confrontation between American troops and warlord Mohammed Farah Aided that Eighteen Americans died and another seventy-one wounded.

This argument has a direct relation to my question because the confrontation in Somalia created many questions about humanitarian missions in the United Nations as well as the United States. The notion of the mission was to provide aid for those who displaced by the war. However; the mission took a drastic turn when Americans were seen as foreign invaders. The American military came into an unexpected hostile environment which its tragedy ended after 18 Americans, and hundreds of Somalis were killed. “Before their arrival, the soldiers believed they would encounter the emaciated masses of Somalia who appeared nightly on their television screens. These images convinced them of the necessity of outside intervention”. This perception shows the stereotype surrounding the whole events.

Some of the local warlords had sympathy to international forces, particularly those where fewer powers, however; the most powerful warlord Aided saw the international forces as invaders. This fighting extremely changed the American policy towards Somalia. The international news outlets directly projected the situation that attracted both American people and the rest of the world. After weeks of confrontation and confusion, the Clinton administration decided to evacuate its forces from Somalia. Many Somali diasporas and the locals didn’t welcome the strategy of leaving forces because they believed that the total militia disarmament is only possible through international forces. “Although the literature on peacekeeping is growing rapidly, the sociology of humanitarian missions is almost nonexistent. Before operation restores hope, the United States had participated in few large-scale humanitarian missions”. This less experience was a clear indication of how international forces had unfamiliar with the situation.

The local politicians were spreading false accusation of international forces taking their land. Most Somali people were traditional nomadic people who didn’t have an idea of what is going on in their country. Different interpretation emerged everyday life that some of them was dangerous towards the operation such as taking the resource of the country and raping women. All these nonexistence falsehoods driven by local politicians created the perception of not trusting the operation of restoring hope. When the Somali government collapsed in 1991, all social institutions were looted and destroyed, including schools, hospitals and all forms of government buildings. “The arrival of U.S troops, soldiers entered a country with no government or institutions such as hospitals, schools, criminal justice, or postal service, Electrical, Water, and sanitation systems were nonexistent”. In one hand, this demonstrated how the society was helpless in most important institutions in human’s lives.

Research question: the research question asked what went wrong in 1993 when American military sent to Somalia for humanitarian missions. The mission didn’t succeed partially because of confrontations between Somali warlord Aided and American marines. This resulted in a bloody fight, which many people lost their lives. In this tragedy, shaped the international order of the United Nations as well as the United States. The American troops withdrew from Somalia that resulted in the continuation of a state of anarchy. After American troops pulled out of Somalia, a thousand people killed in clan fighting and gang-related issues. This wouldn’t be happening if the Somalia issue would be considered carefully. Somalia became failed state where the terror organization can operate effectively such as Al-Shabaab who killed a thousand of Somali people. Moreover; al-Shabaab is a direct threat to the region and in the world.

Hypothesis and model articulation

The model fit to my question is a foreign policy model which decides activities to foreign countries, whether it is humanitarian issues or direct interventions. The model consists of many actors such as interest groups, focusing event, elites, political parties, and bureaucratic actors. All these groups have a different interest in their concern. All these groups play a major role in any foreign decision-making policy. For instance; the Somalia issue came when the general public saw the starving and dying people, which public demands need a massive response to the situation. Any foreign policy decision impacted the domestic policy agenda. For instance; if the foreign policy outcome fails, it directly influences domestic policy when it comes to the general election. The governing party is eager to lose the election if the foreign policy fails such as Somalia situation. The opposing idea of group interest in the model is characterized by many stages such as agenda-setting like endogenous and exogenous variables which are dependent factors explains functions within the model. Endogenous variables are driven by bureaucracy, interest groups, political party, and lobby groups that each group has their influences of any decision-making process. Exogenous variables are driven by the public interest; for example; the public says we have to do something to change the situation that leads popular uprising towards the demand of American people. For instance; when eighteen American servicemen killed in Somalia, the public uprising towards the event was high to pull out troops from Somalia. The role of bureaucracy in the formulation of foreign policy is crucial for decision making because of having more power and money. Bureaucracy tends to develop mutual attitudes and shared images that finally lead to framing how a particular foreign policy issue is perceived by foreign policymakers. The interest groups sometimes manufacture the focusing event to create a political hypothesis which they can influence the public both positive and negative ways.

The elites have their political view of the decision-making process. They manage public opinion and capture government positions which resulted in protecting their interest such as the NRA and the major oil companies. They have always influenced the political decisions both domestic and foreign policy. They have their interpretation and concerns when it comes to halting their interest. Political parties are more concerned with public images due to the general election and public representatives. The reckless political decisions will impact and produce different outcomes when it comes to public images. The analysis of the decision-making process towards Somalia was taken by different political actors to save the starving people in Somalia. The decision based on humanitarian issues solely. The American political interest in Somalia was limited to helping dying people. This less interest was what makes pulling out the troops from Somalia immediately after the tragedy occurred. This model primarily works the democratic countries where the government structures and functions have directly influenced by public images. The authoritarian countries have no public access to any political decision-making process. This model is suitable for my research question because of humanitarian intervention in Somalia.

Furthermore; any major political decision had both negative and positive outcome. When American people saw the catastrophic human crises and starvation happened in Somalia, the United States decided to send troops to Somalia had the support of the American people. In this regard, no single decision taken to send American troops without public support. This hypothesis clarifies the correlation between decision-makers and the public. Mostly political decisions both domestic and foreign policy have an impact on public images. “Among the many lessons that the U.S. military and political leaders drew from the Vietnam War, one was that the military could not deploy effectively or for very long without public support”. This model shows how the public influences the political decision.

The other variables which are related to the operation of restore hope were a misunderstanding between the local population and the American troops in many issues such as opposing views and stereotype among both sides. The political decision was to save the starving Somali people; however; this perception changed when American people watched the television screens an American soldier dragged on the floor. This tragedy was related to the foreign policy outcome which finally increased the pressure of pulling out the troops from Somali. The issue was quite complex to understand that everybody says how this happened while we are feeding on them. In this case, the independent variable is the public who is a vital factor for every political decision-making process, and the dependent variable is the government. “American participation in the peacekeeping mission to Somalia was strong. But immediately following the deaths of eighteen soldiers in the streets of Mogadishu, negative public reaction forced President Bill Clinton to withdraw U.S. forces. 3 As John Mueller observed, "when Americans asked themselves how many American lives, it was worth to save hundreds of thousands of Somali lives, the answer came out rather close to zero”. This model shows how public support is necessary for every political outcome.

When American people saw on the TV screens that many Somali people were dying through starvation, drought and civil war, they responded positively and even encouraged the government to act quickly. In this case, the domestic policy matters in the connection of American foreign policy. In this model, articulation clarifies the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable. If the government wants to figure out American foreign policy, it is imperative to look at independent variables such as public opinion and elite resistance. The troop deployment in Somalia was seen as essential as important both the public and the government. While states are motivated by their interest, the interest of the American mission in Somalia was based on only humanitarian assistance. In this model, three areas of independent variables are important such as public opinion, the president and elite resistance.

The public opinion is the most influential factor in any decision-making process due to the outcome of that particular policy. The public also is important any election cycle. For this reason, the public has an opinion about state decisions. Although public opinion welcomed the government decision process towards humanitarian assistance in Somalia, everything is changed when they saw American soldiers dragged on Mogadishu streets surrounded by militia mops. The American people asked many questions about how this tragedy happened. The Clinton administration rushed to withdraw troops from Somalia due to the unpredictable situation in Somalia. In this case, the public opinion is essential both domestic and foreign policy outcomes.

The president is more likely to use a force or send the troops when his approval rating is down. He may like to distract the public and focus on international issues. This model policy distracted from the public the real domestic issue which is more important than international issues. The president likes to use a force when the economy is a bad shape that is also another public distraction from the important issues. The elite manipulates mass opinion and manufactures the focusing events such as bureaucracy which accomplish a specific set of goals and objectives as authorized by a legislative body.

Model testing

In the research question, the American government sent troops to Somalia in order to save the starving people. This decision was taken through a process that finally ended up sending troops to Somalia. The foreign policy model plays a major role in the decision-making process. For instance; agenda-setting like endogenous and exogenous variables which are dependent factors explains functions within the model. Endogenous variables are driven by bureaucracy, interest groups, political party and lobby groups that have their own influences of any decision-making process while exogenous variables driven by public interest. For example; Public says we have to do something to change the situation that leads popular uprising towards the demand of American people. Interest group sometimes manufacture the focusing event to its own explanations. The model’s actors under the agenda-setting are essential for the decision-making process. During the decision-making process, many independent variables can change the outcome, such as political parties, elites, think tanks and the public. In Somalia case, the decision was taken to save Somali people. It was the international responsibility to fully adopt the United Nations resolution of humanitarian assistance. Under this mandate, international coalition forces were sent to Somalia. The troops consisted of more than forty countries led by the United States. Infrastructure in Somalia was not developed enough that complicated the food distribution. The power struggle and killing between Somalis hijacked the true meaning of the mission. Many people were saved from harsh conditions, however; the situation ended up the confrontation.

Assessment of the considered model is essential to determine the actual significance of the decision prevails in the form of sending troops to the land of Somalia. Undoubtedly, there are different factors involved in the entire scenario. Foreign policy model is directly linked with the decision of the American government to sending their troops to the country of Somalia. It is worthy to mention that the model of foreign policy was greatly influenced by different exogenous and indigenous factors. All these factors appeared in the form of independent and dependent aspects that eventually impact the decision of saving Somalian people from starvation. The positive or negative impact of these factors can only determine by evaluating the significance of this decision on the lives of Somalian people. It is critical to figure out whether the approach of humanitarian assistance actually helped the region of Somalia or not.

Comprehensive exploration and examination of the practical implications of the unified task force in case of Somalia are important to determine how this approach impact the military and governmental aspects for the country of America. The main purpose of this foreign attempt is to save Somali people who were suffering from different sort of hurdles. The unified mission plan for Somalia was executed in different phases to ensure the success of the entire line of action. This particular plan is recognized with the title of restoring hope in the diminishing area of Somalia to provide necessary protection to the native people in different forms. This particular practical approach is executed by the United States of America with the help of its alliance. It is perceived that the intervention of America in the entire scenario is essential because this particular operation is fully protected by the international organization of the United Nations. The increasing concern of the civil war in the region of Somalia makes it essential for the international community to ensure its influential and strong presence in the weak areas of the country.

The overall outcomes of the operations revealed as the success at multinational level but it also caused different forms of confrontation. Deep analysis of the execution of different phases of operation helps to determine the actual significance of this attempt of foreign policy grounds. Consideration of all different aspects eventually helps to identify all the lessons that can be learned from the entire situation of a unified mission plan for the country of Somalia. When it comes to the approach of the American mission in Somalia in the form of presence of U.S. forces than there is involvement of different operational challenges that were faced by the country of U.S. Maintenance of international peace and security for all the members’ countries is the focal point for the organization of United Nations. Attainment of peacekeeping is the basic foundation that leads to the attempt of unified mission operation for the country of Somalia. During the operation of 1994, the country of U.S. provides necessary support in the forms of proper planning, logistics, and the overall command and control of the entire operation which was sponsored by the organization of United Nation in the form of peace operations. The U.S. military faced various challenges that eventually hinder the way to achieve all the desired outcomes from this particular operation.

Geography, transportation, and political conditions of the region of Somalia are three major aspects that made the situation immensely difficult for the U.S. forces. Detailed consideration of all these challenges is important to make better inference about the decision of America to involve in a unified action plan for Somalia in the form of its influential foreign policy. The effectiveness of the decision of the American government to get involved in peace operation for Somalia can never fully explained without a proper understanding of the geographical perspective of the country. Geographical location plays a critical role in the U.S. military when it comes to initiating operation for the land of Somalia. It is an important phenomenon due to different related aspects. The country of Somalia is located on the northeastern coast also recognized with the name of Horn of Africa. This particular region is categorized as a remote area that makes the situation somewhat complex concerning the broad idea of U.S. operating facilities. Huge distance exists between the geographical locations of America and Somalia. It almost takes 24 hours by air and several weeks by sea from the United States to reach the destination of Somalia. This form of consideration eventually made the situation difficult for the country of the U.S. to attain and sustain a suitable form of military and peach operation in its optimum forms. The country size of Somalia was another major aspect of concern for the authorities of the U.S. to ensure the consideration of every related domain. This part of Africa immensely facing the issue of dryness and drought that eventually makes it difficult to sustain a stable life. This certain concern affected the overall involvement of the international authorities in the form of a peach action plan for Somalia in the name of restoring hope in Somalia. It is evident that the situation of sustainability was greatly complex for the American mission as they faced difficulties is arranging food and other necessary items for themselves. Food and water scarcity were the major concerns for the American delegations in Somalia that ultimately decrease their performance level to ensure the success of the mission.

Communication is another prominent concern that appeared in the case of American involvement in the country of Somalia. Researchers established this fact that there was the availability of limited networking process that made it difficult for foreign missions to ensure the success of the entire unified action plan for Somalia. Infrastructure in the form of the paved road was also detrimental that only connect main regions of Mogadishu, Merca, Kismayo, and Berbera. When it comes to consideration of networking with other parts of the country than the situation was not suitable. There was limited air transportation network that causes an immense form of communication problems for the American people who deployed in this area. Detailed analysis of the political situation of Somalia is also important to assess the approach of political grounds that eventually leads to the disturbance for America. The civil war was the main concern of the time that made the situation worse for the country. It was difficult to approach to propose an effective solution to handle the adverse consequences of the scenario of civil war. Since 1988, the civil war enormously influences the functioning of the country in many different forms. It is witnessed that there were almost fourteen clans and groups who were active in the country of Somalia to gain overall authority of Somalian society. All the groups come up with this particular ideology that their group has the right to take the country of the country. Guns and killings become the common culture of the society that made the peace situation worse in the country. Undoubtedly, it was not easy for foreign missions such as American delegates to sustain their peaceful situation in this type of risky environment. The political situation of the country was not favorable for the international community to provide necessary assistance to the local citizens and ensure protection for them. The option of guns was greatly used by the groups to take control of the country. With the passage of time, the situation was getting worse for the Somalian people as they were greatly threatened by issues of starvation and civil war. The entire system of the country was out of order that eventually grabs the attention of the international community. The political instability of Somalia can be characterized as the major cause of consideration of a unified action plan initiated by the country of the United States of America.

It is critical to assess the involvement of the U.S. in the entire situation of Somalia to make better inferences about the entire perspective. When it comes to U.S. intervention in the whole scenario then it can observe in the form of three major phases. These practical stages explained as Operation Provide Relief, a humanitarian mission, and Operation Restore Hope. The operation restores hope was initiated with the aim to provide necessary humanitarian aid with the limited involvement of military action. A peach enforcement mission was great to the feature of consideration that was initiated to provide necessary relief to the Somalian people. There were significant challenges in the entire scenario of the execution of three stages of U.S. operation in Somalia. Moving adequate form of food, water, and medicine into Somalia is a major issue that affects the overall approach of the mission for Somalia. Another major obstacle establishes the provision of necessary security to ensure the proper protection of supplies from theft. All these aspects greatly impact the overall practical approach of UNOSOM established by the UN with the help of the major role of the United States of America.

Consideration of different challenges for the humanitarian mission in Somalia revealed that troops and other delegations of America faced different concerns specifically in the form of security concerns and the scarcity of resources. The political situation was not in favor of international mission as many U.S. military men were killed due to the issue of civil war in Somalia. The damage faced by the American mission in Somalia eventually questions the suitability of the foreign policy decision formed by the government of America. This particular concern raised the question that whether it was necessary for America to get involved in the internal problem of civil war faced by Somalian people. It comes up with a major concern that many American individuals lost their lives due to the wrong foreign policy or the mishandling of the entire scenario. Here, there is a need for critically examining dependent and independent variables to determine better inferences about the model of foreign policy in the scenario of U.S. involvement into Somalia. There were different crucial indicators that influence the perspective of foreign policy in the form of sending a humanitarian mission for Somalia. A different school of thoughts comes up with different aspects of consideration. It is important to reveal that there was the involvement of different interest groups that influence the decision of sending a mission to the country who was facing complexities of civil war. The model of foreign policy has great contribution concerning the approach of decision-making for the American authorities. Different endogenous and exogenous variables were the main aspects of concern relevant to the broad idea of decision-making procedure. Different interest groups and lobby groups play their critical role to influence the entire perspective of sending American troops to save human life in Somalia. It is also worthy to assess the implications of this decision through the perspective of public interest. It is crucial to figure out all the concerns of the public linked with the phenomenon of sending a mission to the other country. Deep explanation of the entire facet of consideration reveals that powerful interest groups play a major role in the entire scenario of development of foreign policy model concerning the decision of sending troops in Somalia.

Conclusion

To conclude the discussion about the perspective of restoring hope in Somalia, it is vital to mention that this particular phenomenon impacts the functioning of the American country in many different forms. It was the decision that causes the killing of many American individuals that naturally raised the question that whether it was integral for America to directly involved in the troubling situation of Somalia. This form of consideration also helps to figure out the important role of foreign policy. The significant role of foreign policy is established as the model to examine the different aspects of decision-making procedure in the form of sending troops to Somalia. It is observed that there were various stakeholders involves in the form of endogenous and exogenous variables that impact the process of decision-making made by the foreign policy in the form of sending troops to Somalia. The implication of humanitarian operation linked with all these related aspects. The analysis of the entire model of foreign policy can never be established as a complete domain without referring to the particular interest of different groups involved in the scenario. Understanding the particular outcomes of the humanitarian operation in Somalia also clearly revealed the overall significance of the decision made by the government of the United States in the form of foreign policy. Examination of the actual situation of Somalia is also important to figure out the need of international involvement in the forms of sending peace and military troops to the areas of Somalia and provide necessary relief to the Somalian people. The detrimental situation of the citizens of Somalia demands the international community to ensure their practical measures to provide necessary relief to local people. It is established that when all the countries are closely connected with each other in the form of the global organization of the United Nation than it is obligatory for the powerful nations to use their authority and provide necessary assistance to the countries that require aid.

Detailed analysis of different aspects of the entire case of sending troops to Somalia demands to identify specific lessons that can be learned from the whole situation. Undoubtedly, different challenges faced by American troops on the land of Somalia as this particular country suffering from the concerns of hunger and civil war. The overall situation of Somalia was life-threatening for each American individual who sent to Somalia as the part of a unified mission for this country. Consideration of these challenges raised the concern in the form of the decision-making process under the broad perspective of foreign policy model. This form of concern helps to identify the actual mistakes that cause immense damage for America in the form of sending humanitarian troops for the country who was facing the problem of civil war.

The significance of the entire phenomenon is better established through the proper explanation of different school of thoughts. It is revealed that it was immensely important for the government of America to send its troops to Somalia to save the lives of many people who were facing different challenges in the form of implications of civil war. The other point of view consists of the approach that it is important to examine the behavioral domain adopted by U.S. forces in the country of Somalia. It is important to reveal that both the ideas of particular merits and demerits. There is a need for examining actual gain to make better inference about the suitability of the decision-making in the form of foreign policy. Undoubtedly, sending troops in Somalia caused saving of many precious lives but there is also a need for considering the interest of all the related shareholders. The worse situation of mission for Somalia makes it critical for America to examine all the aligned perspectives when it comes to forming foreign policy decision.

Bibliography

Burk, James. "Public support for peacekeeping in Lebanon and Somalia: Assessing the casualties hypothesis." Political science quarterly 114, no. 1 (1999): 53-78.

Clarke, Walter, and Jeffrey Herbst. "Somalia and the future of humanitarian intervention." Foreign Affairs (1996): 70-85.

Hall, Donald P., Eric D. Cipriano, and Graeme Bicknell. "Preventive mental health interventions in peacekeeping missions to Somalia and Haiti." Military Medicine 162, no. 1 (1997): 41-43.

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Research Proposal And Annotated Biblography

Reseach Proposal and Annotated Bibliography

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research Proposal and Annotated Bibliography

Introduction

Social media has become a very powerful tool that is used in every field of life by people. All activities and actions of people now days are influenced by social media due to the rapid progress of acience and technology with every passing day.

Discussion

Social media is used in politics to a very large extent and the trends have now changed the ways of interaction of the people with their elected officials. The elected candidates and officials have become more accessible and accountable to the pubic and the voters due to the ptevalence of social media in politics. Use of Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube has made the running of campaigns changed and the content published can be broadcasted to millions of people easily, within a few seconds. The politicians can easily convey their agendas and can speak to the voters directly through the social media tools without spending any time. The traditional method of voting has also changed; the voters can be easily reached through earned media and paid advertising.

The political campaigns easily and conveniently produce the ads and commercials and get them published for free on the social media platforms, rather than paying extra time, money, and attention to broadcast them on radio or television. Due to a large ratio of social mredia audience,the content for campaigns and other stuff posted by the journalists easily gets broadcasted to a wide range of audience within no time and it even helps them know about the views and opinions of people by going through the responses.

The social media tools have aroused a lot of creativity in people. the voters and politicians interact to each other through these tools and share news, ideas, and other information very easily. The campaign events are shared on Facebook using the “share” option and people respond to it using the “retweet” feature. Donal Trump as a candidate in his 2016 Presidential campaign said, “I like it because I can get also my point of view out there, and my point of view is very important to a lot of people that are looking at me.”

The people who foolow the political campaigns on social media can be helpful for giving new ideas to the elected officials for their political campaigns and events. A wealth of information can be exchanged in the best way and through people from every gender, race, age group, or institution. There are some campaigns that raise large sums of cash within a short period of time. Social media tools such as Facebook and Twitter are used by the candidates to donate money or carry out the most successful fundraising campaigns.

The social media can prove to be effective and helpful to get to know about the image of the candidates. Their social media posts reflect their ideas, opinions, thoughts, and the activities they engage in. sometimes these tools and the use of social media also create scandals and controversies against the candidates, for example Anthony Weiner lost his seat in the Congress after he exchanged on his Twitter and Facebook some photos and messages with a woman that were sexually explicit.

The best effect of social media on the political world is weighing public opinion nd getting feedback from them. The politicians and elected officials easlity get to know how pople are responding to any of their issue or controversy. They hire a proper staff for monitoring their social media channels for observing and keeping records of the positive or negative responses of the public. At first the politicians and their staff do not know how people will be responding to their activities or policies and after that they can adjust their campaigns or sctivities in accordance with the responses.

Another reason for the effectiveness of social media on politics is that engages the youth and young voters. Due to the social media tools, young voters are energized and it gives a deep impact on the elections and campaigns. The best example of this is Barack Obama, the first politician who encouraged the power of social media during the two successful campaigns held by him.

The social media and its excessive use by people has broadened the digita technology and the political movements are influenced by it largely. A political scientist Bruce Bimber says, “The exercise of power and the configuration of advantage and dominance in democracy are linked to technological change.” The power of social media has influenced politics through the use of divderse media platforms.

Conclusion

Over the past decade, the rise of social media in polics has brought great revolution to the world and it will continue to eveolve with each passing day. Many new trends have been introduced by the access to the broad digital sources and these trends are a ray of hope for building a good future of the social media.

End Notes

BIBLIOGRAPHY Dimitrova, Daniela V., and Jorg Matthes. 2018. "Social Media in Political Campaigning Around the World: Theoretical and Methodological Challenges." Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1077699018770437.

Gainous, Jason, and Kevin M. Wagner. 2014. Tweeting to Power: The Social Media Revolution in American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=mIQ8DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=social+media+impacts+on+politics+usa&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwinkKnh7NrlAhXr1uAKHasfCFkQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Tresch, Anke, Pascal Sciarni, and Frederic Varone. 2013. "The Relationship between Media and Political Agendas: Variations across Decision-Making Phases." West European Politics. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01402382.2013.799312.

Response Paper

Wonsehlea Teah

Enter the Name of Instructor

Political Science

October 13, 2019.

Response Paper

Introduction

Human trafficking is an issue of concern for states all around the world. Governments in different countries had been adopting legal measures to curb human trafficking in all its manifestations. The Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2013 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vPoaBniN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Congress)","plainCitation":"(Congress)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":656,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3BMPKXCI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3BMPKXCI"],"itemData":{"id":656,"type":"paper-conference","title":"Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005","container-title":"109th Congress. 1st Session","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Congress","given":"U. S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Congress), Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KmUBFFkO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Summary of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and Reauthorizations FY 2017 - ATEST})","plainCitation":"(Summary of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and Reauthorizations FY 2017 - ATEST)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":657,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/XB4VU52Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/XB4VU52Z"],"itemData":{"id":657,"type":"webpage","title":"Summary of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and Reauthorizations FY 2017 - ATEST","URL":"https://endslaveryandtrafficking.org/summary-trafficking-victims-protection-act-tvpa-reauthorizations-fy-2017-2/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,13]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), and Reauthorizations FY 2017 - ATEST) and the EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings are examples of such state-sponsored measure. The spirit of these laws aims at limiting human trafficking and creating a defense against crimes emanating from human trafficking. The TVPRA of 2013 aims at taking strict measures against sex offenders and those convicted with trafficking, which is an amendment to the TVPRA Act of 2000. Similarly, the TVPA focuses on providing legal and financial aid to the victims of trafficking. The TVPA has categorized trafficking as a form of modern slavery. The European Union Strategy towards the eradication of trafficking suggests that human trafficking is a gross violation of Article 5 of the charter of fundamental rights of the European Union ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TdmiWWa2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Commission)","plainCitation":"(Commission)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":659,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/24XYRMAJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/24XYRMAJ"],"itemData":{"id":659,"type":"book","title":"The EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016","publisher":"Office for Official Publications of the European Communities","author":[{"family":"Commission","given":"European"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Commission). These are some prominent legal measures adopted to combat human trafficking proactively.

Summary

It is an observable fact that America and the European region remains the most affected regions with human trafficking. The menace of human trafficking has been extended to other parts of the world, as well. The 2014 row between India and United States erupted because of charges by some of the American officials, which, however, were relaxed. This bilateral dispute suggests the gravity of the crisis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yaXm1o5T","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}As Indian Diplomat Exits After Arrest, a Culture Clash Lingers - The New York Times})","plainCitation":"(As Indian Diplomat Exits After Arrest, a Culture Clash Lingers - The New York Times)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":660,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LU4EC7CH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LU4EC7CH"],"itemData":{"id":660,"type":"webpage","title":"As Indian Diplomat Exits After Arrest, a Culture Clash Lingers - The New York Times","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/11/world/asia/indian-diplomat-flies-home-after-indictment-in-us.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,13]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (As Indian Diplomat Exits After Arrest, a Culture Clash Lingers - The New York Times). With the rise in the incidents related to human trafficking and the adoption of new measures, states had been improving the legal barriers to guarantee an end to such hazards. The TVPRA is considered as a modern manifestation of the 13th amendment of the US Constitution, which brought slavery to an end. Since the year 2000, the TVPRA has strengthened over time. The major amendments in its moderation have remained to make the foreign victims eligible for health and social benefits and the creation of immigration protections for foreign nationals.

It remains much evident from the analysis of the latest trafficking incidents that US response to combat human trafficking remains a little narrow. The 3Ps based approach (Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention) have served a little and not the broader purpose of combating trafficking. It is the same paradigm adopted by other countries to stop trafficking. However, in the United States, the administration has involved legal measures such as proscription of passports, which suggests that over time, US measures have become more pre-emptive. Different from this, global response to combatting terrorism has not remained much vibrant. For example, the report titled “Identifying challenges to Improve the Investigation and Prosecution of State and Local Human Trafficking Cases” suggests that human trafficking is overestimated and there exists a dearth of state-based preemptive measures to curb human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ewizUkoq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Farrell et al.)","plainCitation":"(Farrell et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":662,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/HFHTZSNV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/HFHTZSNV"],"itemData":{"id":662,"type":"article-journal","title":"Identifying challenges to improve the investigation and prosecution of state and local human trafficking cases","author":[{"family":"Farrell","given":"Amy"},{"family":"McDevitt","given":"Jack"},{"family":"Pfeffer","given":"Rebecca"},{"family":"Fahy","given":"Stephanie"},{"family":"Owens","given":"Colleen"},{"family":"Dank","given":"Meredith"},{"family":"Adams","given":"William"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Farrell et al.). The local enforcement, along with the state representatives in some countries, is involved in illegal practices, which someway give confidence to traffickers.

Some of the potential challenges which are inherent in prosecuting crimes remain the difficulties in the identification of victims, the hurdles in investigating human trafficking-related crimes, difficulties in supporting victims, and hitches in holding the offenders accountable. The improvements, however, can be made in amalgamating the state measures to adopt the peril of human trafficking.

Conclusion

Human trafficking attracts enlarged financial advantages with it. Traffickers take advantage of the loopholes in the border security management and in the legal mechanisms of the state. The sufferer of this menace remains not a single state; rather it affects the regional approaches. Considering the hazards attached to human trafficking, the states should adopt a collective measure that can serve the purpose of each state, including those which remain the most affected.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY As Indian Diplomat Exits After Arrest, a Culture Clash Lingers - The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/11/world/asia/indian-diplomat-flies-home-after-indictment-in-us.html. Accessed 13 Oct. 2019.

Commission, European. The EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2012.

Congress, U. S. “Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005.” 109th Congress. 1st Session, vol. 4, 2005.

Farrell, Amy, et al. Identifying Challenges to Improve the Investigation and Prosecution of State and Local Human Trafficking Cases. 2012.

Summary of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and Reauthorizations FY 2017 - ATEST. https://endslaveryandtrafficking.org/summary-trafficking-victims-protection-act-tvpa-reauthorizations-fy-2017-2/. Accessed 13 Oct. 2019.

Response Paper

Your Name

Instructor Name

Date

Response Paper

Introduction

Human trafficking is an umbrella term that consists of trading humans for their sexual and physical exploitation, sexual slavery, labor, organ extraction, and forced marriage. This issue is not new and has been highlighted several times on both digital and traditional platforms. Despite adopting legal measures to curb human trafficking in all its manifestations by both the government and human rights protection organizations, the issue is still prevailing in our society (Goodman and Leidholdt p.360). The amount of physical and mental trauma that victims face is beyond measurable. Specifically, discussing about the US, the laws such as the Abolish Human Trafficking Act of 2017, Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2017, etc. are the examples of state-sponsored measures that are being made to abolish human trafficking (HB 244 2015-2016 Regular Session), ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"J4Dn33Kt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}HB\\uc0\\u160{}141\\uc0\\u160{}2013-2014 Regular Session})","plainCitation":"(HB 141 2013-2014 Regular Session)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1240,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/LITZU4B2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/LITZU4B2"],"itemData":{"id":1240,"type":"webpage","title":"HB 141 2013-2014 Regular Session","URL":"http://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/en-US/display/20132014/HB/141","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (HB 141 2013-2014 Regular Session). The essence of these laws is to put a limit on human trafficking while also creating a defense against crimes stemming from human trafficking. However, there are still some shortcomings in the laws due to which the victims are not adequately protected. Precisely talking about the T-Visa terms and conditions, there is very little scope of incorporating all the victims of human trafficking to apply for this visa. Furthermore, regardless of the laws being made to combat this issue, the laws are still not implemented effectively to safeguard people from becoming prey to human trafficking.

Summary

The problem of human trafficking is undeniably huge and the trauma that the victims had to go through is extremely severe. Many people are kidnapped regardless of their gender and are sold to buyers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8VmTMFmQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Form I-918 Instructions})","plainCitation":"(Form I-918 Instructions)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":136,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sbFMNDWM/items/YC6Z8HBY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sbFMNDWM/items/YC6Z8HBY"],"itemData":{"id":136,"type":"article-journal","title":"Form I-918 Instructions","page":"17","source":"Zotero","language":"en"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Form I-918 Instructions p.17). The victims are lured by the fake promise of good jobs abroad. However, in reality, the victims find themselves confined in various brothels. Additionally, many teens are seduced into prostitution by the people who promise them love, romance or glamorous life and after establishing trust, the victims are subjected to exploitation and abuse ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8sqpcOAi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Noy Thrupkaew: Human Trafficking Is All around You. This Is How It Works | TED Talk})","plainCitation":"(Noy Thrupkaew: Human Trafficking Is All around You. This Is How It Works | TED Talk)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":133,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sbFMNDWM/items/CXNDZWDF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sbFMNDWM/items/CXNDZWDF"],"itemData":{"id":133,"type":"webpage","title":"Noy Thrupkaew: Human trafficking is all around you. This is how it works | TED Talk","URL":"https://www.ted.com/talks/noy_thrupkaew_human_trafficking_is_all_around_you_this_is_how_it_works?language=en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Noy Thrupkaew: Human Trafficking Is All around You. This Is How It Works | TED Talk). The victims are suppressed by the buyers who monitor their every activity. They are also rarely paid and are repeatedly raped and beaten. Furthermore, they are transported to multiple places especially to the countries where they lack familiarity with the immigration law and language of the country.

In the US, several laws such as the Federal trafficking victims Protection Act and the Federal Strategic Action Plan (2017) are being made to not only deter human trafficking but also facilitating the victims dealing with the trauma that they face while being captives ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Tt4vSG5g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States, 2013-2017})","plainCitation":"(Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States, 2013-2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":131,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sbFMNDWM/items/RKJRQ9HR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sbFMNDWM/items/RKJRQ9HR"],"itemData":{"id":131,"type":"article-journal","title":"Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States, 2013-2017","page":"84","source":"Zotero","language":"en"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States, 2013-2017). These law aims to target potential buyers while also increasing the penalties. The laws also facilitate establishing a world-wide anti-human trafficking system to facilitate the countries that are unable to address the issue within their borders. However, in recent years, the Trump administration has banned providing a visa to several Muslim countries thus hindering the T-Visa facility for the victims belonging from banned Muslim countries. Thus, there is a need to revise the T-Visa policy so that more victims can be protected from the miserable life they are living.

Conclusion

Human trafficking is an issue that is still prevailing in our society. Although, several policies and laws have been made to counter this issue, yet still, the criminals have found new ways to commit this horrifying crime. Traffickers take advantage of not only the loopholes in the border security management but taking leverage of the shortcomings present in the state’s law. However, considering the severity of this issue, the interventions on both state and federal levels are required to combat human trafficking. Furthermore, it is mandatory to revise the T-Visa policy while also providing several benefits to the victims so that they can also live their life according to their own will.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States, 2013-2017. p. 84.

Form I-918 Instructions. p. 17.

Goodman, Edited Jill Laurie, and Dorchen A. Leidholdt. Lawyer’s Manual on Human Trafficking. p.360.

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY HB 141 2013-2014 Regular Session. http://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/en-US/display/20132014/HB/141. Accessed on: 14 Oct. 2019.

"HB 244 2015-2016 Regular Session". Legis.Ga.Gov, 2019, http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/en-US/display/20152016/HB/244.

Noy Thrupkaew: Human Trafficking Is All around You. This Is How It Works | TED Talk. https://www.ted.com/talks/noy_thrupkaew_human_trafficking_is_all_around_you_this_is_how_it_works?language=en. Accessed on: 14 Oct. 2019.

Response Paper

Wonsehlea Teah

Enter the Name of Instructor

Political Science

October 14, 2019.

Response Paper

Introduction

There is a large number of people associated with the prostitution industry. They invite people to their places or go with them, just for the sake of money. Those who have been the part of this industry for quite a long, know that exploitation is what predominant in this profession remains. Although many countries in the Western regions have legalized prostitution, they have remained to fail in providing them with the same rights as people in other professions have. Although these states consider prostitution legal in a way or another, the people associated with the industry are not liable for the health and safety insurances offered by the state. Being one of the largest industries in the world, instances of exploitation are also large. Those who step into this industry (irrespective of their genders) are exploited and are denied the output in terms of finances or health benefits.

Summary

For Aziza Ahmed, a dwindling agreement among states over the legality of sex is the prime reason why the workers attached to this field face sewer circumstances ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xMbiWm5w","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ahmed)","plainCitation":"(Ahmed)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":669,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/GUHSSZSK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/GUHSSZSK"],"itemData":{"id":669,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Think Again: Prostitution","container-title":"Foreign Policy","abstract":"Why zero tolerance makes for bad policy on world's oldest profession.","URL":"https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/19/think-again-prostitution/","title-short":"Think Again","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Ahmed","given":"Aziza"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ahmed). Throughout the length and breadth of the European and Scandinavian regions, the prospects and legality of prostitution remain different ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4LW55pVo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}16 Years Since Decriminalizing Prostitution, Here\\uc0\\u8217{}s What\\uc0\\u8217{}s Happening in Sweden\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“16 Years Since Decriminalizing Prostitution, Here’s What’s Happening in Sweden”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":674,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Q99GF6BN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Q99GF6BN"],"itemData":{"id":674,"type":"webpage","title":"16 Years Since Decriminalizing Prostitution, Here's What's Happening in Sweden","container-title":"Mic","abstract":"Is prostitution inherently exploitative? Or can it be improved to maximize freedom and equality for everyone involved?\nWestern countries have been grappling with this question for years. While it's widely understood that prostitution is dangerous…","URL":"https://www.mic.com/articles/112814/here-s-what-s-happened-in-sweden-16-years-since-decriminalizing-prostitution","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“16 Years Since Decriminalizing Prostitution, Here’s What’s Happening in Sweden”). Those who are into prostitution for the first time wet through extreme exploitation in the hands of those who earn finances out of them. There is no difference between prostitution and sexual exploitation. Such an absence of difference between sexual exploitation and prostitution results in denying the basic human and health rights to those involved in prostitution. The form of exploitation then stretches to include denying the body rights and repudiating their personal self-controls and wills.

The laws related to prostitution extensively differs from state to state and between jurisdictions. However, generally, prostitution is fated as a bad form of human rights. For many, prostitution is against the dignity of human life and is a synonym to human rights abuse. In the year 1999, Sweden was the first country to declare it illegal to buy sex. However, the confusion pertaining to its interpretation and legal nature with time started to widely accepted as a different form of exploitation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kuxsFZ98","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Goldberg)","plainCitation":"(Goldberg)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":673,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/G8UZX7TD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/G8UZX7TD"],"itemData":{"id":673,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"Swedish prostitution law is spreading worldwide – here's how to improve it | Michelle Goldberg","container-title":"The Guardian","section":"Opinion","source":"www.theguardian.com","abstract":"Michelle Goldberg: The so-called Swedish model isn’t perfect, but it could make life better for sex workers","URL":"https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/aug/08/criminsalise-buying-not-selling-sex","ISSN":"0261-3077","language":"en-GB","author":[{"family":"Goldberg","given":"Michelle"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",8,8]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Goldberg). Similar to the laws in Sweden, different states then embraced changes in their laws, which also remained contrary to the basic values of human rights. This, therefore, reveals that largely, the current laws are considered as a different form of exploitation.

Similarly, for the fact that there exists a wide gap between income and expenditures throughout the world. Therefore those who don’t find a reasonable livelihood tend to sell their bodies. It takes a similar pattern throughout the world, irrespective of being from a developed state or a developing state. For Jim Wilson, if the statues related to limiting sex trafficking differ from region to region, it becomes a synonym to exacerbation of the different forms of prostitution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"h9GGpcSi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Is Legalized Prostitution Safer?})","plainCitation":"(Is Legalized Prostitution Safer?)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":671,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/4HGCQQR3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/4HGCQQR3"],"itemData":{"id":671,"type":"webpage","title":"Is Legalized Prostitution Safer?","abstract":"Can legalized prostitution ever be safe and free of exploitation? Or should laws against prostitution remain?","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/04/19/is-legalized-prostitution-safer","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Is Legalized Prostitution Safer?). It likewise becomes apparent from seeing the fact that countries from a region to another adopt different laws, which results in upbringing the presumption of exacerbating different prostitution as a different form of exploitation.

The laws adopted by some Scandinavian countries suggest that legalizing prostitution makes human trafficking more vibrant. According to André da Loba, Spain, which made prostitution legal, is now considered an alluring place by the human traffickers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ym729s6b","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Should Prostitution Be a Crime?})","plainCitation":"(Should Prostitution Be a Crime?)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":670,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/PPUFEHGY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/PPUFEHGY"],"itemData":{"id":670,"type":"webpage","title":"Should Prostitution Be a Crime?","abstract":"Does decriminalized prostitution better protect women and sex workers?","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/08/26/should-prostitution-be-a-crime","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Should Prostitution Be a Crime?). There exist loopholes in-laws, and the interpretation remains widely different throughout the world; therefore, unless an agreed and stringent framework is not adopted, the loopholes in prostitution-related laws will keep on dampening the anti-human trafficking laws ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Z2h0qthn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Document})","plainCitation":"(Document)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":679,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/XVVH4T3E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/XVVH4T3E"],"itemData":{"id":679,"type":"webpage","title":"Document","abstract":"This policy has been developed in recognition of the high rates of human rights abuses experienced globally by individuals who engage in sex work; a term that Amnesty International uses only in regard to consensual exchanges be...","URL":"https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/document/?indexNumber=pol30%2f4062%2f2016&language=en","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Document). This is the reason that until now, the legalization of prostitution has not eradicated human trafficking.

Conclusion

From human history, until the present time, prostitution has remained the largest industry. There are many who remain associated with this industry for financial gains and for personal leisure. Beyond what they are apparently loosing, there exist wide threats to their life. Countries where prostitution is illegal, prostitutes are denied basic rights and are treated unkindly. The situation in countries where prostitution is legal is also not different. In such countries, these people are not provided with the basic health and life necessities; resultantly they adopt prostitution. Such a state of affairs calls for a general and widely accepted approach to curb this menace of prostitution.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY “16 Years Since Decriminalizing Prostitution, Here’s What’s Happening in Sweden.” Mic, https://www.mic.com/articles/112814/here-s-what-s-happened-in-sweden-16-years-since-decriminalizing-prostitution. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Ahmed, Aziza. “Think Again: Prostitution.” Foreign Policy, https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/19/think-again-prostitution/. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Document. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/document/?indexNumber=pol30%2f4062%2f2016&language=en. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Goldberg, Michelle. “Swedish Prostitution Law Is Spreading Worldwide – Here’s How to Improve It | Michelle Goldberg.” The Guardian, 8 Aug. 2014. www.theguardian.com, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/aug/08/criminsalise-buying-not-selling-sex.

Is Legalized Prostitution Safer? https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/04/19/is-legalized-prostitution-safer. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Should Prostitution Be a Crime? https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/08/26/should-prostitution-be-a-crime. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Response Paper

Wonsehlea Teah

Enter the Name of Instructor

Political Science

October 14, 2019

Response Paper

Introduction

Human trafficking has been an issue of serious concerns for the states in present century. Irrespective of the life threats attached to this menace, the traffickers put others' lives in danger. For its swift and multifaceted nature, it has become difficult to locate those who are involved in such activities. Although the states and some non-governmental organizations have been working to eliminate human trafficking, considering the different nature of efforts, a concrete output is yet to be achieved ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NWwXsbvb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kamler)","plainCitation":"(Kamler)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":693,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7CMMJQ2A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7CMMJQ2A"],"itemData":{"id":693,"type":"article-journal","title":"Negotiating narratives of human trafficking: NGOs, communication and the power of culture","container-title":"Journal of Intercultural Communication Research","page":"73–90","volume":"42","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Negotiating narratives of human trafficking","author":[{"family":"Kamler","given":"Erin Michelle"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kamler). Statistics suggest that human trafficking remains one of the top issues which have garnered concern worldwide. The alarming situation relating to trafficking invites the collaborative approach of governmental and non- governmental organizations.

Summary

The statistics of Economic Crime and Cooperation Division suggest that non- governmental organizations which work with local communities remains the efficient tools to curb human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fklO1rTu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}International Organization for Migration\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“International Organization for Migration”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":682,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5LRD2KDJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5LRD2KDJ"],"itemData":{"id":682,"type":"webpage","title":"International Organization for Migration","container-title":"International Organization for Migration","abstract":"Established in 1951, IOM is the leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration and works closely with governmental, intergovernmental and non-governmental partners.","URL":"https://www.iom.int/","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“International Organization for Migration”). The latest statistics released by the organization suggest that reforms aimed at conforming to the domestic status of individual states appear more substantial, compared to if states adopt separate measures. Such facts suggest that non- governmental organizations remain supportive in taking measures against human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"62I9yiwu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Greenhouse)","plainCitation":"(Greenhouse)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":690,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/J9W99Z7N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/J9W99Z7N"],"itemData":{"id":690,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"In Florida Tomato Fields, a Penny Buys Progress","container-title":"The New York Times","section":"Business","source":"NYTimes.com","abstract":"A group of dedicated farmworkers enlisted companies like McDonald’s, Walmart and Yum Brands to press tomato growers for better conditions.","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/25/business/in-florida-tomato-fields-a-penny-buys-progress.html","ISSN":"0362-4331","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Greenhouse","given":"Steven"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",4,24]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Greenhouse). This has been a fact that victims of human trafficking face sewer circumstances and the state governments pay narrow attention towards dealing with them. There exist instances which suggest that non- governmental organizations remained helpful when it comes to working with the victims of human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP (Coalition of Immokalee Workers).

Combating human trafficking invites larger attention. Many states which face such threats do not have the resources to efficiently combat the threat of human trafficking. Owing to the extensive efforts required to combat human traffickers, the states facing such circumstances must collaborate with the non-governmental organizations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PukE3Fqf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Coalition of Immokalee Workers})","plainCitation":"(Coalition of Immokalee Workers)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":687,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FWH8QV8L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FWH8QV8L"],"itemData":{"id":687,"type":"webpage","title":"Coalition of Immokalee Workers","URL":"http://ciw-online.org/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Coalition of Immokalee Workers). Sharing of data and the application of resources in an efficient manner remains important when it comes to adopting a collaborative approach to combat human trafficking. There are other ways non-governmental organizations and governments can work together. For example, if the governments adopt regional approaches after building the capacity of non- governmental organizations, it can serve the purpose of combating trafficking on a larger level. Polaris Project ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JjJyGS42","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Polaris\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Polaris”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":689,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/939JX5QF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/939JX5QF"],"itemData":{"id":689,"type":"webpage","title":"Polaris","container-title":"Polaris","abstract":"Founded in 2002, Polaris is named for the North Star, which people held in slavery in the United States used as a guide to navigate their way toward freedom. Today we are filling in the roadmap for that journey and lighting the path ahead.","URL":"https://polarisproject.org/node","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Polaris”) and Georgia Asylum and Immigration Network (GAIN) is an example of such efforts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ftHVmPSk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(RolandoRodriguez)","plainCitation":"(RolandoRodriguez)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":688,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/8GCTH3XD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/8GCTH3XD"],"itemData":{"id":688,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Home","container-title":"GAIN","abstract":"GEORGIA ASYLUM AND IMMIGRATION NETWORK\n\nOUR MISSION \nGAIN’s mission is to provide free immigration legal services to victims of crime and persecution. Our vision is safety, freedom and opportunity for all. LEARN MORE","URL":"https://georgiaasylum.org/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"RolandoRodriguez","given":""}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (RolandoRodriguez).

La Strada International Association is the finest example of how an NGO should adopt strategies to combat human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"y4C7iTlY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}La Strada International | European Network against Trafficking in Human Beings})","plainCitation":"(La Strada International | European Network against Trafficking in Human Beings)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":684,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/RNSDE2C6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/RNSDE2C6"],"itemData":{"id":684,"type":"webpage","title":"La Strada International | European network against trafficking in human beings","URL":"http://lastradainternational.org/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (La Strada International | European Network against Trafficking in Human Beings). The operational mechanism of NGO stretches from domestic infrastructure to national level and then expanding to the regional level. If I had to start an NGO, I would prefer developing an infrastructure adopted by the La Strada Association. Such NGOs remain helpful in combating inter-regional and intraregional trafficking. Along with working on their own resources, La Strada has collaborated with regional governments to take anti-trafficking measures various times.

Conclusion

Human trafficking remains one of the serious issues of the present world. Human trafficking is a form of modern slavery and those who remain involved in these activities create a risky environment for others too. At present, human trafficking is getting the attention of masses, for many negative aspects attached to it. There are different and multiple actors who are involved in such activities. People from less developed states are victims of this, for the reason that their own states have least resources to combat such menaces ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qtUCoXdR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Welcome to the Economic Crime and Cooperation Division\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Welcome to the Economic Crime and Cooperation Division”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":681,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ZT799BAH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ZT799BAH"],"itemData":{"id":681,"type":"webpage","title":"Welcome to the Economic Crime and Cooperation Division","container-title":"Action against economic crime <br />and corruption","abstract":"Council of Europe cooperation on good governance, corruption, ethics, conflict of interests, money laundering, asset recovery, terrorist financing, organised crime and mutual legal assistance in criminal matters.","URL":"https://www.coe.int/en/web/corruption/home","language":"en-GB","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Welcome to the Economic Crime and Cooperation Division”). The magnanimity and alertness attached to human trafficking call for a cooperative approach to limit its expansion. Although there are many organizations working to curb this jeopardy, it requires state attention for total elimination. Lastly, the equitable distribution of resources and the capacity building of smaller states is the only lasting thing that can serve this purpose.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Coalition of Immokalee Workers. http://ciw-online.org/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2019.

Greenhouse, Steven. “In Florida Tomato Fields, a Penny Buys Progress.” The New York Times, 24 Apr. 2014. NYTimes.com, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/25/business/in-florida-tomato-fields-a-penny-buys-progress.html.

“International Organization for Migration.” International Organization for Migration, https://www.iom.int/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2019.

Kamler, Erin Michelle. “Negotiating Narratives of Human Trafficking: NGOs, Communication and the Power of Culture.” Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, vol. 42, no. 1, 2013, pp. 73–90.

La Strada International | European Network against Trafficking in Human Beings. http://lastradainternational.org/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2019.

“Polaris.” Polaris, https://polarisproject.org/node. Accessed 15 Oct. 2019.

Rolando Rodriguez. “Home.” GAIN, https://georgiaasylum.org/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2019.

“Welcome to the Economic Crime and Cooperation Division.” Action against Economic Crime <br />and Corruption, https://www.coe.int/en/web/corruption/home. Accessed 15 Oct. 2019.

Response Paper

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

"Two Nations"? Race and Economic Inequality in South Africa Today

In "Two Nations"? Race and Economic Inequality in South Africa Today authors Nicolai Nattrass and Jeremy Seekings has analyzed the social divisions which exist inside the African society till that times. They argue the two extents of African society. In light of the then deputy- President's statement in the parliament, they argue that the constitution of 1933 is not specific to any community in South Africa. The authors have analyzed the social distinctions between two nations, I. e Black and Whites. They have interpreted the deputy President's two nation's concept based on infrastructural facilities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6BeQ4flE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nattrass and Seekings)","plainCitation":"(Nattrass and Seekings)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1428,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/K25T4QHN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/K25T4QHN"],"itemData":{"id":1428,"type":"article-journal","title":"\" Two nations\"? Race and economic inequality in South Africa today","container-title":"Daedalus","page":"45–70","volume":"130","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"\" Two nations\"?","author":[{"family":"Nattrass","given":"Nicoli"},{"family":"Seekings","given":"Jeremy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nattrass and Seekings). The Blacks were denied educational, communication, and physical opportunities, whereas the White population had all these facilities. The authors have called this distinction- the incapability of realization.

Methodology: Nicolai Nattrass and Jeremy Seekings have employed the strategy of statistical analysis to analyze the statement of the Deputy President. To authenticate the concept of two nations, the nature of inequality and the distribution of resources through the budget is analyzed. They have concluded that since apartheid in South Africa, the South African economy was transformed. The White population owned the land, and the blacks used to work as labor tenants and croppers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7tdYaR53","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nattrass and Seekings)","plainCitation":"(Nattrass and Seekings)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1428,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/K25T4QHN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/K25T4QHN"],"itemData":{"id":1428,"type":"article-journal","title":"\" Two nations\"? Race and economic inequality in South Africa today","container-title":"Daedalus","page":"45–70","volume":"130","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"\" Two nations\"?","author":[{"family":"Nattrass","given":"Nicoli"},{"family":"Seekings","given":"Jeremy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nattrass and Seekings). This resulted in the upbringing of a sector of society which was largely dependent on waged work, and that’s how cannot lift themselves up. In the distribution of the budget resources, the political transition experienced a shift in resource spending not to the disadvantaged group, but some affluent members of the South African society.

There is much literature available which highlights the reasons for social classification in South African society. Different to the existing literature, the authors have analyzed the economic and social causes, which with time have developed the idea of two nations within the South African society.

The Case for Reparations

Ta- Nehlsi Coates has written about the anti-racist struggle in the case for reparations. He argues that slavery is the worst aspect of American history. He argues that a broad class struggle helped in making a coalition which changed the subject of politics in the US. He writes that racial segregation is destructive and everlasting. He has based his arguments on the struggle of American blacks which was targeted against the large social inequalities. He writes that “to address broader inequalities, compassion and pragmatism can serve the cause ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MovyI5TB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Coates)","plainCitation":"(Coates)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1430,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Z65YNKSF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Z65YNKSF"],"itemData":{"id":1430,"type":"article-journal","title":"The case for reparations","container-title":"The Atlantic","page":"54–71","volume":"313","issue":"5","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Coates","given":"Ta-Nehisi"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Coates)”. The author has analyzed the obstacles facing reparations in America today. He argues that the lack of courage to face the shared history and denying the fact that America was created for White’s supremacy. While concluding, he writes that a clear vision and strength is needed for reparations today.

Methodology: The case for reparation is based on historical facts. The author has employed the technique of substantiating his argument by providing historical pieces of evidence. He has referred to many quotes from those times, which suggest that Blacks in America were subject to secondary level opportunities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fbfIXuEv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Coates)","plainCitation":"(Coates)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1430,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Z65YNKSF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Z65YNKSF"],"itemData":{"id":1430,"type":"article-journal","title":"The case for reparations","container-title":"The Atlantic","page":"54–71","volume":"313","issue":"5","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Coates","given":"Ta-Nehisi"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Coates). The case for reparation is based on the notion of dissuasion of white imposition over blacks. He concludes that stepping away from the fragile egos about white supremacy can serve the case for reparations.

Land Reform and Gender in Post-Apartheid South Africa

Cherryl Walker’s Land Reform and Gender in Post-Apartheid South Africa talks about lad reforms in Post- Apartheid South Africa. By arguing in the context of the existing constraints in the way of reforms, the author argues that the land reform program appeared much ambitious. In the comparative analysis of the land requirement and reform, he argues that the reform process appeared much modest and slow. Walker writes that the main purpose of land reforms was to dissuade the perception that existing land distribution system in South Africa was slanted ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"A4P1S6S0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Walker)","plainCitation":"(Walker)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1432,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DMTYG9GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DMTYG9GQ"],"itemData":{"id":1432,"type":"article-journal","title":"Land reform and gender in post-apartheid South Africa","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Walker","given":"Cherryl"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Walker). In moving toward the land reforms, the author suggests that the first thing was to eliminate gender discrimination. In doing so, the gender issues were addressed in each component of the land reform act which included land redistribution, land restitution, and tenure reforms.

Methodology: In making a thorough analysis of the land reform acts of Post- Apartheid South Africa, the author has analyzed the hurdles in designing and implementation of the land reform strategy. He writes that the lack of capacity on the end of government, as the government employees are not always prepared to take over such ambitious tasks is the first hurdle in this wake ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"e4XYDUw5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Walker)","plainCitation":"(Walker)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1432,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DMTYG9GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DMTYG9GQ"],"itemData":{"id":1432,"type":"article-journal","title":"Land reform and gender in post-apartheid South Africa","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Walker","given":"Cherryl"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Walker). Although the author has used the qualitative analysis strategy, he has substantiated his arguments with the help of quantitative data. He then argues that power structure which is accumulated in the hands of some wealthy people and the absence of women's land rights especially in rural areas are hurdles in effective implementation of land reforms in South Africa.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Coates, Ta-Nehisi. “The Case for Reparations.” The Atlantic, vol. 313, no. 5, 2014, pp. 54–71.

Nattrass, Nicoli, and Jeremy Seekings. “‘Two Nations’? Race and Economic Inequality in South Africa Today.” Daedalus, vol. 130, no. 1, 2001, pp. 45–70.

Walker, Cherryl. Land Reform and Gender in Post-Apartheid South Africa. 1998.

Response Paper

Response Paper

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Response Paper

Land Reform and Gender in Post-Apartheid South Africa

Introduction

Cherryl Walker talks about the policy framework of land reforms in Land Reform and Gender in Post-Apartheid South Africa. The articles talk about the lack of capacity in the government system and the structure of traditional power. It also reveals the fact that land reforms for women are absent in rural areas.

Discussion

The land reform market-driven program in post-apartheid South Africa has been designed to reduce the injustice driven by the previous land dispensation. Its aim is to reduce poverty, to improve the sustainability of land and to build up tenure security.

Moreover, Market-driven program that aimed to bring land reforms in post-apartheid South Africa is considered as very modest and very ambitious. It was measured with respect to popular needs and demands. The most important component of the program is policy commitment designed for gender equality. The program targets women and entitles them with various beneficiaries.

However, the department of land Affairs is not able to spend the funds allocated to it and this is in fact “lack of capacity” from the government side. There are various pending cases regarding land restitution. The system needs to be improved and all the pending cases should be tackled. Government employees are not competitive enough to develop the organization and to spread awareness regarding land reforms.

Methodology

The racial inequalities of the skewed land and the economic disparities in South Africa haven highly analyzed. South Africa has a history of the struggle for land reforms and it includes the black land right dispossession, soil depletion, non-investment in Black rural areas and migrant labor.

The decline in the production of the black peasant was not followed by the urbanization of the rural areas. The shift of South Africa from an agrarian society to industrialized society has shaped the repressive system of migrant labor. This system has a very intense effect on the social life and economy of the rural areas of South Africa.

The primary focus of people in the rural areas of South Africa is to get land security and to have insurance for unemployment in the household. Few people in the area want to have subsistence agriculture. In the same paper, Walker talks about the crucial difficulties to the people of rural areas and says that lack of time for intensive labor work, lack of skills and good infrastructures are the obstacles in the ways of development.

However, many developed countries like the United States have built up their economy with the help of slave labor. The country was never a place of nurture for the Black community but a destroyer. Late the black community-acquired human qualities that helped to develop a community and the development started accelerating after then.

South Africa has also been very infamous for its enormous inequalities the white parts of the community is highly prosperous and have access to opportunities for development. Household incomes are also distributed unevenly and wage inequality is strongly determined by the racial inequalities in the region. Public sector used to discriminate highly between white and black employees in South Africa.

However, the gender discrimination of black women was also deeply rooted in migrant labor practices. Walker says the in many cases these women are not even allowed to be rural producers and they can only access their lands with the help of the men attached to them. The fight for internal power in society is also a reason for the lack of security to women’s’ land. The rights of women in these areas depend on the level of organizations and their policy directions.

End Notes

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Coates, Ta-Nehisi. “‘The Case for Reparations.’ The Atlantic,” 2014, 54-71.

Nattrass, Nicoli, and Jeremy Seeking. “‘Two Nations’? Race and Economic Inequality in South Africa Today,” 2001.

Walker, Cherryl. “Land Reform and Gender in Post-Apartheid South Africa,” 1998.

Response Paper

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[5 April 2019]

Emerging Movements challenge state actors

Migdal, in his classic work greatly explained the state-society relationship in the developing world viewed that state actors and a highly developed capacity to counter the emerging movements. In his approach ‘state in society’, Migdal highlight the social fixity of state actors and the degree to which social actors and state elites compete over the limits and boundaries of state power ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Y1eRSj4r","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(steven heydemann)","plainCitation":"(steven heydemann)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":288,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/EH5EJGJJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/EH5EJGJJ"],"itemData":{"id":288,"type":"webpage","title":"Explaining the Arab Uprisings: transformations in Comparative Perspective: Mediterranean Politics: Vol 21, No 1","URL":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13629395.2015.1081450","author":[{"literal":"steven heydemann"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Steven Heydemann). Such as Gadhafi in Libya ignored the formation a formal and large consolidated state apparatus and pursued an anti-intuitional system of governance. On the other hand, there was a sharp contrast to Egyptian and Tunisian cases as they struggle for a controlled and consolidated state. The Arab Spring recommends the value of revisiting and returning to his framework.

The emergence of International Movements in contemporary globalized world have challenged actors in various ways. The future of the state actors is in a constant flux as the non-state actors are continuously increasing their power and influence. Such as in the case of Moscow Peace talks with Taliban and without the Afghan Government ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QeyOErDr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Higgins and Mashal)","plainCitation":"(Higgins and Mashal)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":285,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/TJ6EKE47"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/TJ6EKE47"],"itemData":{"id":285,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"In Moscow, Afghan Peace Talks Without the Afghan Government","container-title":"The New York Times","section":"World","source":"NYTimes.com","abstract":"The Taliban broached their views on women’s rights at a meeting with Afghan officials. But President Ashraf Ghani remained sidelined from talks.","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/04/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-russia-talks-russia.html","ISSN":"0362-4331","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Higgins","given":"Andrew"},{"family":"Mashal","given":"Mujib"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",2,6]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Higgins and Mashal). The movements with brining up of non-state actors are not only influencing regional and international politics but also violating International law and society. As a result the state actors will relinquish their influence in a mutual relationship. The state actors – such as Ashraf Ghani did after the Moscow Gathering – will eventually criticize the relationship. This will undermine actors’ authority and power.

The Islamic movements such as Hezbollah, Hamas and Al-Qaeda had a limited role prior to the Arab Spring in the region. But after the self-immolation of a street vendor in Tunisia and the start of Arab Spring in late 2010, the movements gained a significant influence over the state actors. These movements seek to achieve their gradually with breaking of many taboos and penetration of state actors.

The role of these emerging movements, one may acknowledge that with the beginning of the Arab Spring, their role has been becoming more evident to a level that these movements have exceeded the role of regimes and governments regionally and internationally. These movements have started to inflict certain agendas and policies on regional and international regimes and will soon eliminate traditional political borders like they have been doing in case of Middle East. While other phenomenon such as globalization took decades to find its way in the region ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Y23nA2IL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr Fadi Elhussein)","plainCitation":"(Dr Fadi Elhussein)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":286,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/8NETJFRI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/8NETJFRI"],"itemData":{"id":286,"type":"webpage","title":"The Arab Spring and the rise of non-state actors","container-title":"Middle East Monitor","abstract":"In the past four years, Arabs have been living in an endless Sisyphean ordeal, an unexpected nightmare after rising for what they called 'the Arab Spring'. The scenario was cloned in most Arab Spring ...","URL":"https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20150613-the-arab-spring-and-the-rise-of-non-state-actors/","language":"en-GB","author":[{"literal":"Dr Fadi Elhussein"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",6,13]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dr Fadi Elhussein).

There was a better opportunity for the US to show its responsibility by re-promoting their allies with provision of trainings and information, and supply of weapons for countering terrorism. On the other hand, it could also have cooperation with other major powers including Russia for regional peace. Their competitive cooperation, in fact, further strengthened the movements in general and the non-state actors in particular.

Returning to the referendum in UK on its continuous membership in EU can be viewed as an ‘English Arab Spring” as they felt alienated both economically and politically. Inclusiveness is the only factor that leads to the success of nation with expansion of economic opportunities and political rights. Dr Paul Rivlin views the 2008 economic crisis as possible reason behind tis ‘English Arab Spring’ as they more feared ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"22218QB4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr. Paul Rivlin)","plainCitation":"(Dr. Paul Rivlin)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":290,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/5QCDJUQY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/5QCDJUQY"],"itemData":{"id":290,"type":"webpage","title":"Brexit: England's Arab Spring","container-title":"Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies","abstract":"The result of the UK referendum on continued membership in the European Union (EU) can be seen as an \"English Arab Spring\": a vote against the establishment by millions who felt politically and economically alienated. In their best-selling book, Why Nations Fail, Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson suggest that one factor explains the success of nations more than any other: inclusiveness.","URL":"https://dayan.org/content/brexit-englands-arab-spring","shortTitle":"Brexit","language":"en","author":[{"literal":"Dr. Paul Rivlin"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dr. Paul Rivlin). Therefore, there was anger to be focused on institutional building. However, there was a vibrant relationship between voting and age patterns. The young greatly favored to remain with the European Union.

There are various reason regarding leaving of the European Union and they are beyond the EU and the UK. First of all, the people in UK never felt to be European as they were losing sovereignty and nationalism. Moreover, the decisions made by the European Union were perceived as ‘interfering’ with the vital interests of UK, particularly the economic interests. In addition, there was budgetary issues as the UK was the net contributor to the European Union. Therefore, the UK nationals were asking for reallocation of those funds to their National Health Service and other British institutions.

Many of academics, on the other hand, view the Brexit movement as a rejection of globalization as the European Union has been failed to protect states’ vital economic interests, as many believe that it is not working for them. The Brexit is just more than protest for career opportunities. In fact, they wanted to replace that economic model which has been there far more than three decades ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aFZo18k1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Elliott)","plainCitation":"(Elliott)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":292,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6XP3GUQF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6XP3GUQF"],"itemData":{"id":292,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"Brexit is a rejection of globalisation","container-title":"The Guardian","section":"Business","source":"www.theguardian.com","abstract":"The EU has failed to protect its population from a global economic model that many believe is not working for them","URL":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jun/26/brexit-is-the-rejection-of-globalisation","ISSN":"0261-3077","language":"en-GB","author":[{"family":"Elliott","given":"Larry"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,26]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Elliott). European Union failed to protect itself from the worst excesses of the market and the free movement of capital. The idea of globalization was a more integrated Europe but this this dream is over now as the Brexit, however, is a historic affair in the history of capitalized world.

Brexit is often attributed with nationalism while the same word is used differently around the world such as in the case of Arab Spring. It was, in fact, for a struggle for economic stability in Tunisia. Nationalism has brought the concept of ‘us vs them’. Globalization, on the other hand, beneficial, destructive, compelling and horrifying ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NjjMNZAJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Halcrow)","plainCitation":"(Halcrow)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":294,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/3XMAKSCH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/3XMAKSCH"],"itemData":{"id":294,"type":"webpage","title":"What Effect will Brexit have on Globalization?","abstract":"How does Brexit affect globalization in businesses around the world?","URL":"https://www.rw-3.com/blog/the-effect-of-brexit-on-globalization","language":"en-us","author":[{"family":"Halcrow","given":"Allan"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Halcrow). The contemporary generation is believes the idea of a continuous economic and political progress. While the cotemporary movements have found fragilities in the global market economy. Yet globalization is continuous due to technological advancement and political engagements by the state actors. However, the contemporary dominant model is unsuitable to economies, society and the environment.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Dr Fadi Elhussein. “The Arab Spring and the Rise of Non-State Actors.” Middle East Monitor, 13 June 2015, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20150613-the-arab-spring-and-the-rise-of-non-state-actors/.

Dr. Paul Rivlin. “Brexit: England’s Arab Spring.” Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, https://dayan.org/content/brexit-englands-arab-spring. Accessed 4 Apr. 2019.

Elliott, Larry. “Brexit Is a Rejection of Globalisation.” The Guardian, 26 June 2016. www.theguardian.com, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jun/26/brexit-is-the-rejection-of-globalisation.

Halcrow, Allan. What Effect Will Brexit Have on Globalization? https://www.rw-3.com/blog/the-effect-of-brexit-on-globalization. Accessed 4 Apr. 2019.

Higgins, Andrew, and Mujib Mashal. “In Moscow, Afghan Peace Talks Without the Afghan Government.” The New York Times, 6 Feb. 2019. NYTimes.com, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/04/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-russia-talks-russia.html.

steven heydemann. Explaining the Arab Uprisings: Transformations in Comparative Perspective: Mediterranean Politics: Vol 21, No 1. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13629395.2015.1081450. Accessed 4 Apr. 2019.

Response Paper

Name

Professor name

Subject

June 23, 2019

Response paper

Chapter 4 discusses the growing contradictions of the rise and fall of apartheid. The chapter explains that laws and regulations were developed for separating races. The collapse of the apartheid system resulted in the formation of the racialized society. The authors have explained, "socially sanctioned grounds of inference and action that people use in everyday life, and which they assume that other members of the group use in the same way” CITATION Cla \l 1033 (Clark and Worger). The general argument presented in the chapter is that Africans were treated differently and due to the discriminatory attitude of society. The set of rules were also adequate for drawing line between whites and Africans. The systems encouraged society to classify people according to their race and ethnicity. The formulation of apartheid laws was the result of nationalist political incentives. The African youth learned that they could only survive with the statuses of secondary citizens. They were never accepted as Americans that made them feel inferior and subservient to native Americans. However, the African leaders emerged to criticize the unfair laws and demanded equality for their people. The reason for South Africans to move to America was to avail better opportunities of earning profits and growth. The rigid totalization and black segregation was also the result of strict and different laws for blacks.

Chapter 5 highlights the collapse of apartheid by identifying the factors that influenced race-interactions and people of South Africa. the collapse of apartheid occurred when President Botha emphasized on the significance of blacks in 1984. The reforms presented by the president stressed on providing security and safety to the Africans. He argued for the first time to give voting rights to Africans and considering them as American citizens CITATION Cla \l 1033 (Clark and Worger). A new constitution was suggested under the efforts of Botha and Klerk's political sense of giving identity recognition to blacks. State Security Council was also established that emphasized on providing equal rights to the blacks. The ANC leaders and anti-apartheid activist promoted the campaigns for raising awareness about African rights. The activists faced strong criticism and rivalry from the white leaders. Botha system of local government was also attacked by the protestants who were against the ideology of giving rights and recognition to blacks. The Africans faced challenges and threats in their struggles of standing against black segregation.

Whitehead in the article talks about the impact of the interaction between people of a different race, gender and class on Africans. The relationship of Africans with native Americans exhibited themes of inequality and injustice. For centuries blacks continued to fight for their independent rights and for gaining recognition. America only gave them secondary status by making them feel subservient to white Americans. Political systems and laws contributed to black segregation and racial discrimination. Several activists groups emerged to fight for the rights of blacks. ANG government followed the agenda of providing a better living place and opportunities of survival to Africans. The data collected by Whitehead reflects a high level of interactivity among racial groups. The interactions of south-Africans in post-apartheid influenced the campaigns and agenda of the activists. Whitehead highlights the prevalence of a wider gap between rich whites and poor blacks. The Africans managed to attain low-level jobs only due to racial segregation. The political and legal systems of post-apartheid further contributed to struggles for blacks in America. The overall discussion in the article uncovers different factors that contributed to the rising and fall of post-apartheid.

Work Cited BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clark, Nancy L and William H Worger. South Africa The Rise and Fall of Apartheid. Routledge, 2013.

Posel, D. (2001). Race as common sense: Racial classification in twentieth-century south Africa. African Studies Review, 44(2), 87-133.

Whitehead, Kevin A. "Race-Class Intersections as Interactional Resources in Post-Apartheid South Africa." Social Inequality and the Politics of Representation: A Global Landscape (2013): 49-63.

Response Paper

[Your Name]

[Instructor Name]

[Course Number]

[Date]

Response Paper

Introduction

Human trafficking is a deplorable crime. In this crime, criminals take advantage of the poor and exploit them with the promises of better life and opportunities in another country. The unfortunate victims of human trafficking end up performing different abhorrent acts (Jong, 2). Of all the forms of human trafficking, labor bondage is the one that hurts so many people around the world. Human traffickers trick entire families and communities and make them go with them in search of better life facilities. However, the families end up toiling in fields for powerful groups. Sadly, community and law enforcement agencies do not consider forced labor or labor form of human trafficking. There can be several reasons for this fact. The first reason can be that in many developed countries, unlike underdeveloped countries which are notorious for human trafficking, are not grappling with the issue of forced labor. Therefore, many people might not be adequately familiar with the plight of individuals, families, and communities that end up doing forced labor as a result of human trafficking. Moreover, law enforcement agencies fail to place over the labor form of human trafficking might be due to the fact that the agencies require significant support and assistance to respond to forced labor and ultimately curbing human trafficking (Farrell and Pfeffer, 4).

Discussion

The Mississippi poultry workers, sea slaves, Nena, all have one thing in common- they are forced labor. All these people were tricked into the profession they are now stuck. All of them were promised by the despicable human traffickers that they would be provided with an opportunity to make amends for their lives. Moreover, they were tricked with the glamour of earning a respectable wage (Zimmerman and Kiss, 5). However, they all ended up in forced labor. Certainly, forced labor category of human trafficking is one of the most life-threating categories. The unfortunate people that are working as bonded laborers underwent an untold ordeal. They face a tremendous amount of difficulties while they work in dilapidated conditions. The three categories of victims portray a picture of prisoners of an era that the world has long left behind. Bonded laborers are constantly under pressure from their handlers. So is the case of three categories described. Victims of bonded laborers are faced with numerous health issues that can often prove life-threatening. Mississippi poultry workers, sea slaves, Nena faced severe health issues due to the bad conditions in which they worked. Certainly, bonded or forced labor in human trafficking poses a significant threat to the lives of poor people (Campbell and Zimmerman, 7).

Conclusion

If there is any serious human rights violation in the modern-day world, it is human trafficking. Human trafficking is tantamount to stripping off an individual of their legitimate rights (Flores, 2). The human traffickers continue to make money by exploiting unfortunate human beings and coerce them into forced labor. Certainly, there are many vulnerable groups that end up in bonded or forced labors through human trafficking. Immigrants, in recent times, have emerged as an easy target for the human traffickers. The political instability in the Middle East and economic turmoil in the African states have compelled many people to flee their countries and seek life opportunities in other countries. While the unfortunate people flee their countries, they are intercepted by human traffickers. Human traffickers then compel the victims to work as sex workers and bonded or forced laborers. Organ trafficking of immigrants is another issue that has been long festering. Migrants are often left with few options. Some of them are killed while fleeing while others end up at the mercy of the human traffickers. Major global players must act together and enforce measures in the light of reports of the UN to curb the recent surge in human trafficking of migrants (Flores, 4).

Works Cited

Campbell, Letitia M., and Yvonne C. Zimmerman. "Forced labor and the movement to end human trafficking." A companion to public theology. BRILL, 2017. 271-297.

Farrell, Amy, and Rebecca Pfeffer. "Human Trafficking in North America." The SAGE Handbook of Human Trafficking and Modern Day Slavery (2018): 408.

Flores, Nichole M. "Human Trafficking and Modern-Day Slavery." Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America 71.1 (2016).

BIBLIOGRAPHY Jong, Melanie. "Human Trafficking." MacEwan University Student Research Proceedings 4.1 (2019).

Zimmerman, Cathy, and Ligia Kiss. "Human trafficking and exploitation: a global health concern." PLoS medicine 14.11 (2017): e1002437.

Sanctuary Cities

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

Political Science

[Date]

Sanctuary Cities

Sanctuary cities in the US have limited their cooperation with any Federal immigration laws but that does not mean that they are not having laws at all. They have their own policies and they are doing fine. Some of the Federal immigration laws are so strict that these are somehow challenging the human right principles. Sanctuary cities were supposed to protect its immigrant citizens but the Texas legislature has signed a bill against the policies of Sanctuary cities. Under the law and conditions, this upcoming law is openly threatening the local law enforcement agencies for not cooperating with the federal immigration authorities (Niraj, np). If I was a member of Texas legislature, I would not vote for the bill against the sanctuary cities. However, there are several reasons for it.

The first thing is that it does not seem appropriate for engaging the law enforcement agencies in immigration authority functions and threatening them at the same time. It can build mistrust against the law enforcement agencies among the citizens. Secondly, it is a misconception that crime rates are linked with the immigration. There are so many other reasons for increasing rates of crimes, government should consider them first. However, such laws further increase the insecurities of immigrants and the immigrants who are influenced by criminal activities do not report to the police due to fear (Smith, np). It may be for the safety of the people but it will also make the innocent people silent because of the fear .They will not report the crimes, they witness. Moreover, it is also against the constitutional rights of the citizens that people are detained at public places. Instead of introducing such policies the government should take some measures to minimize the illegal immigration and increase security on the borders. Therefore, sanctuary cities are fine with their own municipal policies and further intervention by the federal government will make things more complex.

Works Cited

Chokshi, Niraj. "Texas Governor Signs a Ban on Sanctuary Cities". Nytimes.Com, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/07/us/texas-governor-signs-ban-sanctuary-cities.html.

Smith, W. Paul. "Misguided Bill Bans Sanctuary Cities In Texas". Human Rights Watch, 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/05/10/misguided-bill-bans-sanctuary-cities-texas.

Scholars Continue To Argue About The Future Role Of States. What Is Your Prediction? Be Sure To Include The Various Arguments And Offer Examples.

The Future Role of the States

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Future Role of the States

Introduction

A state is always regarded as an autonomous entity by many scholars for years. They associate the sovereignty with the state and highlight the powers a state has in global politics. But there are also many arguments made by many theorists that restrict the powers of state and replace the absolute autonomy with relative autonomy that is given to the government.

A significant example is of Marxists concept about a state. There is no denying that rule is, in fact, independent of any pressures and forces other entities might insert on land, but over time, this formal institution is losing its integrity. In today's world, it is hard even to consider any country an autonomous state as times have changed and the powers a state once possessed is shifted to other forces that are working both internally and externally. This essay is aimed at discussing the future role of the country and how the state is managing and will manage the different powers in global politics in the future. The essay will also highlight the issues that stop the nation from exercising its full authority and power. States today have become much stronger, but this might not be the case that will be experienced in the near future. The future role of the country is deteriorating with time due to its high dependency on external forces for its interests.

Discussion

Ever since the world has come into existence, states are treated as an empire that is determined through territorial and central dominance over the regions. However, when it comes to possession of powers, there were many arguments exchanged between scholars over time shaping the state in a sovereign authority which has autonomous control on its ability. States ought to have two different types of power, i.e. despotic and infrastructural power depending on its origin, history, and dynamics of socio-economic conditions prevailing in the state. The concentration of these powers makes the country independent of external control. There are always interest groups present that change the role of the country through their actions, e.g. in case of despotic power, the state is controlled by only a particular group of elites that makes sure that the power stays with them for generations. They make the people free from external pressures but at the same time make them obey forcefully for their self-interests, e.g. North Korea. Although North Korea has managed to establish itself politically stronger and autonomous in the world, it has failed to penetrate civil society.

The other power, i.e. infrastructural power is very prevalent in the current world, and it is assumed that in the coming future, the role of the state will be more infrastructural focused. This is because this power incorporates strong affiliation of civil society with the government as the nature of governance is authoritarian there. This is a supreme type of control if used correctly as the governance influence makes the civil society follow the rules, e.g. in the case of New Zealand, Canada, etc. Despotic and infrastructural both can be exercised simultaneously by states depending on the competency of government elected there.

Before the expansion of globalization, the world was compact, and all the matters of states were dealt with full autonomy, authority, and privacy. These matters were unknown to the outside world; thus, no significant interference occurred as well except for a few examples, e.g. the U.S.A. But through neo-imperialism, many states surrender to the more powerful countries due to the political and economic pressure exerted on them. This led to the interference of many external forces in the state’s matters and made him rely on these forces in the form of Multinational Cooperation, advanced technology, free market, international specialized agencies and many more.

Multinational cooperation over the decades has managed to acquire the position of independent legal entities and seek into the host countries for apparently profit motives. Initially, they were controlled by the state, and they had to follow the laws and policies, but now it is the otherwise situation. They have now become so stronger that they hold more capabilities than a country in the world. This is why they are now considered as the biggest economies of the world by the ratio of 69 on 100. With the help of excessive power and money, these multinational corporations are now promoting those candidates to run the state who will make the policies according to their interests. This element is violating the supreme role of a country and making him rely on international forces rather than its people. Infrastructural power is getting restricted, and democracy is even more danger now than before as the role of cooperation is expanding to the matters solely belong to the general public. Neo-imperialism also played an important in promoting the MNCs expansion. This must be controlled and should be made limited otherwise it will lead to a power shift from state to MNCs in the future.

There are many other powers as well that every state has but only a few know how to use them and this power is to influence the other state or economies. The state has both soft and hard powers of dealing with the issues it is facing both politically and internationally. Hard power is the absolute power of wealth and the military. The more military strong and prosperous the state will be, the more dominance and influence it will have on others. The best example is the United States of America. America can maintain its autonomy in the world by keeping the pressure on other states. Some countries are good at soft power; for example, China is on it’s a way to become the regional power due to implications of soft power. New Zealand is also another country that has less hard power but is maintaining a good reputation in the world of taking right decisions. Looking from the future perspective, many more states will adopt the soft power to keep their sovereignty, but they will also be ready to exercise the hard power given any time.

The future of the state is yet questionable in many aspects especially due to the existing and in some cases getting stricter competition between the state and the free markets. This is another dilemma that will become more serious in the next few years. The tug of war between the state and the market over economic matters is making the position of country weaker. However, this might not be the only possibility as the powers state possess now are not transferrable to any other entity as it demands the support of civil society. The only state can penetrate its control in people and through this act as an absolute authority to regulate the matters of the country.

Conclusion

Looking at the future role of a state from all the aspects, it is made clear that there are a lot of forces currently present in the world that are trying to restrict the state’s autonomy and control. Therefore, the issue of state's retreat cannot be rejected, but essential considerations have to be made. One element that other forces lack but is still in the state's possession is the ideology. , and this trait makes the people unite on the internal and external matters. A country is autonomous with the support of its civil society and will exist to serve them for its survival. Only state can provide security to the people without any self-interests, and this is why the country will continue to maintain its assigned role in the future also.

End Notes

Longo, Matthew. "From Sovereignty to Imperium: Borders, Frontiers and the Specter of Neo-Imperialism." Geopolitics 22, no. 4 (2017): 757-771.

Clapham, Andrew. "Non-state actors." (2016).

Boukalas, C. (2014). Homeland Security, its law and its state: A design of power for the 21st century. Routledge.

Jessop, B. (2016). Territory, politics, governance and multispatial metagovernance. Territory, Politics, Governance, 4(1), 8-32.

Jessop, Bob. The state: Past, present, future. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.

Jones, M., Jones, R., Dixon, D., Whitehead, M., Woods, M., & Hannah, M. (2014). An introduction to political geography: space, place and politics. Routledge.

School Districts Research Project

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

School Districts Research Project

Answer # 1:

Giddings Independent School District is located in Giddings, Texas (USA). Moreover, it also serves rural areas in the southern side such as Lee County and a very small part of neighbouring Washington and Fayette counties.

Answer # 2:

Giddings ISD has approximately 1900 students.

Answer # 3:

The state of Texas has approximately 5385000 students.

Answer # 4:

The demographic profile of district and state are seeming to be directly proportional to each other. Hispanic students are most highly populated in the State that is approximately fifty-two per cent of the total population. While in District also the Hispanic students have the highest rate of the population which is considered to be almost fifty-five per cent of the total population. The population of African American student in the district is considered to be almost nine per cent while in the state it is approximately thirteen per cent of the total population. In the district, there are 0.2 % American Indian while in State there is only 0.4 per cent of students. It seems that there is very less number of Asians in the district as overall in the state there is almost 4.4 % Asian student but in the district, it acquires a percentage of only 0.6. The percentage of the population of two or more races are the same in both state and district which is 2.3% of their total population. In the state, there are approximately 8000 students from Pacific Island but in the district, there is no student from Pacific Island. Whites have a significant population of approximately 32% while overall in the state they have only 27.8% per cent population.

Answer # 5:

According to the research, in the district, approximately 50% of student are at risk of dropping out of school while in the state the percentage of dropping out of school is very much similar that is almost 51 per cent of the total population of students. The reason behind their dropping out has both demographic characteristics such as coming from a family of low income, male, members of an ethnic or racial minority group, or older in age than other students and performance characteristics include lack of earned credits, poor attendance, or poor grades. In the district, the percentage of students having risk factors of economically disadvantaged is considerably high which is considered to be almost 70 per cent while in the state it is less than 60 per cent. The factor of limited English proficiency in both state and district has very much similar percentage which is approximately 19%. So, I concluded that both the district and state face almost equally the challenging risk environment for the students.

Answer # 6:

The enrollment by a program of student percentage pattern in state and district is very much similar. As the highest percentage in both state and district are of Career and Technical which is approximately 25 per cent in the district while 26 per cent in the state. The least number is of gifted and Talented which is 3.6 % in the district while 7.9 % in the state. Bilingual/ESL has 10.8 % in the district and 18.9 % in the state. Similarly, special education is of 10.3 % in the district while in the state it has 9.1 % per cent of the population.

Answer # 7:

As compared to statewide, the district has much better academic records. The percentage of four-year graduation rate is significantly higher than the rate of statewide. The most surprising thing in this state is that almost all African American students have completed their four-year graduation. Similarly, the dropout rate is much lesser in the district than statewide. The four-year graduation rate and drop out is significant to consider as without four-year graduation or with dropout no student can complete their higher education. Moreover, the average SAT score in the district is more than in state while the ACT score is less than in the district than State. Similarly, the SAT and ACT are also significant for knowing the performance of the student.

Answer # 8:

In District, the quality of faculty is better than statewide due to several factors and but still the most concerning thing about the faculty in District is that there is no doctorate teacher at District level and there is only 18 per cent of master's teachers while in state there are approximately 24 per cent of master's teacher. In the district, there are almost 13 per cent students per teacher while in state there is almost 15 per cent student per teacher so as compared to state students in the district can get better attention from their teachers. Similarly, the teacher in the district has an average of almost 16 years' experience while in the state they have almost an average of 11 years' experience.

Answer # 9:

Yes, as a parent I would be comfortable having my children attend its school in this district as it has a much better academic performance record. Moreover, the quality of the faculty is also much better in the district. So I can feel a better educational future for my child in Giddings ISD.

Works Cited

"Giddings ISD". Texas Public Schools, 2019, https://schools.texastribune.org/districts/giddings-isd/.

Senate Skew Research

Senate Skew Research

Wonsehlea Teah

Course

Professor

9-Jan-2019

In American public and academics both, the debate surrounding the Electoral College, whether it serves as a true representation of the people’s choice for president or directly electing the president through popular voting is more accurate, has remained controversial and highly argued. In the past 20 years, the debate has widened exceptionally owing to the difference between electoral college votes and popular votes in the 2000 and 2016 Presidential election. The later saw President Trump winning by 74 electoral votes despite Hilary Clinton winning the popular vote. Nevertheless, the Electoral College has its share of supporters who see it is a vital instrument in allowing the two-party-system to function. Many believe that it keeps the best interest of the people in consideration, with knowledgeable and educated electors, which allows educated choices to be made in the political system and preventing the influence of the politically unaware, or uneducated citizens. The Electoral College itself is made up of 538 electors who cast votes to decide the President and Vice-President of the United States. The number of electors that a States receive is equal to the amount of the state’s congressional delegation # of House of Representatives + 2-Senators. For example, Georgia has 14 house reps + 2 senators = 16 total Electoral College votes. A key aspect of the Electoral College voting system is the ‘Senate Skew’ which refers to the additional two votes granted to each state according to their representation in the Senate. These two votes have been specifically significant in two election outcomes, in 1916 and the year 2000, wherein they influenced the presidential election outcomes, consequently leading to a win for Evans Hughes and a loss for Al Gore in 2000.

Despite the disparities that we see today, the framers of the American political system took pride in developing the voting system, although they too differed with regards to certain aspects. Goldstein (1996) suggests that the founding fathers witnessed events and arguments that led them to reconsider the voting system at several occasions. Alexander Hamilton, once a proponent of the popular vote later conceded to the argument that such as a highly regarded office holder must be voted in through highly regarded, capable and intelligent citizens. Similarly, James Madison and Gouverneur Morris favored direct elections, viewing it as a more democratic option after finding it suitable for governor elections. However even then, elected executive officials and state legislate would moderate the ballot from individual votes. A similar view was expressed by George Mason and other contemporaries that directly electing the president requires the American public to be politically educated, and the vast region of the U.S. makes it difficult for people to have adequate information about candidates from different parts of the nation, to be able to make the right decision. Thus, many among the American Founding Fathers viewed Electoral College votes to be a more practical and safer option to elect capable and well-read people to hold this important office. The electors, who are members of the Electoral College, are appointed by state legislatures in any way they deem suitable. In the 18th century, many U.S. states such as Pennsylvania, Delaware and Virginia appointed these electors through a popular election, whereas New Hampshire and Massachusetts combined legislative selection with popular election. Other states allowed their legislature to select the electors who created a general ticket system, in which the party which dominates the state would be accorded the entire electoral vote of the state. However, Dixon (1950) highlights that the Electoral College system remained effective and uncontroversial only for the first presidential elections. As national political parties developed in the 18th century, the Democratic Republicans and the Federalists, it posed new challenges for the Electoral College. Electors began to exhibit partisan loyalty to a certain party instead of serving as independent actors. This was first witnessed in the 1800 presidential election in which Burr and Jefferson who both belonged to the same party acquired equal votes from the electors loyal to their party, and Jefferson was later elected by a voting held by the House of Representatives. The tie reflected a problem within the electoral system that the framers of the system did not anticipate.

Today, the system of American presidential election drives candidates to concentrate their campaigns on states that form the majority of electoral votes, and thus critical in securing a victory. Certain states are classified as battleground or swing states in which there is focused attention in the form of television advertisements, candidate appearance and public mobilization efforts compared to other non-swing states that are considered non-competitive and consequently receive little campaign activity. Goux and Hopkins (2008) based his study examining the claims of reformists in the system who see the Electoral College as a distorting factor in the democratic process, as it incentivizes the candidates to only focus politically on states deemed as competitive, thereby ignoring a sizeable portion of the nation. Examining the claim that the process is non-democratic, Goux and Hopkins (2008) empirically evaluate the assertion by different critics in light of their argument that the electoral college impacts the political campaign strategy. In their study, Goux and Hopkins (2008) examined evidence to support the purported shortcomings and compared the results to a scenario featuring a direct popular election. They suggest that a reform of the Electoral College may not bring practical or substantial benefits to the political system, in terms of democratizing it further, however, the phenomenon of battleground or swing states does impact certain voter classes and puts others at a disadvantage. It is found that even if the electoral college is abolished for a direct popular voting system, evidence suggests that the strategic targeting of certain voters in particular areas is likely to continue. Thus, many critics of the Electoral College may not see substantial results from introducing reforms as the degree of campaign attention may still vary across regions, which is likely to continue even under the possibility of a direct popular election. Grofman and Brunell (1997) found similar results with swing states, as they examined the assertion by some that the Electoral College favors the Republican party. In the Electoral College, bias is understood to be different than swing ratio. The later refers to the effect of the popular vote in producing a responsiveness of change in the Electoral College whereas the former refers to an asymmetry in electoral votes that different candidates or parties acquire. Furthermore, it was found that the swing ratio in the Electoral College has underwent a dramatic increase over the decades which may be a result of a decrease in the statistical partisan distribution of electoral votes in various states. The difference in the swing ratio is explained as a consequence of a diminishing difference between variations among the Non-South and South regions in terms of electoral responsiveness. Grofman and Brunell (1997) explain the translation of votes into a seat share in the electoral college through establishing the relationship between bias and swing affect in determining electoral seat share. The swing ratio remains high in the electoral college in states especially near the fifty percent vote share point. The winner-take-all nature of the Electoral college which causes a bias in the seats to vote relationship, as well as uneven support for the Democratic party across different regions determine that the Electoral College does not have an inherent pro-Republican bias. Moreover, Grofman and Brunell (1997) suggest that partisan bias in favor of either the Republicans or Democrats is not significant statistically across the nation, in recent decades although there is a certain tendency for the bias to incline towards the Democratic side in the near future. The phenomena of Swing States is also identified by Stromberg (2008) who suggests ways in which presidential candidates could mobilize resources to increase their chances of winning in such states where the Swing ratio is high. Stromberg (2008) estimates the competition in the Electoral College system by offering a probabilistic-voting model that explains the different factors which impact Electoral College votes. One of the findings is that more resources should be allocated to states in campaigns that are considered decisive swing states. Moreover, Stromberg (2008) suggests that the extent of swing ration in a decisive state is a result of the ‘voting power’ of the state multiplied by the number of voters and the conditional marginal voter density of the state in case of a tie. Importantly, the chances that a state is among the list of decisive swing states is roughly proportional to the total electoral college votes it has. Another factor that increased the likelihood for swing per electoral vote is the outcome of the forecasted state election that lies between the forecasted national election outcome and a draw. The allocation of resources can be concentrated to precise state-election forecasts, and that any candidate lagging in the forecasts must concentrate on increasing the variance in electoral votes. Such a candidate can increase his or her chances by spending greater time in relatively larger states, in which they are also behind, and lesser time in those states where the polls suggest a victory. Powell (2004) discusses ways in which presidential candidates can enhance their support in key states that are likely to affect Electoral College outcomes by strategically selecting the location where their national-party convention sites would be appropriate and their choice of vice-president. Powell (2004) is of the view that there are significant electoral benefits to be obtained in the home regions and states of a vice president candidate while there are less significant benefits to host a convention in states where the governorship is controlled by the same party. The advantages provided by home states can potentially change the outcome of close and competitive races, even when regionalism and localism is perceived to be on the decline. Furthermore, Powell (2004) found that significant benefits are found in hosting conventions in states that are generally governed by the opposing party when it comes to conventions. It is also important to enhance voter shares in states where the electoral college votes prefer the opposing party or candidate.

Furthermore, Stormberg (2008) also analyses whether a direct national popular vote would effect a change in presidential elections. He concludes that the two different electoral systems are influenced by different factors; Swing voters and voter turnout in popular votes, whereas decisive swing states in the case of Electoral College votes, which ultimately determine which states or likely to lose or gain candidate attention. In contrast with Goux and Hopkins (2008), Stormberg (2008) views that that the Electoral College system inherently encourages presidential candidates to distribute their attention towards states unequally, depending on the probability of whether they are decisive swing states or not. It is understandable why the Electoral College system is not favored by either minorities or smaller states.

Warf (2009) argues that the winner-take-all approach favored by the Electoral College itself creates biases in voter power by differentially punishing or rewarding voters on the basis of that state’s electorate or overall population. Hence, Warf (2009) proceeds to provide an overview of the different nature of biases, such as the geographic bias, that is introduced by the Electoral system. The geographic dynamics at play are able to significantly influence the presidential election outcomes that ultimately binds up the American voter’s ability to change the outcome of the election. Moreover, Spatial biases are generic to its organization rather than idiosyncratic. The size of electoral blocs, the location of the voters, the overall victory margin in the states all influence the relative voter power among different states in the presidential race to ultimately influence the outcome of the election. Thus Warf (2009) also disagrees with Goux and Hopkins (2008) and sees the Electoral College system to be fundamentally illiberal and antidemocratic owing to the uneven geographies of voter power it generates. Analyzing the presidential elections between 1960 to 2004, Warf (2009) finds that over time, the relative voter power underwent marked variations among different states. The voter power was not necessarily based on the overall state’s size but on a variety of complex factors influenced by the winner-take-all dynamics created by the system and the margin of victory in various states. Here Warf (2009) along with Grofman and Brunell (1997) agree on the fact that the Electoral College does not concentrate the voting power of a single group or party, with exceptions of concentrated metropolitan regions, therefore any assertion that the Electoral College is Pro-republican or that it only exists to protect the interests of white men is unfounded. Voter power is a complex, ephemeral, unpredictable, transitory and highly contingent phenomena, however the characteristic winner-takes-all approach of the Electoral College still manages to create certain spatial distortions which work to enhance power of voters from one state over voters from the other.

In the 2000 elections, most media reports that discussed the role of the Electoral College in determining the strategies and outcome of the election concentrated their discussion on the popular vote versus the electoral vote margin. Hill and McKee (2005) take a precise look at the election results by examining the different ways how the Electoral College affected turnout. The effect of resource allocation as a result of the battleground or swing status of the states, and how it affected turnout. Moreover, candidate visits and media spending is analyzed in non-swing states compared to battleground states, to observe whether they impacted overall state turnout. The findings suggested that political parties and their candidates focused more on media spending and visits on certain states that they perceived to be pivotal to the electoral college voting outcome, as Stromberg (2008) also suggested. Furthermore, it was found that a wide variety of factors affect state-level turnout which includes registration laws, state elections, demographics, party competition and the ideology of political elites of the state and those participating in the presidential race. In order to secure maximum Electoral College Votes, candidates preferred to utilize major portions of their resources to campaign in battleground or swing states, effectively ignoring states where the results were nearly certain. This led to uneven campaign efforts which in turn affected turnout. A higher turnout, on the other hand is achieved through face-to-face contact, reaching out to supporters, and campaigning directly, however, concentrating resources into swing states was found to create higher turnout compared to states that were not battleground states.

According to Katz and Gelman (2002), the US presidential election of 2000 once again renewed interest in possible democratic reform including the Electoral College elimination. Agreeing with Goux and Hopkins (2008), they find that the college system could be possibly flawed in two fundamental ways. First, it may be biased and in favor of one party. Which means the distribution of votes result in the winning of the popular vote by a party's candidate but losing Electoral College. For instance, if it is possible that the Democratic candidate wins the majority seats in few states and will lift the Democratic share but not the chances for them to win the Electoral College. The second influence of Electoral College is on the individual's voting power, i.e., on their result. Power of a vote can be measured from the fact that it determines the outcome of an election. On the other hand, the electorate is divided into predetermined coalitions by the Electoral College. All of the electoral votes of the state are given to the candidate having a majority vote in the state. Therefore, a vote is essential if it determines how electoral votes are being cast winner in Electoral College is determined by these electoral votes. All the arguments against Electoral College are either founded on highly stylized formal models or on anecdotal evidence from certain elections. A different approach is being adapted here. In the study, historical election results are used to develop a set of different statistical models for the evaluation of the Electoral College and its performance. It was revealed that when such an analysis is performed, there is not much base to argue for improvement of Electoral College. The study also reveals that when appropriate statistical analysis of historical elections data is performed, there is no basis to argue for improving Electoral College. The study initially shows that given the current distribution of voters, Electoral College may have been biased once against the Democrats but none of the party is benefited by the system. In addition, when the average vote shares get closer to the half, electoral vote will be different from that of the popular vote. Speaking of the voting power, authors show the existence of temporal variation in the voting power from past numerous decades, under a popular voting system of presidency election, the individual citizen’s voting power would not likely increase. Authors found that there is a possibility for Electoral College system to lead to results different than the popular vote, however the only condition for this is that the nationwide vote is closer for the top two contestants. From the election of 2002, it is known that when elections are closer a minimum difference in the process of a voting changes the outcomes. Examining the empirical voting behavior, there is no as such difference explored between the voting power under popular vote system or Electoral College. However, these results are more indefinite, because the analysis is based on assumption that under a popular voting system, neither candidate nor voters would have performed differently.

Some of the findings from recent studies such as Wharf (2009) can be found in earlier mathematical studies that analyzed the discrimination present within the Electoral College System. Banzhaf (1968) suggests that voters from middle-sized and smaller states are at a disadvantage as an excessive voting power is allotted to larger states by the present Electoral College voting system. Thus, compared to smaller states, citizens of California and New York are almost two to three times more likely to influence the Presidential election outcome. Thus, disparities between 100-200% are observable and not uncommon. Along with the District of Columbia, there are 32 states in which the citizens have an average voting power of less than average. However, any proportional plans that aim to provide citizens of smaller sized states compared to medium and large size states provide excessively high voting power to them, and often provide citizens of Alaska and Nevada four times more power to influence the election than California or New York. Thus, a disparity could go as high as 400% in such a case, and give 95% of the overall population a voting power less than average. Other plans have been suggested that involve each state electing two college electors from each district, but that also puts citizens of middle sized and larger states at a disadvantage. Furthermore, in case each district would have an identical population, even then states that would have lower overall populations would begin to enjoy considerable advantage over larger states, and would put nearly 90% of the population below average voting power. From the findings, Banzhaf (1968) suggest that any subsequent reforms to the Electoral College system may not be able to reduce inequalities and may in fact lead to further exacerbation.

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY Banzhaf, John F. 1968. "One Man, 3.312 Votes: A Mathematical Analysis of the Electoral College." Villanova Law Review 13 (2): 303-330.

Dixon, Robert G. 1950. "Electoral College Procedure." Political Research Quarterly, June 1: 214-224. 10.1177/106591295000300205.

Goldstein, Joel K. 1996. "Electoral College: Is it a dinosaur that should be abolished or a last bastion of democracy?" Update on Law-Related Education, 34-36. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ulred20&div=37&id=&page=.

Goux, Darshan J., and David A. Hopkins. 2008. "The Empirical Implications of Electoral College Reform." American Politics Research 36 (6): 857-879. doi:10.1177/1532673X08324213.

Grofman, Bernard, and Thomas Brunell. 1997. "Distinguishing Between the Effects of Swing Ratio and Bias on Outcomes in the US Electoral College, 1900-1992." Electoral Studies 16 (4): 471-487. doi:10.1.1.725.1280.

Hill, David, and Seth C. McKee. 2005. "The Electoral College, Mobilization, and Turnout in the 2000 Presidential Election." American Politics Researcg 33 (5): 700-725. doi:10.1177/1532673X04271902.

Katz, Jonathan N., Andrew Gelman, and Gary King. 2002. "Empirically Evaluating the Electoral College." Social Science Working Paper, Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/79795/1/sswp1134.pdf.

Powell, Richard J. 2004. "The Strategic Importance of State-Level Factors in Presidential Elections." The Journal of Federalism 34 (3): 115-130.

Stromberg, David. 2008. "How the Electoral College Influences Campaigns and Policy: The Probability of Being Florida." American Economic Review 98 (3): 769-807. doi:10.1257/aer.98.3.769.

Warf, Barney. 2009. "The U.S. Electoral College and Spatial Biases in Voter Power." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99 (1): 182-204.

Short Paper

Stacy Montford

Enter the name of Instructor

Political Science

September 24, 2019.

Challenges posed to America by China and non- state Actors

Since a few years, China- United States relations have been a hot topic in the International relations discourse. Many believe that China poses an emerging threat to the United States interests in terms of trade and economic security. As like China, the world has not been successful in completely eradicating the threat of non- state actors. Although dismantled to large extent, but non- state actors are an existential threat to United States interests particularly, and for the world generally. This paper aims at comparing and contrasting these threat and analyzing how these threats pose challenges to the global leadership exercised by the United States.

Comparison analysis

The Chinese recent history suggest that its regime has remained authoritative when it comes to meeting the domestic development. In the international affairs, it has apparently adopted the policy of non- confrontation and cooperation. From some last few years, it is really noticeable that China has achieved new heights in domestic production and in the export ratio. It has complemented its trade gains with the undergoing ‘One Belt One Road’ (OBOR) initiative. China is adopting this strategy of enlarged cooperation based on widening its soft image. At present, China has been in a trade war with America. It has adopted strict measure when it comes to importing the American products. It shows that Chinese rise and its trade ambitions are posed toward challenging American interests. The military expansion of China and its technological advancements recommends that Communist party’s hold of power may bring China’s social and economic power at par with the United States. It is actually escaping the trap of middle income through technological innovation which is a less costly manner.

The violent non- state actors have been an existential threat for the world at large and for Americans specifically. Though they do not have any thing substantial to challenge the American interests but by partnering with other extremist elements they can pose a sizeable warning. The extremist narrative makes up its space through assertion and coercion as the communist regime in China has been employing throughout the decades. Their goal remains to destabilize the security and expanding cooperation among the nation states. The Chinese growth pattern on other hand suggest a slight difference, it maintains a pattern of cooperation while asserting its strategic aims. The countries which China aims at making a part of its OBOR initiative are economically less developed which pose a threat to their survivability as an independent state. The comparison analysis suggest that although completely different, but both China and the non- state actors encompass convergences in the manner of achieving their goals.

Contrast analysis

The American interests remain unshakeable since they are based on democratic norms and reflect aspirations of its people. American military modernization and economic achievements has just not benefitted America, rather it protected the aims and aspirations of its allies. The Chinese military modernization, its claim over the strategic oceans of East China and South China and its building of strategic ports in less develop and strategically important countries speaks for its strategic aims. Despite its long interaction with the people of West, China has remained fail in deferring the culture of isolation. These perceptions, policies and goals of China put it at odds with America. Considering the Chinese development pattern, it is right to argue that in the history such multipronged strategy of encirclement was never adopted by any country. As Friedberg argues that despite being at odds China is an important stake holder ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yGGoojCJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Friedberg)","plainCitation":"(Friedberg)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":328,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FSBWGTH6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FSBWGTH6"],"itemData":{"id":328,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Getting the China Challenge Right","container-title":"The American Interest","abstract":"What is at stake in the emerging contest between Washington and Beijing is nothing less than the future prosperity and security of free societies—in Asia and around the world.","URL":"https://www.the-american-interest.com/2019/01/10/getting-the-china-challenge-right/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Friedberg","given":"Aaron"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,25]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Friedberg). The contrast exists in the adoption of development pattern which is that Chinese exert ideas, whereas the American values are based on freedom and liberty.

The violent non- state actors are not recognized by any state. These actors have served the purpose of undermining the strategic interests of the states by employing violent means. At times we are living in, there exists no space for brutality and violence. This is the reason that American government has taken the lead in dismantling such threats. The threat of China appears long lasting and multipronged, whereas the threat of non- state actors is vicious and short spanning. America can dismantle this threat by employing means of ‘partnering against extremism’ with its coalitions and partners ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JjR1CqQ2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bartlett)","plainCitation":"(Bartlett)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":332,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5PHZHMFB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5PHZHMFB"],"itemData":{"id":332,"type":"article-journal","title":"From suspects to citizens: Preventing violent extremism in a big society","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"From suspects to citizens","author":[{"family":"Bartlett","given":"Jamie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bartlett). Whereas to counter the threat of China, United States need to foster economic growth and will has to look for new ways to expand its soft power image.

Does they pose an existential threat?

The Chinese economic growth and strategic enhancement suggest that it poses considerable existential threat to American values. It is building its strategy which many of the international relations experts believe is the encirclement of United States. With China there exist likelihoods of cooperation and growth, if China sheds away its image of isolation. Since it has been able to bring billions of people out of poverty and its soft power image has conceptualized the understanding about the world affairs, therefore strong chances exists that America might partner with China anytime in the future. Extremism and non- state actors are however, a threat to the liberal values of America. They threaten peace, security and survivability of the world. America has been able to bring the world on the same page to root out such elements and has remained successful in curbing this menace. Lastly, since there exists such elements in our society and in the world, therefore it is an existential threat to America and to the world at large.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartlett, Jamie. From Suspects to Citizens: Preventing Violent Extremism in a Big Society. 2010.

Friedberg, Aaron. “Getting the China Challenge Right.” The American Interest, 10 Jan. 2019, https://www.the-american-interest.com/2019/01/10/getting-the-china-challenge-right/.

Should The Congress Support The Economic Freedom Of Puerto Rico By Exempting This U.S Territory From The Jones Act And The Federal Minimum Wage?

The Johns Act and Puerto Rico

Name

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Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

The Johns Act and Puerto Rico

Executive Summary

After the end of World War One, the US Congress passed an act called the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. This act is about the maritime movements in the waters of the US and is still in practice. The 27th section of this act is called the Jones Act, and it imposes many restrictions over the movement of ships among the different ports of the US. According to this act, only US flagships can be used for maritime movements within America. This act was implemented due to many economic and security reasons. But this restriction of free movement creates many problems for the people of Puerto Rico, a territory of the US. People of Puerto Rico have to import many basic goods from the US, and all this trade is made by ships that are owned, operated, and built by US citizens. This monopoly creates a huge increase in the cost of shipping.

There is a huge debate over the performance of the Jones Act. This act increases the prices of basic goods for the people of Puerto Rico. The monopoly of American flagship companies creates many inefficiencies. Revoking this 100-year-old act will not only increase the living standard of the People of Puerto Rico but also will create many job opportunities.

Background of the Situation

After World War One, the US Congress passed an Act called the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. This act is still in practice with some amendments. This act is a federal statute of the USA, and its key purpose is the advancement of American commercial marine. This act regulates maritime trade among the different ports of the US. The 27th section of the Merchant Marine Act is of great importance, and it is called the Jones Act because it was presented by Wesley Jones, a senator of that time. The Jones Act imposed some restrictions on maritime trade, including cabotage. Cabotage is a term that is used for trade when it is done between the different parts of the same country. This act restricts all the traders to ship goods among all the ports of the US that must be done by the American flagships. This means all trades should be done by those ships that are owned, operated, and built by the US citizens. This act gives American maritime a sort of monopoly because all the trades between the different ports of the US can only be done by the American flagships. The key idea behind the application of the Jones Act is to enhance maritime security of US

The Jones act becomes a source of inflation among the non-continental lands of the US, including Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Puerto Rico is an American territory and a Caribbean Island. Most of its necessities are imported from the US. Due to the implementation of the Jones Act, all the shipping from the US to Puerto Rico can be done only on Amercing flagships ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JLKUTwW0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cope, Woosley, & Cope III, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Cope, Woosley, & Cope III, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"UrbSUu68/FRza1fK5","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/EDG69KH9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/EDG69KH9"],"itemData":{"id":843,"type":"article-journal","title":"A Look At The Merchant Marine Act Of 1920: Is It Time For The US To Change Course?","container-title":"The International Business & Economics Research Journal (Online)","page":"1","volume":"17","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Cope","given":"Rachelle F."},{"family":"Woosley","given":"John M."},{"family":"Cope III","given":"Robert F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cope, Woosley, & Cope III, 2018). This creates a monopoly of American flagships over the trade between the US and Puerto Rico and increases the shipping costs.

Policy Options

The US territory of Puerto Rico has to pay the Price of The Jones Act (1920). The cost of shipping from the US to Puerto Rico increases by 41-62%. This act annually damages the economy of Puerto Rico by 2.8 billion USD ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TiUxqLPq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cope et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Cope et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"UrbSUu68/FRza1fK5","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/EDG69KH9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/EDG69KH9"],"itemData":{"id":843,"type":"article-journal","title":"A Look At The Merchant Marine Act Of 1920: Is It Time For The US To Change Course?","container-title":"The International Business & Economics Research Journal (Online)","page":"1","volume":"17","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Cope","given":"Rachelle F."},{"family":"Woosley","given":"John M."},{"family":"Cope III","given":"Robert F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cope et al., 2018). The current situation is that the Jones Act provides additional maritime security with some economic benefits to the US. But this act has a very high cost upon the people of Puerto Rico. Now we try to find out some options that can be used to improve the situation. There can be some solutions that can decrease the economic sufferings of the people of Puerto Rico without compromising the maritime security of the US. The first choice should be to deal with the status quo over the situation. There should be campaigns inside and outside parliament to think over this act, which is producing many sufferings to people of the US, and there should be efforts to change the act in a way that can remove its economic demerits. The second option is to deal with the damages from the Jones Act by making the navel transportation of the US more competitive and market efficiency. A cost-efficient navel transportation system of the US can decrease the shipping cost of goods from the US to Puerto Rico ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CFPb9e46","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dewey, 1937)","plainCitation":"(Dewey, 1937)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":848,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/4MFXCP3T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/4MFXCP3T"],"itemData":{"id":848,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Merchant Marine Act of 1936","container-title":"The American Economic Review","page":"240-252","author":[{"family":"Dewey","given":"Ralph L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1937"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dewey, 1937). A market, efficient navel transportation system can offer more employment opportunities in the US. US government should facilitate the navel transportation industry. The government should give financial support to the industry of navel transportation. This uplifting of navel transportation can decrease the cost of shipping goods from the US to Puerto Rico, and people of Puerto Rico can also enjoy American goods at cheaper prices ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5knQHAFf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ru\\uc0\\u237{}z, 1985)","plainCitation":"(Ruíz, 1985)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":853,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SCG3YA2D"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SCG3YA2D"],"itemData":{"id":853,"type":"article-journal","title":"Tourism and the economy of Puerto Rico: an input-output approach","container-title":"Tourism Management","page":"61-65","volume":"6","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Ruíz","given":"Angel L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1985"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ruíz, 1985). Uplifting of US maritime transportation can also enhance the navel security of the US. The government of the US must invest in navel transportation if it desires to continue with a century-old Jones Act. Otherwise, there are huge economic sufferings for the people of Puerto Rico.

Recommendations

The Jones Act is an example of the world's biggest restriction on cabotage. There are huge economic sufferings because of 100 years old the Jones act. There exist a great number of scholars, policymakers, and congress members who are in favor of repealing the Jones Act. The removal of this act will have many benefits not only for the American economy, but it also will have environmental benefits for the US. The revoking of this act will allow the other navel shipping companies to move within different ports of the US. Currently, only American maritime ships are allowed to ship goods from the US to its territory Puerto Rico. This monopoly of American navel transportation has many economic inefficiencies. Due to the lack of completion in the market of maritime cargo services, this department of the US could not establish as it should be. Competition with the international navel transporters will force the local transporters to improve their services. The abolishment of the Jones Act will encourage local businessmen to invest in the department of research and development ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6g6mw4p6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gregg, 1921)","plainCitation":"(Gregg, 1921)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"UrbSUu68/V2t0fng5","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/24WT6TU3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/24WT6TU3"],"itemData":{"id":849,"type":"article-journal","title":"The failure of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920","container-title":"The American Economic Review","page":"601-615","volume":"11","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Gregg","given":"E. S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1921"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gregg, 1921). There will be more opportunities for employment in the department of navel shipment. The overall impact will be positive over the US economy. Moreover, the removal of this act will also help in improving the environment US. Currently, there is a huge cargo burden on American roads. If we allow the international navel transporters to operate between the different ports of the US, it can help to shift cargo burden form American roads to American waters. This means there will be less traffic on American roads and as a result, there will be less pollution in the environment.

Removal of the Jones Act will dramatically increase the living standard of the people of Puerto Rico. Currently, they have to pay much higher prices for the shipment of goods from the US. If there is completion in navel transportation, this will decrease the prices of goods in Puerto Rico. Consumer surplus will increase for the residents of Puerto Rico ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Wf0zUGVG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stumberg, 1956)","plainCitation":"(Stumberg, 1956)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":844,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WZWYDJQ2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WZWYDJQ2"],"itemData":{"id":844,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Jones Act Remedies of Seamen","container-title":"Ohio St. LJ","page":"484","volume":"17","author":[{"family":"Stumberg","given":"George W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1956"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stumberg, 1956). There will be great incentives for the people of Puerto Rico to invest in the industry of navel shipping to import goods by themselves. Employment opportunities will increase. There can be some security risks that are linked with the removal of the Jones Act. But we can easily handle these risks by taking more security measures. If we remove the Jones Act, overall economic benefits will be higher not only for the people of Puerto Rico but also for the citizens of the US.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cope, R. F., Woosley, J. M., & Cope III, R. F. (2018). A Look At The Merchant Marine Act Of 1920: Is It Time For The US To Change Course? The International Business & Economics Research Journal (Online), 17(1), 1.

Dewey, R. L. (1937). The Merchant Marine Act of 1936. The American Economic Review, 240–252.

Gregg, E. S. (1921). The failure of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. The American Economic Review, 11(4), 601–615.

Ruíz, A. L. (1985). Tourism and the economy of Puerto Rico: An input-output approach. Tourism Management, 6(1), 61–65.

Stumberg, G. W. (1956). The Jones Act Remedies of Seamen. Ohio St. LJ, 17, 484.

South Africa The Rise And Fall Of Apartheid

South Africa: The Rise and fall of Apartheid

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

South Africa: The Rise and fall of Apartheid

In the Rise and Fall of Apartheid, Nancy and William have explained the historical background of racism in South Africa. They are of the opinion that racial discrimination started in South Africa way before 1948 and it is drawn back to 1652 to the time when the Dutch first colonized Cape of Good Hope and then they imported slaves from South East Asian and East Africa to cater their economic needs.

According to the authors, South Africa became the richest continent due to the discovery of gold and diamonds. The African continent had a great diversity of people as well and all of these conditions led to the introduction of the concept of apartheid in the continent in 1948.

The authors have identified the tribes that were settled in South Africa in the past two millennia. From the 1400s and onward Dutch and Portuguese ships had traveled through the continent. These people exported natural resources to other parts of the world from South-Africa. The discovery of gold and diamonds attracted other people to the continent and large-scale of British people entered South-Africa. Boer, the Dutch people have access to the gold and thar made the British people less privileged in the society and it triggered the South African war.

Segregation policies separated the legal rights of the European descent and the African descent in South Africa which introduced the concept of apartheid. However, Apartheid is a name given to a policy that was introduced in South Africa in 1948, to exclude people based on race and with respect to where they live, which school they went to and where they died. However, the segregation policies or the racial discrimination distinguished South Africa from other societies. Because in the colonial world no one was allowed to enjoy full rights and thus the condition of South African people was not different from that of other people in the colonial era. Bu the implementation of Apartheid started after the abrupt ending of Colonialism in Asia and Africa in the time period between the 1940s and 1950s.

Methodology

The author studied the implementation of apartheid in the first place in South Africa and explained the rise and fall of apartheid in Africa through historiography. The Authors have emphasized on the operations and policy makings of the National party government in South Africa. Legislative actions against the black Africans were taken by the National Party inorder to full fill two concersn. First is the generation of better wages for Black people working in the colonies and secondly to bring industrial revolution in Africa in order to minimize the economic dependency of the people of Africa.

The implementation of the concept of apartheid attracted the concerns of the newly independent state of Africa and Asia. Apartheid got great attention in India for the first time when the country criticized the government of South Africa to give fewer rights to the citizen of the black commonwealth and more to the citizen of white Commonwealth people. But with respect to time, the South African government persuade every brutal step to implement its apartheid policies. In the 1960s 69 Africans were killed by the police and this attracted the concerns of international bodies like the United Nations which considered this as a criminal act against humanity.

In the 1980s the world finally showed an actual concern s over the matters of the apartheid. In the 1980s a civil war broke out in South Africa between the black opponent of the apartheid and that of the government which let Africa ungovernable. Finally, President Regan came up with an attempt to veto an Anti-Apartheid act in Congress. This helped to overcome the policies of apartheid and provide a platform to the black African to fight for their rights.

End Notes

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Clark, Nancy L., and H. Worger. William. South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid., 2013.

Lowry, Donal. “The Boers Were the Beginning of the End’?: The Wider Impact of the South African War.",” 2017.