South Africa The Rise And Fall Of Apartheid

South Africa The Rise and Fall of Apartheid

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South Africa The Rise and Fall of Apartheid

In South Africa, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, Nancy L. Clark and William H. Worger are presenting the political scenario and the political connotations attached to the word. The title was giving the impression already that the book is going to give an insight of the historical events that occurred in the twentieth century. Nevertheless, not like other accounts of South African history in the 20th century, this book has focused more exclusively on the apartheid period and puts more stress on analysis than a description of the events

The authors stated the facts and the analysis of those facts shows that the term apartheid was manipulated for political purposes. It was used against the British colonization. The authors have probed into the questions such as when the term apartheid was originated. The introduction part provides the historical background and the information on the origin of the term. The authors have covered 350 years of history if the fossil record is included. The adequate segment on historiography must also contemplate the splendid effort of John Philip and John Colenso.

The first chapter which is the introduction part of the book provides good background information of the historical movement which is under discussion, namely apartheid. The authors have provided a solid background data regarding the historical events related to the movement of apartheid. Two preliminary sections set the system of Apartheid in an old setting, searching for the roots of the populace, captivity and initial appearances of discrimination, and the amalgamation of the rule of white. The fundamental of the given chapters has focused on how Apartheid grew for the duration of the Separatist era, the upsurge of the resistance and the failure of the structure, through to its ongoing inheritance at the moment.

The 2nd chapter is the historical background of the region of South Africa and how the movement of Apartheid started and where did it lead to. The authors, first of all, gave the account of the races or, the peoples presented at that time in the region of South Africa. Then after that they presented the history of how the region changed into the land now called South Africa, also they discuss about the war of South Africa and its aftermath.

The history and the historical information about the people of South Africa is analyzed by the writers in this chapter. The authors analyzed the history of the nations that used to live in that region. The analysis of the different nations that used to live there plainly suggests that the region was a home for many different nations and the diversity of the races, casts, and nations was there since always. Keeping this fact in mind one can consider that the racism and hate for the dark and the opposite races was naturally there. To add fuel to the fire, the British invaded and further aggravated the whole scenario. This part provides an account of the history of the region and as the authors have not only provided the history but analysis also, it provides a close analysis too.

Reading the first two chapters provided me with the analysis of the events along with the description and deep understanding of the political scenario that generated the movement and how the movement emerged into this big political movement and how that gave rise to the laws that segregated the nations into privileged and the non-privileged sections.

Bibliography

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Clark, Nancy L., and William H. Worger. South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid. 2nd ed. Harlow, England ; New York: Longman, 2011.

“Wilburn on Clark and Worger, ‘South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid’ | H-Africa | H-Net.” Accessed June 17, 2019. https://networks.h-net.org/node/28765/reviews/32921/wilburn-clark-and-worger-south-africa-rise-and-fall-apartheid.

Summary

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

Political Science

[Date]

Summary

Introduction

Siddharth Kara has evaluated and analyzed the issue of human trafficking. Kara has delved deep into the history and the contemporary issues revolving around trafficking. Kara has argued that there multiple factors that have contributed to the worsening of the issue of trafficking (Kara, 2009). For instance, against the backdrop of poor economic conditions, many families are forced into selling their daughters for a meager amount of money. Little do the families of these women are aware of the devastating condition in which their daughters spend the rest of their lives (Kara, 2009). I completely agree with Kara’s assessment of the issue because both historical and modern developments have attributed to the issue what now is known as human trafficking.

With the rapid increase in the globalization and economic imbalance between the rich and the poor, the poor were rendered desperate from an economic perspective. Criminal elements exploited this fact and came up with the idea to provide lucrative jobs to the deprived (Kara, 2009). There is a proper chain of command that is working to induct more and more women every day. Furthermore, with trafficking being one of the biggest challenges to global security, it is somehow swept under the carpet. Lastly, the laws to curb trafficking are weak and the prosecution of criminals involved is non-existent.

Discussion

There are numerous shocking revelations in the first half of Kara's book. For instance, it came to me as a shock that despite being in the 21st century, numerous families are forced to sell their women for small amounts of money. Another thing that shocked me was the global powers are yet to develop a clear understanding of the issue of human trafficking. However, the most shocking thing of all is globalization has helped to deteriorate the issue of human trafficking (Kara, 2009). The world came closer with the rapid increase in globalization. People started to move across the globe to seek better living opportunities. However, this rapid increase of globalization opened the gates for criminal minds. The criminals involved in the business of trafficking promised better lives for financially deprived households. The criminals address concerns of the families of the women by saying that they would be safer once they reach their destination. However, the women get stuck into the quagmire of the sex industry. Women serving as sex slaves are subjected to physical and emotional torture. Moreover, the women in the sex industry are deprived of the basic commodities like food and healthcare if they decline to work according to the directions of the masters. It has shocked me that globalization has been the impetus behind the surge in trafficking.

Conclusion

Almost 70 years later, the issue of comfort women is still relevant, as it describes the plight of thousands of women who were recruited in Japanese military under the comfort battalions to cater to the needs of the soldiers that were part of the Japanese military expansion adventures in Asia (Sarah, 2001). The reluctance of the successive Japanese governments to address the issue of the past and tender an official apology to a handful of the survivors of the military sexual slavery system has been central in shaping the status of women in Japan (Young Korean Students Learn About 'Comfort Women', 2015). The military sexual slavery system increased the gender imbalance in Japanese society as women were viewed as a second class citizen. Although Japan has made some great strides as far as gender equality is concerned, coming up at 114th out of 144 countries analyzed for gender equality calls for more work on bridging the gender gap. Additionally, the labeling of comfort women as “professional prostitutes” by the Japanese governments did not help the cause one bit. The remaining survivors of the comfort battalion must be offered an official apology instead of money by the Japanese government.

Works Cited

"Young Korean Students Learn About 'Comfort Women'." YouTube. N. p., 2015. Web. 31 Aug. 2019.

Kara, S. Sex trafficking: Inside the business of modern slavery. Columbia University Press, 2009.

Sarah, C. Japan's Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors, 2001

Supply-Side Economics

Surveillance

[Title]

[Name of Student]

[Name of College/University]

Introduction

Essentially in all aspect of daily life, technology is interwoven and embedded. Such as network and other communication devices are used for both educational and personal purposes. Whereas the inclination of the internet for citizens’ empowerment is neither straightforward nor unidirectional. One study examines that 83% of homes in Canada have access to the internet and out of these 97% report having high-speed internet ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BhlMHfrG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kotsopoulos et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Kotsopoulos et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":357,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/KEHKITPN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/KEHKITPN"],"itemData":{"id":357,"type":"article-journal","title":"A Pedagogical Framework for Computational Thinking","container-title":"Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education","page":"154-171","volume":"3","issue":"2","source":"Springer Link","abstract":"Our goal in this paper is to propose a Computational Thinking Pedagogical Framework (CTPF), developed from constructionism and social-constructivism theories. CTPF includes four pedagogical experiences: (1) unplugged, (2) tinkering, (3) making, and (4) remixing. Unplugged experiences focus on activities implemented without the use of computers. Tinkering experiences primarily involve activities that take things apart and engaging in changes and/or modifications to existing objects. Making experiences involve activities where constructing new objects is the primary focus. Remixing refers to those experiences that involve the appropriation of objects or components of objects for use in other objects or for other purposes. Objects can be digital, tangible, or even conceptual. These experiences reflect distinct yet overlapping CT experiences which are all proposed to be necessary in order for students to fully experience CT. In some cases, particularly for novices and depending on the concepts under exploration, a sequential approach to these experiences may be helpful.","DOI":"10.1007/s40751-017-0031-2","ISSN":"2199-3254","journalAbbreviation":"Digit Exp Math Educ","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Kotsopoulos","given":"Donna"},{"family":"Floyd","given":"Lisa"},{"family":"Khan","given":"Steven"},{"family":"Namukasa","given":"Immaculate Kizito"},{"family":"Somanath","given":"Sowmya"},{"family":"Weber","given":"Jessica"},{"family":"Yiu","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",8,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kotsopoulos et al., 2017). This has given rise to the data-analytic environment and favors a political campaign. Big data is often obtained from the internet with computational tools and analytics. Earlier, large data-sets were primarily obtained from surveys and on voluntarily basis questions were answered. Compared to surveys, political computation’s results are measured quickly and in real time in the delivery.

Discussion

Computational Thinking (CT) or Computational Practice (CP) is an approach for solving big data problems by developing a system for the understanding of human behavior ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PMFeQoAt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kotsopoulos et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Kotsopoulos et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":357,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/KEHKITPN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/KEHKITPN"],"itemData":{"id":357,"type":"article-journal","title":"A Pedagogical Framework for Computational Thinking","container-title":"Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education","page":"154-171","volume":"3","issue":"2","source":"Springer Link","abstract":"Our goal in this paper is to propose a Computational Thinking Pedagogical Framework (CTPF), developed from constructionism and social-constructivism theories. CTPF includes four pedagogical experiences: (1) unplugged, (2) tinkering, (3) making, and (4) remixing. Unplugged experiences focus on activities implemented without the use of computers. Tinkering experiences primarily involve activities that take things apart and engaging in changes and/or modifications to existing objects. Making experiences involve activities where constructing new objects is the primary focus. Remixing refers to those experiences that involve the appropriation of objects or components of objects for use in other objects or for other purposes. Objects can be digital, tangible, or even conceptual. These experiences reflect distinct yet overlapping CT experiences which are all proposed to be necessary in order for students to fully experience CT. In some cases, particularly for novices and depending on the concepts under exploration, a sequential approach to these experiences may be helpful.","DOI":"10.1007/s40751-017-0031-2","ISSN":"2199-3254","journalAbbreviation":"Digit Exp Math Educ","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Kotsopoulos","given":"Donna"},{"family":"Floyd","given":"Lisa"},{"family":"Khan","given":"Steven"},{"family":"Namukasa","given":"Immaculate Kizito"},{"family":"Somanath","given":"Sowmya"},{"family":"Weber","given":"Jessica"},{"family":"Yiu","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",8,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kotsopoulos et al., 2017). These drawn behaviors are essential to concepts. By using principles from computer sciences for the guidance of metaphorical frameworks and structures, Computational Thinking is analyzed algorithmically. The data for analyzing mostly comes from the public sphere, whose rational arguments concern the public on the issues of governance.

Computational Politics denotes to the application of computational methods to a large number of data-sets derived from the internet and other sources for conducting persuasion and mobilization, and outreach in the service of opposing or furthering a candidate, legislation or policy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VS4zdVxp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Shinu, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Shinu, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":358,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/ULVZRWRT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/ULVZRWRT"],"itemData":{"id":358,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Computational Politics: when democracy is all about the majority of data.","container-title":"Medium","abstract":"They’re both games, Computer Science and Politics. A bit of a gamble, a bit of logic, a bit of manipulation, a bit of opportunistic…","URL":"https://medium.com/redefyn/computational-politics-when-democracy-is-all-about-the-majority-of-data-21e0412ca1d3","shortTitle":"Computational Politics","author":[{"family":"Shinu","given":"Ashmy Achu"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",12,9]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Shinu, 2018). The data-points are purchased from Facebook and Amazon could be mined by interested political parties and turned into accurate models of definite individuals.

With the advent of computational politics, the finance for campaigns, privacy and governance went low. While the data used in elections needs to be an oversight as the data itself is generated by the people itself and increasingly being used at them. Such as Obama’s 2008 and 2012 campaigns were distinguished for the data-driven culture. The increase in digital platforms permitted integrating real-time experimentation into a conveyance of the political message. This method included the development of multiple versions of messages or screens to be delivered separately to certain random groups.

In this regard, behavioral science models guide how to influence and persuade people by moving into a particular action ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zPT0JCNa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tufekci, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Tufekci, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":361,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/HGGT8ZCJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/HGGT8ZCJ"],"itemData":{"id":361,"type":"article-journal","title":"Engineering the public: Big data, surveillance and computational politics","container-title":"First Monday","volume":"19","issue":"7","source":"firstmonday.org","abstract":"Digital technologies have given rise to a new combination of big data and computational practices which allow for massive, latent data collection and sophisticated computational modeling, increasing the capacity of those with resources and access to use these tools to carry out highly effective, opaque and unaccountable campaigns of persuasion and social engineering in political, civic and commercial spheres. I examine six intertwined dynamics that pertain to the rise of computational politics: the rise of big data, the shift away from demographics to individualized targeting, the opacity and power of computational modeling, the use of persuasive behavioral science, digital media enabling dynamic real-time experimentation, and the growth of new power brokers who own the data or social media environments. I then examine the consequences of these new mechanisms on the public sphere and political campaigns.","URL":"https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/4901","DOI":"10.5210/fm.v19i7.4901","ISSN":"13960466","shortTitle":"Engineering the public","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Tufekci","given":"Zeynep"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",7,2]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,10]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tufekci, 2014). The development of a deeper model is central to altering the ability to analyze data, test data and turn the political behavior. The political campaign hopes to garner votes by identifying voters and individually targets them with tactics designed for their personal vulnerabilities and weaknesses. This all is done in a way that would not be visible to a broader public, such as through Facebook and Twitter ads.

In the Harrington model of political computation, there are two types of candidates, those who adopt the model and those who do not and are ideologues. As the competitors are scanned up, the number of survivors get decreased. The Harrington Model evaluates which form of candidates survive after a change in the exogenous environment over time. Therefore, Harrington model can be viewed as pie-splitting. Moreover, the voters have lexicographic preferences in the model, while rigid candidates lose more often.

Conclusion

The political computational results are often high in quality and increasing their impacts in contemporary elections campaigns. There is also an increase in interest among political science as it offers a bridge between scientific aspirations and political science itself. In this regard, the agent-based model in computational politics is an emergent model, developed by both political scientists and economists. This model collects and addresses the question related to electoral computation, international political issues, and institutional design and performance.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Kotsopoulos, D., Floyd, L., Khan, S., Namukasa, I. K., Somanath, S., Weber, J., & Yiu, C. (2017). A Pedagogical Framework for Computational Thinking. Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education, 3(2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40751-017-0031-2

Shinu, A. A. (2018, December 9). Computational Politics: when democracy is all about the majority of data. Retrieved April 9, 2019, from Medium website: https://medium.com/redefyn/computational-politics-when-democracy-is-all-about-the-majority-of-data-21e0412ca1d3

Tufekci, Z. (2014). Engineering the public: Big data, surveillance and computational politics. First Monday, 19(7). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v19i7.4901

Term Paper

Federalism

Name

Affiliation

Date

Federalism

Introduction

Different forms of government are practiced in different countries of the world, according to the organization of the country, as well as the political choice of its population. Federalism is a relatively popular system of government which is practiced in a significant number of countries of the world. Federalism is the type of government in which the political powers are divided among the central government and the regional or ethnic governments, though the division of powers may not be equal among the central and regional/ ethnic or provincial governments. Although the provincial, region or state level governments have their own rights, authorities, and powers, however, the federal government holds greater and superior power than them. Federal form of government is mostly practiced in those countries of the world which consist of populations belonging to different ethnicities or regions. The major purpose of the federal government is to balance the powers and authorities among the subordinate power groups of provincial or state level government while implementing an equal system of government in the whole country. Although the federal form of government is greatly supported and practiced, it has some disadvantages in addition to the advantages, which require the government authorities to reconsider the policies and recommendations, to make them more profitable for all the units of the society.

Background Information

Federalism has been practiced as the system of government since the nineteenth century in the different part of the world. The major purpose of the establishment of the federal government is to lay the foundation of a central government which would have dominant power and authorities over the regional governments and would be able to contribute to the progress of the country as a cohesive unit. The divisions of powers sometimes become the source of conflict among the central and the regional governments because of the fact that some states have their different laws, which are not applicable to other states. When the individuals move within the states, they have to take care of their own state laws, as well as of those of the state in which they are currently present. Most of the researchers think that the federalist system is unreliable and unstable because of such type of conflicts. In addition to it, the regional forces keep trying to get more rights and powers in order to become the central power, but it is not true for every country of the world. So, some countries of the world look up to the federal laws and authorities to resolve their political, cultural and economic conflicts. Moreover, the federal government and its laws play a constructive role in uniting the different sections of the society, by enabling them to resolve their issues and reach some point of unity (Riker, 2017).

Analysis/Competing Arguments

There are some pros, as well as cons of the federal system of the government which not only impact the life of the people living in those particular areas but also impact the image of the country while affecting its economy. Some of the pros of federalism are following. One of the most important positive aspects of federalism is that it allows diversity among the population of the country. The people are free and have the constitutional rights to depicts themselves with the help of different policies, laws, and institutions. They are not bound to follow the specific policy or law, which does not relate to their ideology or practices. Another important positive aspects of federalism are that it allows room the experimentation of new programs or policies, which can be reverted if they do not seem appropriate for the society. Another pro of the federal system of government is that it provides the opportunities of closer contact between the government and the citizens. It allows self-government as well as pave the way for democracy. One of the most important pros of the federalism is that it resolves the regional issues on the priority basis, while not letting them emerge as the national issues. Moreover, it provides opportunities for healthy competition at the regional level and provides the experience and training of leadership to future leaders. The most remarkable feature of federalism is that it does not allow the accumulation of political powers, at a single unit of government (Robertson, 2017).

Apart from all the above-described pros of federalism, there are some cons of this particular system of government as well, which are following. One of the most important drawbacks of federalism is that it causes great confusion and inconvenience to the general public, in terms of doing interstate and intrastate business. The laws regarding doing business, as well as a free movement are different according to the state level and people have to take care of them while interacting with the affairs of other states. Another con of federalism is that is comprised of a number of unit of government, which increases the cost for the country as well as affect their efficiency. Moreover, coping with certain problems becomes a bigger issue in society, because of the inability of the local as well as central government to resolve the issue. This situations sometimes lead to harmful or unwelcomed competition among the states, which also becomes the source of weakening the national political parties. Another con of federalism is that it give special support to the local industries (Kincaid, & Cole, 2017).

Observations and Recommended Policy Changes

The promotion of diversity is one of the most important points of the federal system of government, however, it also stops the regional units to develop the laws which would be enacted all over the country. Due to such little issues, federalism sometimes becomes the source of conflict among the regional and central governments. Some policy recommendations can be made to make the federal system of government more effective and progressive for society. One of the most important point in this regard is that decision making should be decentralized in the society, which would allow the regional units to make the decisions and policies according to their circumstances and benefits. It would also allow the multiple units to access the government for the benefit of the local population. Another recommendation is that the state laws should be formulated in the way that they allow the profits and interest of different regional populations. Another policy recommendation in this regard is to allow the regional and state governments to contribute equally to the establishment of new policies and laws in federalism and the laws relayed to business should be formulated to support every state (Ziegler, Waldis, Kübler, Gustin, & Glaser, 2018).

Conclusion

Federalism is a particularly more supportive system of government who allows the promotion of diversity. It allows the room for the regional or the provincial level of governments to make the laws and policies according to the cultural beliefs, ideologies, and preferences of their own population, which is centrally controlled and supported by the central, more powerful government. However, federalism also gives rise to some conflicts and barriers when the people of one state, interact with the other state due to their business, or gambrel movement. There are pros and cons of the federal system of government, however, these can be resolved with the help of the policy recommendations, in order to make the system more efficient, supportive and progressive for the general population.

References

Kincaid, J., & Cole, R. L. (2017). Issues of federalism in response to terrorism. In War on Terrorism (pp. 135-145). Routledge.

Riker, W. H. (2017). Federalism. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, 612-620.

Robertson, D. B. (2017). Federalism and the Making of America. Routledge.

Ziegler, B., Waldis, M., Kübler, D., Gustin, A., & Glaser, A. (2018). The Pros and Cons of Horizontal Federalism. Federalism and Education: Ongoing Challenges and Policy Strategies in Ten Countries, 187.

Term Paper

Term Paper

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Tsar Simeon II

Introduction

Simeon was born to Boris III and Giovanna of Italy on 16 June 1937 in Sofia Bulgaria. He is the only son of Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria and Princess of Italy, Giovana. His elder sister is Princess Marie Louise who born four years earlier. During the Second World War, Simeon joined Axis Power but he was proved less amiable. He was descended to throne in the age of six after the death of his father. His father came back after meeting Hitler and died of heart attack As soon as Tsar was appointed to throne, his uncles Prince Kyril, and Nikola Mikhov were appointed as his regents. As Bulgaria has joined the Axis Power during World War, II but managed to perceive certain diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, in 1944, Stalin declared war and after short time span of three days the Red Army entered realms of the country without facing any kind of resistance. On 9 Sep 1944, Prince Kyril along with his other regents was deposed and arrested by the Soviet Backed coup. The Royal family, queen, son and daughter stayed at Vrana Palace near Sofia taking into account that three more regents were appointed. It was 16 Sept 1944 when Simeon along with his family was doomed to exile from Bulgaria; however, Simeon never signed any abduction paper, not at the age when he was unable to sign and not at any other time in his life. Simeon completed his college education from Victoria College when they stayed with the father of his mother Queen Giovanna at Alexandria where lived in exile. Sameon studied at Lycee Francais in Madrid but he did not graduate. (Aanmoen, et, al. 2018). On turning 18, Simeon read his proclamation to the people of Bulgarian people and represented himself as Tsar of Bulgaria, asserting his will that he is the king of Bulgarians, following the principles of Tarnovo Constitution and he has come with an ambition to free Bulgaria. In 1958, he got himself enrolled at Valley Forge Military Academy and College in the United States. In the college, he was named as, “Cadet Rylski No, 6883” and graduated as a second lieutenant. He went to Spain and studied business administration and law. After that, he became a businessman. He worked as a chairman of Spanish subsidiary for thirteen years which was a French defense and electronics group. He also worked as an advisor in hotel, banking, electronics, and catering sectors. Simeon married a Spanish aristocratic Dona Margarita on January 21, 1962. The couple had five children, four sons, and a daughter. All of Simeon children were then married to Spaniards, taking into account that all his sons had Bulgarians name as well as his daughter got a Bulgarian name. After the death of Simoen’s cousin in Prince Johannes Heinrich, in April 2010, Simeon became the Head of House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Kohary. In accordance with a statement that was published on May, 2015 Bulgarian Patriarchy announced Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to be king of Bulgaria. It is asserted, if Simeon lived till 2024, he will become one of the longest-lived head of state in Bulgarian history at 87 years. (Aanmoen, et, al. 2018).

Simoen as a political leader

In 1990, after the fall of communism, Simeon was issued a Bulgarian passport in 1996. After fifty years of the abolition of the monarchy, Simeon returned to Bulgaria and met his natives merely. As soon as he met ex-Communist Party, all his monarchist sentiments disappeared, leading to a coalition as a leader of NMSP. A number of states that have been nationalized during the communist era were returned to Simeon. In 2001, Simeon took the name, Simeon Borisov Saxe-Conurg-Gotha, asserting that he would return to Bulgaria in order to form a new political party, termed as, National Movement Simeon II. He aimed at bringing reforms and political integrity, taking into account that Simeon promised that within the time span of 800 days, people of Bulgaria would feel tangible and positive effects of the government and they could enjoy high standards of living.

In 2001, NMSP won a large victory in the parliamentarian elections, addressing 120 out of 240 seats defeating two main political parties. On July, 24, Simeon took oath as the Prime Minister of Bulgaria, formulating coalition with a Turkish party named as Movement for Right and Freedom. Technocrats were given main government positions along with Western-educated economic specialist. It was 2002 when untiring efforts of Simeon made Bulgaria join NATO, receiving the Path to peace Award from the foundation, Path to peace. In the elections of 2005, Simeon’s party was ranked second and participated in the grand coalition that was led by Bulgarian Socialist Party and it included the movement for Freedom and Rights. It is significant to note that Simeon was given unofficial ceremonial post of Chairman of the Coalition Council. By 2005, Simeon had completed 4-year terms of his office and it was the first post-communist cabinet that ended its mandate with the support of improved public approval. Although there were many ideological differences with BSP, still Simeon II agreed to part-take the coalition because he realized that it was the only way the reforms could be made. The necessity of joining the European Union, paving way for Simeon to be the chairman of Coalition Council, in 2007, Bulgaria finally joined the European Union, taking into account that the coalition government achieved very little. (Ivanova, et, al. 2006).

The European nation was plagued with a high level of corruption, concqumetly elections in 2009, NMSII secured 3.01% votes. It was the time that Simeon resigned from his party’s leadership. In 2010, he became the Head of the House of Sexe-Coburg and Goth-Kohary. It was the same time when Siemon started to write his autobiography under the title, “Aimein II de Bulgaire, un Destin singulier” that was released on 28 October 2014. In a nutshell, it can be found that Simeon made, foreign policy reforms. It is significant to note that Simoen received a number of awards and achievements as well, the first reward was, "Path to Peace Award" from Path to Peace Foundation. Simeon was honored with "Grand Cross of the Order of Stara Planina and “Collar of the Order of Justice by the Government of Bulgaria”. (Aanmoen, et, al. 2018).

After a long journey of struggles, on May 1, 2015, Simeon II was referred to as a King of Bulgaria in all private and public places that were held in the dioceses of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. In accordance with the election of prime minister of Bulgaria, Simeon II is named as one of the two monarchs who also followed democratic elections as a pathway of becoming the head of government. Fist monarch is Simeon and the other monarch was, late Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia. It would not be wrong to say that Simeon is one of the great leaders who followed a detailed and analytical pathway towards success. It is significant to note that the biography of Simeon reflects him a minor figure in the royal heritage who underwent a lot of struggles to maintain the reputation he hold today. It is affirming that Simeon is a clear example of “hard work pays off", taking into account that he designed a complete story of a tragic life, accompanied by several hurdles and leading to a bright destiny.

References

"Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha." En.wikipedia.org. N. p., 2007.

Aanmoen, O. (2018). Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria publishes a new book. Royal Central. Retrieved 21 April 2019, from http://royalcentral.co.uk/europe/tsar-simeon-of-bulgaria-publishes-new-book-109069

Europe’s Royals Gather for Bulgarian Tsar’s 80th. (2017). Balkan Insight. Retrieved from https://balkaninsight.com/2017/06/16/europe-s-royals-gather-for-bulgarian-tsar-s-80th-06-15-2017/

Ivanova, R. (2006). The king’s new clothes royalty–from fairy tale to reality. ETHNOLOGIA BULGARIA. Yearbook of Bulgarian Ethnology and Folklore, 3(1), 5-11.

Simeon Saxecoburggotski | prime minister and former king of Bulgaria. (2019). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Simeon-Saxecoburggotski

Terrorism And Public Safety

Terrorism and Public Safety

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Terrorism and Public Safety

Homegrown: the Counter-Terror Dilemma

This documentary film by HBO discusses the experiences of a former intelligence officer Paul Mudd, who tells about his endeavors in the field when he used to investigate the cases of terrorists and convicted dangerous people. Mudd recalls his encounters with various terrorists especially Ehsanul “Shifa” Sadequee, who was accused of supporting terrorism online. The implication of various rules and regulations have been discussed as per the policies of the United States of America. The one hour 30 minutes documentary discuses about the various changes that the constitution of America went through after the incident of 9/11and how the immigration rules were made strict for everyone especially for the followers of a specific religion. The film specifically includes examples to emphasis the changes in a more appropriate way. These examples have also been presented as a proof that United States is always ready for any kind of challenge and has strong mechanism against terrorism.

Hoffman, Chapter 1. Questions

The concept of Terror or Terrorism has evolved visibly over the period of time. In the ancient times, terrorism used to include groups and not individuals but now the activities of terrorism are also carried on by single individuals.

The state imposed terrorism included the Nazis and the Soviet Union both. It was implemented in 1930 and 1940. The Nazis and the Soviets tried total political control over the society not allowing the general public to indulge in any kind of decision making for the state.

After World War 2, various groups of people arose who considered themselves as freedom fighters or the saviors of the society. These groups included Austrian resistance movement, Brave Fighters, Hong Kong Resistance Movement, Albanian Resistance movement, Gangjiu Dadul and many more.

The incident of 9/11 redefined terrorism in a new way that it shocked the whole world by the way that the terrorism was attempted. It shocked the whole world as a handful of people tried to take control of the whole state or the country by blackmailing the governments through hijacking of some air planes.

The United Nations and the international Law have taken many positive steps in order to gain control over the evil of terrorism. It has made the immigration laws very strict over the period of time. The United Nations keeps a strict check and balance over the movement of groups all over the world.

Any activity that includes terrorizing or unlawful use of violence or intimidation in order to get the political benefits or get the political aims fulfilled. These activities especially include victimization of innocent civilians.

The media validates terrorism as a popular tactic or an infamous way to get thing done by any group of people especially the governments because it includes the use of pressure. The terrorists can easily blackmail or pressurize a government to listen and even fulfill their demands by threatening of terrorism.

1968 was the year when a new wave of terrorism was spread with the name of Trans national terrorism, in this kind of terrorism, the terrorists were over whelmed by the love of their country and fought for their country. The acts of terrorism were majorly conducted to get the political aims of their countries fulfilled.

The hijacking of the flight, moving from Athens to Rome, named as TWA Flight 847, was hijacked by Shiite Hezbollah terrorists. This hijacking unfolded many aspects of the relationship of terrorism with media, as the terrorists used media as an important source of communication between them and the government.

The media coverage of terrorism distorts the image and sometimes the “big picture” becomes unclear.

The media should be blamed for encouraging and even causing the terrorism.

Terrorism And Public Safety Paper

Terrorism and Public Safety Paper

Name

Affiliation

Date

Introduction

One of the major terrorist organizations in the world is the Taliban Movement, which is a politico-military-religious regime and a fighting force in Afghanistan. It is considered a threat to the government, Afghan military forces, civilians, and neighboring countries. After the invasion of the Soviet Union on Afghan soil in 1979 and the subsequent defeat of Russian troops led to the formation of this terrorist organization in Afghanistan. This Pashtun organization was joined by thousands of followers from Afghanistan. These people were trained in Afghanistan and were brainwashed by its leadership. This research paper is aimed at exploring this terrorist organization, its leadership, funding, and impact on the world.

Research Statement

To explore one of the worst terrorist organization that is the Afghan Taliban by studying its activities, purpose, attacks, funding, counterterrorism efforts and impact on the World.

Background

Since the attacks of September 11 in New York, United States, the Taliban regime was attacked militarily by the United States and in 2002 it was overthrown. Afghanistan returned with an interim government governed by ethnic and political groups. In 2004, members of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban regrouped in Afghanistan and attacked forces of the new Afghan government and troops of the international coalition that occupies the territory of that country. Currently, the Taliban control the area of ​​Southeast Afghanistan and are in constant conflict with the government and US forces. This terrorist organization has around 60,000 soldiers (Scherer, 2013).

Literature Review

Reason for terrorism by Taliban

Taliban are the individuals with a supremely radical and violent vision. It is worth clarifying that, unlike other Islamic movements and organizations with an Arab, Persian or Kurdish majority, the Taliban are mostly Pashtuns. This is important since it explains why violence in Afghanistan is not only subordinated to religion, but also because of ethnic conflicts between Pashtuns, Arabs, Uzbeks, and Tajiks, among others. The institutional order of Afghanistan, as in many regions of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, is characterized by an important presence of tribes and communities that, apart from advocating for greater economic and political autonomy, claim their ethnic origin (Raqib & Barreto, 2013).

It is believed that the Taliban emerged in 1994, as a result of two movements that constituted the mujahideen: The Hizb-e-Islami and the Harakat-i-Inquilab-i-Islami. These two groups represent the ideological and fundamentalist formation of the Taliban, since their doctrine was based on a return to what they considered an original vision of Islam, in which Islamic law is strictly applied through punishments such as mutilation and stoning, the restriction of liberties for women, and the imposition of rigid codes of conduct and dress for men. Obviously, this type of laws and regulations, as pointed out by the British historian Karen Armstrong, are a kind of rejection of the advent of modernity and the intention of the secular establishment to eradicate religion. For this reason, the expansion of the Taliban was accompanied by a wave of repression and violence against certain economic and social progress achieved by previous regimes; for example, the incursion of women into work and education, and the spread of Western culture through television and radio (Scherer, 2013).

During the collapse of the PDPA government (1992), the rise of the Taliban in 1994 began, Afghanistan experienced a state of anarchy that was taken advantage of by different movements and organizations belonging to the mujahideen, who resoundingly established political enclaves throughout the country. From this fragmentation of the country, young radical Afghans educated in different madrassas began to shape and expand a military and political organization whose success could be explained by two factors: the rapid occupation of the gaps of power in the Afghan territory and the application of a strict code of justice that largely represented discontent with the corruption of the traditional political class.

The combination of these two factors led to the conquest of Kandahar in favor of the Taliban in 1994, making it the first political and military achievement of this movement. The geopolitical causes that explain why Kandahar was the starting point for the expansion of this group are based on the fact that this province, in the south of the country, borders with Pakistan and is considered the heart of the Pashtun ethnic group (Cole, 2009).

Due to the international support and some legitimacy towards the Taliban in certain rural areas of the country, this movement achieved a dizzying control of the same in a course of five years. For some researchers, the Taliban's political and military reach was the result of a convergence between the military expertise of leaders such as Mullah Mohammed Omar and the ideological support. The takings of cities like Kabul or Herat, where both the impact of Western culture and the presence of Shiite Muslims clashed with the beliefs of the Taliban, were, in short, evidence that this young movement controlled the country. This terrorist organization basically wants to take control of Afghanistan and implement its own generated rules. For this reason, they are fighting everyone who opposes them.

After taking control of almost the entire Afghan territory in 1996, the country began a new stage under the control of the Taliban, which, despite the limited political and economic projection, gradually achieved acceptance in the international context, explained in large part for the interest of different countries in reaching economic agreements that allowed to accede with greater ease to commercial routes or to have participation in the exploitation of the source of Afghan wealth: iron, copper, natural gas, oil, lithium, gold, coal, potassium, aluminum, uranium or precious stones; which contrasts with abundant poverty, corruption and violence (DI RATTALMA, 2003).

The leadership of the Taliban in Afghanistan

After the death of Osama Bin Ladan and Mulla Umar, the current leader of the Taliban (Mawlawi Haibatulah Akhunzada) was selected in 2016. Almost fifteen years ago, the Taliban leadership council considered him a powerful spiritual and religious scholar and they respect him. He is a son of a local imam, Haibatulah was born more than 50 years ago in a town near Kandahar, in the south of the country. He fought against the Russians in his campaign to extend the Soviet Union to Afghanistan in the 1980s and migrated to adjoining Pakistan. He started what he considered a "holy war" against the Soviets and communist Afghans.

He joined the Taliban movement in the mid-1990s to fight with them to implement their rigorist version throughout Afghanistan. Upon conquering Kandahar, Haibatulah began to work as a judge in the courts who established there and went up the ranks. During the Taliban regime, he became deputy head of Justice, according to the Afghan news agency Pajhwok. After the invasion of the United States in 2001, he was promoted to head of the Taliban Justice. He was Mullah Omar's personal assistant after the fall of the Taliban regime and the group reorganized. When the founder died, Haibatulah became the head of the political and judicial committee of the Taliban. He has more experience in the judicial than in the war.

Global Terrorism Database (GTD) for Afghan Taliban

The Institute for Economics and Peace, a study center that is based in Sydney, Australia, releases its "Global Terrorism Index", a report on global terrorism. The report is based on the "Global Terrorism Database" (GTD), a database created by the University of Maryland, and is useful for understanding the state of terrorism in recent years and what is the general trend. In order to elaborate the "Global Terrorism Index", the Institute of Economy and Peace uses four different values, each with different importance: the total number of terrorist acts in each year; in a number of deaths; the wounded; and the damages caused (Maret, 2018).

According to its latest report, the five countries with the most victims were Iraq, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Syria. Afghanistan was badly affected by terrorist attacks in the last 15 years. According to the executive director of the institute, the reduction of deaths is a positive fact, although, on the other hand, he warned that its spread in Afghanistan by Taliban can generate serious concerns and underlines the fluid nature of modern terrorism. According to this index, the Taliban is considered one of the major violent groups in the World, specifically in Afghanistan and indicated the need to take measures for controlling its violent activities (COLE, 2009).

Funding to the Taliban in Afghanistan

The Taliban are heavily funded by different organizations. The private security companies working in Afghanistan hired by the US contribute to filling the coffers of the Taliban, according to a report by the US Senate. The document, made by the Senate Armed Services Committee, states that the Department of Defense is too dependent on Afghan "warlord services," which, in most cases, divert funds for criminal activities. There is significant evidence that some security contractors even worked against US coalition forces, creating the same threat that they had to fight and for which they were hired (GlobalPost, 2009).

According to the senator, these contractors threaten the safety of US troops and the success of the mission. Some 26,000 private security employees, mostly Afghans, operate in the country, of which nine out of 10 work for the US Government. Richard Fontaine, a member of the Center for a New American Security, said that taxpayers' money sometimes ends up in the hands of those they are fighting in Afghanistan. The private security firms in Afghanistan provide guards for different agencies, from embassies and humanitarian aid agencies to convoys of supplies and US military bases. The document denounces a worrisome panorama, since some of the hired ones have little formation or experience in armament, whereas other contractors are 'lords of the war' with well-known ties with Taliban (Marks, 2012).

In addition, the Senate reveals that despite the request of Afghan President Hamid Karzai, in which he urged these contractors to leave the country in four months, the security industry makes it difficult for the Afghan army to take command of the country and recruit to better soldiers. So it makes the goal of creating a safer Afghanistan more difficult, which is why senators have demanded "aggressive and immediate" actions to reduce the number of contractors and that supervisory work can improve. However, US officials have indicated that it would be very difficult to get rid of all security contractors because of the essential role they play (Campos & Pereira, 2018).

Relationship with Media of Taliban

The Afghan Taliban get the attention of media and delivers their message through it. They have a deep relation with the representatives of local media. The videos messages are often recorded by them and sent to the local media, the media broadcast it with the permission of the government. The media is threatened in case if their message is not broadcasted. This is how the Taliban delivers its message to the world (DI RATTALMA, 2003).

Top attacks carried out by Taliban

In addition to 9/11, the Taliban have carried out many attacks in Afghanistan and Pakistan. One of the major terrorist attacks was carried out by them on an Army School in Pakistan. In total, six Taliban disguised as soldiers stormed the school, located in the suburbs of the city of Peshawar. Nearly 500 students between the ages of 10 and 20 were present at the school, including children belonging to several senior officials, according to a Taliban spokesman. According to witnesses, the attackers went from class to class to shoot the children, and at least one of them blew up the bomb he was carrying. They went so far as to hunt down the children hidden beneath the benches to kill them, according to one survivor. The army quickly intervened and exchanges of fire continued until mid-afternoon on December 16, 2014. The casualties were heavy: 141 people, including 132 children, 124 people, including 121 children, were also injured (Qureshi, Gulraiz & Shahzad, 2016).

The assault was quickly claimed by the Taliban. It took place because the Pakistan army has for several months been carrying out a massive offensive against this rebel movement in its strongholds in the northwestern tribal areas, near Peshawar and bordering Afghanistan. Taliban told that they targeted this school because the army attacked their families. Several international organizations and heads of state around the world also condemned this terrorist attack, the deadliest in Pakistan. In the evening, the army reaffirmed its determination to continue its ongoing operations against the Taliban until their total elimination (Campos & Pereira, 2018).

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Another recent attack occurred on the base of the main Afghan security agency on 28th February 2019. It left at least a hundred dead, all of the members of the armed forces, although it is not ruled out that there are more fatalities and could have killed building personnel, according to local sources. The attack occurred at the headquarters of the National Directorate Security (NDS), which had recently been built in the central province of Maidan Wardak. According to the information, the death toll rose to almost one hundred people. The attackers built a stolen military SUV full of explosives against the NDS training center. After that, at least two shooters fired at the premises for three hours before being shot. According to the spokesman of the governor of the region, Muhibullah Sharifzai, four terrorists died in that attack, one in the explosion and the other three, dejected. As a result, 126 people died in the explosion.

Role of US in Afghanistan for fighting Taliban

The efforts are still being undertaken against this organization by different countries of the World. The United States has allied with a proven record of loyalty in the struggles in the country along with its troops, including Pakistan, Qatar, Saudia Arab and particularly the United Arab Emirates, which have played a calm but effective role in the fight against jihadism in Afghanistan. Saudi Arabia has also shown a willingness to fight against an ideology that supports terrorism in foreign territory and help others to do the same. The Saudi and Pakistani leadership considers these terrorists as their mortal enemies.

In this sense, Saudia Arab has announced the creation of a "Muslim coalition against terrorism" to fight against them, as well as the implementation of tools that serve to limit the reach of extremists and to fight against their ideas. Saudi Arabia also helps its Pakistani ally on a similar mission in Afghanistan. The "Muslim coalition" is already well positioned to do so, as a Pakistani general, Raheel Sharif, was appointed in 2017 as the leader to command it. Pakistan has carried out a successful operation against the Taliban and have completely wiped out their presence in the country.

Additionally, Morocco, although it is as far from Afghanistan as one can be in the Muslim world, has been a bridge between the several Gulf States, and can play a fundamental support role. Four decades after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, the nature of the war has changed in such a way that geographical proximity is not the only determining factor to assume a relevant role in this conflict

The role of the US against the Taliban is of vital significance. Washington talks about progress in negotiations that include the radicals' commitment to remove terrorist groups from the country. The USA and the Taliban have recently approached a peace agreement in Afghanistan. The six days of talks between Taliban and representatives of the United States in Qatar have led the parties to be close to reaching an agreement on the framework for a peace pact aimed at ending the war of 18 years in Afghanistan. The key and most delicate element of dialogue topics including a commitment from the Taliban is to prevent Afghanistan from being used by terrorist groups, the withdrawal of troops overseas a ceasefire and direct talks of the Taliban with the Afghan government. There is still no agreement on the ceasefire or withdrawal of troops (Baczko, 2016).

According to Zalmay Khalilzad, the US special representative for Afghan reconciliation who led the negotiations, there is still no agreement on the ceasefire or withdrawal of troops. In an interview with the New York Times, Khalilzad announced that a compromise principle had been reached for the framework of a peace pact, including a commitment to keep Al Qaeda and the Islamic State out of Afghanistan. The president of the United States, Donald Trump, seems in a hurry to withdraw his troops: announced late last year his intention to withdraw half of the 14,000 soldiers deployed in Afghanistan in a coalition led by NATO. The United States leads the longest war in Afghanistan since its intervention in 2001 to overthrow the Taliban regime. But it is the Afghans, civilians and the military, who pay the highest price for the conflict. Approximately, 45,000 Afghan security forces have been killed since the election in September 2014, with an average of more than 28 deaths per day (Phillips & Kamen, 2014).

Conclusion

To recapitulate, Taliban violence in Afghanistan has evolved and is a serious threat to political stability, the maintenance of social cohesion or the integrity of multinational military contingents that carry out missions in the country. Their insurgency activities in the form of terrorism are very common every day and it has spread throughout much of Afghanistan. This is how things have been since, after the attacks of September 11, Operation Enduring Freedom, launched by the United States and the United Kingdom, to which some countries formally joined and in fact collaborated with each other, put an end to the use of military means to the totalitarian theocracy that those radical individuals had managed to establish by the mid-nineties and whose leaders were in open connivance with Al Qaeda. Although, the action has been taken against them by the US and other countries and the peace agreement is also a consideration, its increasing influence needs to be controlled as early as possible. This requires the collaboration of all the involved countries in this conflict.

References

Baczko, A. (2016). Legal Rule and Tribal Politics: The US Army and the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001–13). Development And Change, 47(6), 1412-1433. doi: 10.1111/dech.12276

Campos, R., & Pereira, P. (2018). Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan: considerations 3 years after the school attack in Peshawar. Malala, 6(9), 45-51. doi: 10.11606/issn.2446-5240.malala.2018.148424

COLE, J. (2009). Pakistan and Afghanistan: Beyond the Taliban. Political Science Quarterly, 124(2), 221-249. doi: 10.1002/j.1538-165x.2009.tb00647.x

DI RATTALMA, M. (2003). WAR IN AFGHANISTAN, SELF-DEFENCE AND QUESTIONS OF ATTRIBUTION OF THE SEPTEMBER 11 ATTACKS TO THE AFGHAN-TALIBAN REGIME. The Italian Yearbook Of International Law Online, 13(1), 59-75. doi: 10.1163/221161303x00047

GlobalPost. (2009). Who is funding the Afghan Taliban? You don’t want to know. Retrieved from http://blogs.reuters.com/global/2009/08/13/who-is-funding-the-afghan-taliban-you-dont-want-to-know/

Maret, S. (2018). Global Terrorism Database. The Charleston Advisor, 19(3), 14-19. doi: 10.5260/chara.19.3.14

Marks, T. (2012). Taliban and Anti-Taliban. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 23(3), 569-570. doi: 10.1080/09592318.2012.661620

Phillips, M., & Kamen, E. (2014). Entering the Black Hole: The Taliban, Terrorism, and Organised Crime. Journal Of Terrorism Research, 5(3). doi: 10.15664/jtr.945

Qureshi, R., Gulraiz, A., & Shahzad, Z. (2016). An Analysis of Media’s Role: Case Study of Army Public School (APS) Peshawar Attack. Social Communication, 2(2), 20-30. doi: 10.1515/sc-2016-0009

Raqib, M., & Barreto, A. (2013). The Taliban, religious revival and innovation in Afghan nationalism. National Identities, 16(1), 15-30. doi: 10.1080/14608944.2013.843517

Scherer, L. (2013). The Taliban. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, Gale Cengage Learning.

Terrorism And Public Safety Questions

Terrorism and public safety questions

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Terrorism is, in the broadest sense, the use of doggedly indiscriminate inhumanity as a way to make dread among masses of people; or fear to realize a religious or political point. It is operated in such manner fundamentally to allude to ferocity amid peacetime or in war against non-combatants. The meaning of terrorism addresses a lacuna in present universal enactment and universal traditions, so as to build up a major apparatus for universal collaboration against fear based oppression. So as to accomplish as wide an understanding as conceivable, this definition must be established on an arrangement of standards and laws of war, enacted and approved in numerous nations.

Difference between terrorism and 'guerilla warfare'

The distinction between guerrilla war and fear based oppression is genuinely direct in principle, yet increasingly hard to perceive by and by. Guerrilla war resembles other war—it includes military work force battling against other military staff. The main distinction is that one side (the guerrillas) does not have outfits and the individuals from a battling unit assemble quickly to battle a brisk fight—as a rule a trap or the like. They at that point disband, before their militarily prevalent foe can overpower them, and tuck away among the inhabitant populace until the following fight. Guerrilla war is plainly a strategy of shortcoming—to be polished by gatherings that can't battle supported fights against their enemy.

Guerrillas, guerillas, terrorists all practice similar strategies and utilize a significant number of the same weapons. They depend on shooting, on shelling, on kidnappings, on blockade and prisoner circumstances. So every one of them exploits similar strategies and a large number of them utilize similar weapons. They are additionally comparative in that terrorists, guerrillas, extremists commonly don't wear any uniform or recognized symbol. At the end of the day, they mix in with the neighborhood populace. They're exceptionally hard to recognize from honest regular people. At the end of the day, they look to disguise themselves inside a populace and in this manner, or in this manner, rise up out of the shadows to abruptly and drastically strike at their adversaries.

Terrorism and national liberation

National liberation developments are the developments which look for, frequently by the utilization of power, to expel outside occupiers from the region on which their national gathering is settled, Some equipped national liberation developments slaughter regular folks of the possessing power who are not compromising to utilize drive against their national gatherings or who don't live on the involved domain and have no connection to the control of their region. An ethical quality of victimhood, inspected in this paper, legitimizes this type of terrorism as a type of self-protection. Despite the fact that the regular citizens murdered are not undermining the involved national gathering, executing them is the main implies that the national liberation development has available to its in its endeavors to free its national gathering. The lives of guiltless regular citizens are here just instruments towards national liberation.

States' involvement in terrorism

Based on this meaning of terrorism and guerrilla fighting, in what manner should we characterize the inclusion of states in the performing psychological militant assaults? Note that brutal exercises carried out by a state against regular folks are taboo by international traditions and are unmistakably characterized as 'atrocities' (with regards to a war circumstance) and as 'wrongdoings against mankind' (in different circumstances).

States can be engaged with terrorism in different ways: from different dimensions of general support for psychological militant associations, through operational help, starting or coordinating assaults, and up to the execution of fear based oppressor assaults by authority state organizations.

References

Ganor, B. 2002. “Defining Terrorism: Is One Man's Terrorist another Man's Freedom Fighter?” Policy Practice and Research. 3(4): 287-304. Accessed online from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4ed4/0fc712305329498d21744ca5ef6322e41f55.pdf

Lafree, Gary and Laura Dugan (2007). “Introducing the Global Terrorism Database.” Terrorism and Political Violence. 19: 181 – 204. Accessed online from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/523a/87607f06f7ed56a0506bdb4671f76244264a.pdf

Richard, P. (2012). Part III Counter-terrorism In Practice, 20 Torture, Interrogation, Counter-Terrorism, and the Rule of Law. Counter-Terrorism. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608928.003.0040

Terrorism In Southeast Asia

Terrorism in Southeast Asia

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Terrorism in Southeast Asia

Introduction

The concept of terrorism is not new for the society and it has been a part of the world since ages. It was after the French revolution that the world became aware of the term terrorism. Although it is the weapon and tactic of the weak against the stronger, it is being used as the source of controlling the stronger unit of the society. Terrorists are the production of the radical ideological change of mostly religious or political units of society, which desire mass causalities in the world and are supported by the traditional and global networks. Large scale terrorist activities have wounded the people in different parts of the world after the incident of 9/11, which was one of the biggest terrorists attack. Terrorists try to intimidate the behavior of other segments of society by showing their supremacy and high morality. They attack the innocent people of the society, in order to intimidate the rest of the public. Different parts of the world have been the target of terrorist activities at different times of history. However, in the past three to four decades, terrorism has moved to Southeast Asia, where the terrorists are not only attacking the public but also recruiting the young innocent people in their groups by preaching the false hopes. Indonesia, Philippines, India, and Pakistan may have been specifically the target of terrorist in the Southeast Asian region; however, the people of the whole world have been affected by it.

Terrorism & Common Crime

Terrorism is different from common crime, as it is more destructive and long-lasting. it does not only cause physical trauma and loss to a greater section of the society, however, but it also contributes to the psychological trauma as well. Most of the terrorist organizations of the world are financed by the sympathetic groups of the society, which may be the government, private sector, or the non-governmental organizations. In addition to it, the terrorist groups also fund terrorist activities by taking part in other criminal activities. Most of the terrorist organizations of the world are developed on the name of freedom and they recruit the innocent people by making them believe that they are freedom fighters and they are doing something good or their future generations. However, freedom fighters are those who fight against the political or social affairs of their own regime, while the terrorists mostly fight against the forces of the western world. They mostly operate from the Muslim countries of the world and attack the non-Muslim countries because of their belief of being on the right path and getting rid of the evil forces. The roots of terrorism are widespread in the society, however, it was only after the 1960's that the terrorist activities became more deadly, destructive, as well as prevalent across the world. Some of the world incidents triggered the terrorist waves which include the instability and fear of countries after the Second World War, increasing conflict between the powerful countries of the world and modern technology and transportation. Some of the terrorist organizations founded in that era are still active in some parts of the world. The terrorist activities in modern times have decreased to a great extent because of the modern efficient means of counterterrorism (Abuza, 2015).

One of the most important questions in the context of terrorism is that if the terrorists have a specific personality. Numbers of studies on the personality of the terrorists have been conducted by the psychologists; however, no specific terrorist personality has been identified yet. Psychologists are of the view that it is quite important to look at the radical ideology and beliefs of the terrorist groups, in order o explore the motivation of the general groups or individuals of the society behind joining such groups. Moreover, they have identified that the terrorist groups comprise of three types of members. The first one is the charismatic leader, who is narcissistic, socially alienated, arrogant, as well as intelligent. The second is the antisocial groups of the society, who join the terrorist groups in order to use force, due to their personal grudges and goals. The third one is the follower group, who join the terrorist groups in order to fulfill their needs of dependence and acceptance (Smith, 2015).

Evidence-Based Terrorism Research

Evidence-Based terrorism research has highlighted the fact that the United States of America has specifically been the target of the terrorist activities of the world. The terrorist activities started with the massive attack of 9/11, which took the lives of thousands of people not only in the United States but across the world. It also caused great psychological trauma to the general public, who were fearful of going out of their homes. The evidence-based research has explored almost four hundred terrorist biographies, which belong to different countries of the world, including United States, Germany, France, Egypt, Morocco, Indonesia, and Canada. Moreover, the press accounts of the terrorists have been found in German,French, English, Spanish, Dutch, Turkish, and Arabic languages. They have a number of academic publications as well as corroborated internet connections and accounts (Acharya, 2015).

Global Salafi Jihad

Salafi jihadist is one of the most radical and violent terrorist groups of the world, which is actually an Islamist social movement, which believes that it is fighting for fairness and justice in the world. Their motive and goal are to develop a better world which would be based on the lifestyle and teachings of the Prophet of Islam. The jihadist group expanded in four phases. The very first was capturing the control of the states in a peaceful manner while making them their brother in Islam. In the next phase, they attack the near enemies, in order to practice their forgotten duty of fighting against the evil. The third phase is that of the global expansion while taking forward the defensive jihad movement and the fourth phase is the attack and global offense against their far enemies, which included the bin Laden and Zawahiri group. Their main motive is to expel the western world from the Middle Eastern countries of the world. The jihadist group does not hesitate from using violent methods and forces against the non-Muslim groups and government, in order to fulfill their motive of establishing an Islamic state (Banlaoi, 2017).

Evolution of al Qaeda

Al Qaeda is the militant groups of the society which was founded by Osama bin Laden, and other violent Arab groups, in order to take action against the invasion of the Soviet forces on Afghanistan. The radical ideology of al Qaeda was similar to that of the Salafi jihadist. Al Qaeda selected or recruited its members by following three processes. In the era of 1988-89, the individual from different parts of the world gathered to fight against the Soviet Union and could not return to their homeland. After being trapped in war, so they formed al Qaeda, along with Osama bin Laden. After that, from 1991-92, the militant groups went to Sudan, after being expelled from Pakistan and carried on their planning and activities. After that, in the ear of 1996-2001, which is also considered as the golden era of the militant group, it switched its strategy from targeting the near to attacking the far enemy. They got the control of the terrorist funding, the training camps, shelter and planning for the staff. They were aware of the fact that Afghanistan is not capable of controlling al Qaeda, therefore, attempted to control the Global Salafi Jihad, while focusing on the far enemies. A study of the individuals who joined such groups revealed the fact that they were actually the protected youth, belonging to the functional units of the society. They did not have a criminal background or any mental illness, which would have played an important role in associating them with violent groups. However, they joined the terrorist groups in order to promote the Islamic jihadism and way of life (Chan, Hui, Lam, & Mui, 2018).

European Social Conditions

The troubling conditions of the European world played an important role in laying the foundations of terrorism in different parts of the world. The internal and external conflicts of the European countries made them fight at the political front with each other while supporting and opposing the neighboring countries. The social economic conditions of the counties also played an important role in making the people hostile as they did not have any means to support and protect their families. The conflicting scenarios gave rise to world wars and the western world faced mass killings, wars, and destruction. The situation also gave rise to alienated Muslim in the western world who ultimately joined the radical groups, in order to fulfill their needs of dependence, attachment, and acceptance. After the Second World War, there was rapid immigration of the Muslims from the Muslims countries to the western world. They became the target of the economic crisis; due to the rigid social structure of the European world. They were not included in the western culture or the social system and led the alienated life, which became an important source of flourishing their radical ideologies and taking revenge from the western world, by implementing their own system in the western countries (Millard, 2015).

Terrorism in the Southeast Asian region

Terrorism is an undeniable and recurrent threat across the globe, which became even more threatening and intimidating after the incident of the September 11 attacks of the United States of America. The attacks also highlighted the emerging uncertainties and security threats across the world. Jakarta, Madrid, and Bali were among the most sensitive areas of the world after the 9/11 attack, due to the presence of the militant groups. Apart from the Muslim majority areas of the world, Australia was also one of the most sensitive countries which had to deal with the potential threats of terrorism. The lack of state stability of the Southeast Asian countries played an important role in making them the center of the terrorist threat and attacks. The Southeast Asian countries had to face a number of internal and external challenges which include the transnational, as well as diverse internal issues. The challenges did not only made the countries vulnerable to threats but also caused greater concern to their neighboring states. One of the most important reasons for the jihadists moving to the central, as well as Southeast Asia was the collapse of the Soviet Union (Abuza, 2003).

The central Asian countries of the world, which included Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan, implemented self-government, after the fall of the Soviet Union. The Russian Federation which emerged after the fall of the Soviet Union was not in the position of taking control of the central Asian countries. The new governments established in the central Asian countries were unable to meet the expectations and needs of the general public as they established the authoritarian rule, which further caused unrest in the society and paved the way for radical religious groups. After 1991, three militant groups emerged with greater strength in Central Asia, which was The Hezb -ul- Tahir, The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the Ethnic Uighurs of western China, which actually belonged to central Asian and southeast Asian countries. The three terrorist groups carried out their violent activities in central Asia, Palestine, Uzbekistan, and China as well. After that, the jihadist groups moved to India, where they centered their attention to Jammu and Kashmir, which is a disputed region among Pakistan and India. The internal conflicts and problems of India and Pakistan also paved the way for the violent groups in the territory. India had to face the circumstances of growing violence and terrorism and the internal conflict of the Sikh freedom fighting movement (SarDesai, 2018).

After being active in central Asia for quite a long period, the jihadist movement moved to Southeast Asia. During the 1990s, the jihadist groups of the world centered their attention on Indonesia and formed the militant groups there. One of the most famous and influential militant group was Lashkar Jihad. The Lashkar Jihad was specifically founded to fight against the Christians, in the eastern parts of the world. The second influential militant group was Jamaat Islamiyya, which was founded to fulfill its purpose of implementing the strict Islamic laws in Indonesia.

After Indonesia, the terrorist and militant groups moved to the Philippines. Ideological and religious rebellious forces present in the society caused a greater threat to its peace and stability. The important militant groups in the Philippines included The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), which had the goal of establishing the independent Islamic state. The second group was Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and its goal was to create the Islamic society which strictly followed the Islamic laws. The third group was Abu Sayyaf, and its motive was to gain more monetary benefits and was least interested in the religious affair. Although the group claimed to be associated with the jihadist movement, it was actually linked to the criminal activities in the society. Another group was the New People's Army, which wanted to make the Philippines a communist state. The internal conflicts of the Philippines played an important role in attracting terrorism towards Philippines (Vaughn, Chanlett-Avery, Cronin, Manyin, & Niksch, 2005).

Terrorism has been a part of the world since ages; however, it became more prominent, violent and destructive after the Second World War. The Muslims in the western part of the world were alienated and had to face economic and social challenges. They developed the radical ideology and thought that only the Islamic ideology could save the world. They stayed the jihadist movements which fought against the Islamic enemies and alter started fighting against the Muslim countries of the world which were accepting the western culture and system of governance. The Southeast Asian countries like Indonesia, the Philippines, as well as Pakistan and India, became the target of the terrorist and faced violence, destruction killings, and psychological trauma.

References

Acharya, A. (2015). Whither Southeast Asia Terrorism?

Abuza, Z. (2003). Funding terrorism in Southeast Asia: the financial network of Al Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 25(2), 169-199.

Abuza, Z. (2015). Joining the new caravan: ISIS and the regeneration of terrorism in Southeast Asia. US Army War College Strategic Studies Institute. June, 25.

Banlaoi, R. C. (2017, February). Counter-terrorism measures and de-radicalization efforts in Southeast Asia: a view from the Philippines. Talking to the Enemy (pp. 91-104). Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG.

Chan, Y. Y., Hui, C. H., Lam, L. Y., & Mui, W. K. (2018). Terrorism in Southeast Asia in the post-ISIS-era: causes and solutions of terrorism. Capstone Project.

Millard, M. (2015). Jihad in Paradise: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia. Routledge.

SarDesai, D. R. (2018). Southeast Asia: past and present. Routledge.

Smith, P. J. (2015). Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability. Routledge.

Vaughn, B., Chanlett-Avery, E., Cronin, R., Manyin, M., & Niksch, L. (2005, February). Terrorism in Southeast Asia. Library of Congress Washington Dc Congressional Research Service.

Texas

Thanh Vu Thien Nguyen

Enter the name of Instructor

Political Science

October 7, 2019.

Texas

The local states have not been talked about in the American constitution. The tenth amendment, however, reserves power with the states and not with the local governments. It comes with no surprise that considering the diverse nature of affairs among states and local governments, there exists dynamism between the nature of relations between states and local governments. The constitution of United States being a sole document remains supreme over the fifty different kinds of political entities which are the domestic governments ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"66i83Rll","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power})","plainCitation":"(Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":650,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S4RUAWL8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S4RUAWL8"],"itemData":{"id":650,"type":"webpage","title":"Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power","abstract":"Background The Constitution of the United States does not mention local governments. Instead, the Tenth Amendment reserves authority-giving powers to the states. It is not surprising, then, that there is a great diversity in state-local relations between, as well as within, states. This means that to speak of local government in the United States is to speak of more than fifty different legal and political situations. The state municipal leagues can provide information about the charters that each state constitution has adopted. Types of Authority Given Political power in a state can be divided into three spheres: the local government, the state government and the functions that the two governments share. Within the local sphere, there are four categories in which the state allows discretionary authority: Structural -- power to choose the form of government, charter and enact charter revisions Functional -- power to exercise local self-government in a broad or limited manner Fiscal -- authority to determine revenue sources, set tax rates, borrow funds and other related financial activities Personnel -- authority to set employment rules, remuneration rates, employment conditions and collective bargaining Typically, the broadest discretionary powers are applicable to local government structure, and the narrowest are given to finance. Also, local governments endowed with discretionary authority may not always exercise it; for example, the adoption or amendment of a local government's municipal charter is infrequent. Narrow Government Authority: Dillon's Rule Dillon's Rule is derived from the two court decisions issued by Judge John F. Dillon of Iowa in 1868. It affirms the previously held, narrow interpretation of a local government's authority, in which a substate government may engage in an activity only if it is specifically sanctioned by the state government. Dillon's Rule was challenged by Judge Thomas Cooley of the Michigan Supreme Court in 1871, with the ruling that municipalities possess some inherent rights of local self-government. Cooley's Rule was followed for a short time by courts in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky and Texas until the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Dillon's Rule in 1907 (Hunter v. City of Pittsburgh) and again in 1923. Since then, the following tenets have become a cornerstone of American municipal law and have been applied to municipal powers in most states: A municipal corporation can exercise only the powers explicitly granted to them Those necessarily or fairly implied in or incident to the powers expressly granted Those essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation, not simply convenient, but indispensable State constitutions vary in the level of power they grant to local governments. However, Dillon's Rule states that if there is a reasonable doubt whether a power has been conferred to a local government, then the power has not been conferred. Broad Government Authority: Home Rule The ability of local governments to respond effectively to local conditions in the late 1800s was severely limited by Dillon's Rule; no local action could be undertaken without permission from the state legislature, which only met for short, biennial sessions. As such, Dillon's Rule generally requires that local officials spend a considerable amount of time lobbying the state legislature to approve bills granting local authority and disapprove bills imposing restrictions on them. The inflexibility of this system is the reason that many states began to adopt \"home rule\" provisions in the early 1900s that conferred greater authority to their local governments. Home rule is a delegation of power from the state to its sub-units of governments (including counties, municipalities, towns or townships or villages). That power is limited to specific fields, and subject to constant judicial interpretation, but home rule creates local autonomy and limits the degree of state interference in local affairs. The powers and limits of home rule authority for local governments are defined state-by-state. State provisions for home rule can be defined by each state's constitution and/or statutes enacted by its legislature. Not all cities make use of the discretionary powers of home rule that are provided by their charter. Functional powers are the most frequently used and expanded. Sources ABC-CLIO, The Urban Politics Dictionary, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1990. Florida League of Cities, Inc. \"Understanding Florida's Home Rule Powers for Cities and Counties.\" Accessed March 22, 2011.http://www.flcities.com/membership/home_rule_history.asp Krane, Dale, Platon Rigos, & Melvin B. Hill, Jr. Home Rule in America: A Fifty-State Handbook. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2001. Richardson, Jesse J. Is Home Rule the Answer? Clarifying the Influence of Dillon's Rule on Growth Management. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, January 2003. Russell, Hon. John D., Bostrom, Aaron, “Federalism, Dillion Rule and Home Rule,” The American City County Exchange, January 2016. United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. \"Measuring Local Discretionary Authority. M-131.\" Washington, DC: U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1981. United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. \"State Laws Governing Local Government Structure and Administration. M-186.\" Washington, DC: U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1993. Writ, Clay L. \"Dillon's Rule.\" Virginia Town & City. 24(8) (1989): 12-15.","URL":"https://www.nlc.org/resource/cities-101-delegation-of-power","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power). In May of 2017, Texas government allowed the two ride-hailing companies Uber and Lyft to resume their operations, while citing this as “freedom for every Texan”. Prior to this, the two companies argued against the local laws, which they believe impact negatively on their business models. Those laws required a permit from the Texas Department of Licensing which was projected to be around $5,000 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vsY673he","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power})","plainCitation":"(Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":650,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S4RUAWL8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S4RUAWL8"],"itemData":{"id":650,"type":"webpage","title":"Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power","abstract":"Background The Constitution of the United States does not mention local governments. Instead, the Tenth Amendment reserves authority-giving powers to the states. It is not surprising, then, that there is a great diversity in state-local relations between, as well as within, states. This means that to speak of local government in the United States is to speak of more than fifty different legal and political situations. The state municipal leagues can provide information about the charters that each state constitution has adopted. Types of Authority Given Political power in a state can be divided into three spheres: the local government, the state government and the functions that the two governments share. Within the local sphere, there are four categories in which the state allows discretionary authority: Structural -- power to choose the form of government, charter and enact charter revisions Functional -- power to exercise local self-government in a broad or limited manner Fiscal -- authority to determine revenue sources, set tax rates, borrow funds and other related financial activities Personnel -- authority to set employment rules, remuneration rates, employment conditions and collective bargaining Typically, the broadest discretionary powers are applicable to local government structure, and the narrowest are given to finance. Also, local governments endowed with discretionary authority may not always exercise it; for example, the adoption or amendment of a local government's municipal charter is infrequent. Narrow Government Authority: Dillon's Rule Dillon's Rule is derived from the two court decisions issued by Judge John F. Dillon of Iowa in 1868. It affirms the previously held, narrow interpretation of a local government's authority, in which a substate government may engage in an activity only if it is specifically sanctioned by the state government. Dillon's Rule was challenged by Judge Thomas Cooley of the Michigan Supreme Court in 1871, with the ruling that municipalities possess some inherent rights of local self-government. Cooley's Rule was followed for a short time by courts in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky and Texas until the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Dillon's Rule in 1907 (Hunter v. City of Pittsburgh) and again in 1923. Since then, the following tenets have become a cornerstone of American municipal law and have been applied to municipal powers in most states: A municipal corporation can exercise only the powers explicitly granted to them Those necessarily or fairly implied in or incident to the powers expressly granted Those essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation, not simply convenient, but indispensable State constitutions vary in the level of power they grant to local governments. However, Dillon's Rule states that if there is a reasonable doubt whether a power has been conferred to a local government, then the power has not been conferred. Broad Government Authority: Home Rule The ability of local governments to respond effectively to local conditions in the late 1800s was severely limited by Dillon's Rule; no local action could be undertaken without permission from the state legislature, which only met for short, biennial sessions. As such, Dillon's Rule generally requires that local officials spend a considerable amount of time lobbying the state legislature to approve bills granting local authority and disapprove bills imposing restrictions on them. The inflexibility of this system is the reason that many states began to adopt \"home rule\" provisions in the early 1900s that conferred greater authority to their local governments. Home rule is a delegation of power from the state to its sub-units of governments (including counties, municipalities, towns or townships or villages). That power is limited to specific fields, and subject to constant judicial interpretation, but home rule creates local autonomy and limits the degree of state interference in local affairs. The powers and limits of home rule authority for local governments are defined state-by-state. State provisions for home rule can be defined by each state's constitution and/or statutes enacted by its legislature. Not all cities make use of the discretionary powers of home rule that are provided by their charter. Functional powers are the most frequently used and expanded. Sources ABC-CLIO, The Urban Politics Dictionary, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1990. Florida League of Cities, Inc. \"Understanding Florida's Home Rule Powers for Cities and Counties.\" Accessed March 22, 2011.http://www.flcities.com/membership/home_rule_history.asp Krane, Dale, Platon Rigos, & Melvin B. Hill, Jr. Home Rule in America: A Fifty-State Handbook. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2001. Richardson, Jesse J. Is Home Rule the Answer? Clarifying the Influence of Dillon's Rule on Growth Management. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, January 2003. Russell, Hon. John D., Bostrom, Aaron, “Federalism, Dillion Rule and Home Rule,” The American City County Exchange, January 2016. United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. \"Measuring Local Discretionary Authority. M-131.\" Washington, DC: U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1981. United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. \"State Laws Governing Local Government Structure and Administration. M-186.\" Washington, DC: U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1993. Writ, Clay L. \"Dillon's Rule.\" Virginia Town & City. 24(8) (1989): 12-15.","URL":"https://www.nlc.org/resource/cities-101-delegation-of-power","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power). The departments also required from the companies to maintain a check overdrives by timely providing the state authorities with their criminal backgrounds.

Prior to the decision made by a competent court, the local government recommended such laws, which were in sharp contrast to the business models of the ride-hailing companies. The domestic government recommended such change in laws pertaining to their domestic conditions, which they believed required such adjustments. Prior to Texas, the local government in Houston made such amendments in their laws, which forced Lyft to stop their operations. In Texas, both Lyft and Uber immediately suspended their operations with the enactment of such laws. A ballot over this issue helped judge the public opinion which largely opposed such changes in the local laws ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"F8lXvqqV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tribune and Samuels, \\uc0\\u8220{}Uber, Lyft Return to Austin as Texas Gov. Abbott Signs Ride-Hailing Measure into Law\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(Tribune and Samuels, “Uber, Lyft Return to Austin as Texas Gov. Abbott Signs Ride-Hailing Measure into Law”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":651,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/89SYIXCG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/89SYIXCG"],"itemData":{"id":651,"type":"webpage","title":"Uber, Lyft return to Austin as Texas Gov. Abbott signs ride-hailing measure into law","container-title":"The Texas Tribune","abstract":"Gov. Greg Abbott signed into law a measure to regulate ride-hailing companies, establishing a statewide framework to regulate businesses such as Uber and Lyft.","URL":"https://www.texastribune.org/2017/05/29/texas-gov-greg-abbott-signs-measure-creating-statewide-regulations-rid/","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Tribune","given":"The Texas"},{"family":"Samuels","given":"Alex"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",5,29]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tribune and Samuels, “Uber, Lyft Return to Austin as Texas Gov. Abbott Signs Ride-Hailing Measure into Law”). However, House Bill 100 undoes the law which was brought in place by the local governments. It shows the power of state legislature to undo the laws made by local government. Since the state authorities make laws depending upon the requirement at place of each citizen, which the local government avoids in majority legislators, therefore, the state level of government should have a final say about regulations on ride-sharing companies.

In law and politics, home rule is defined as the right of the citizens of a place to govern themselves.  Home Rule has been the basic principle underlying all colonial revolutions. The Home rule is based on the perception that people who identify as part of the same group want to make their own rules and resent the interference of others. In the United States, Home rule refers to the authority of a constituent part within the territory of the US ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sYDjHWuC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power})","plainCitation":"(Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":650,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S4RUAWL8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/S4RUAWL8"],"itemData":{"id":650,"type":"webpage","title":"Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power","abstract":"Background The Constitution of the United States does not mention local governments. Instead, the Tenth Amendment reserves authority-giving powers to the states. It is not surprising, then, that there is a great diversity in state-local relations between, as well as within, states. This means that to speak of local government in the United States is to speak of more than fifty different legal and political situations. The state municipal leagues can provide information about the charters that each state constitution has adopted. Types of Authority Given Political power in a state can be divided into three spheres: the local government, the state government and the functions that the two governments share. Within the local sphere, there are four categories in which the state allows discretionary authority: Structural -- power to choose the form of government, charter and enact charter revisions Functional -- power to exercise local self-government in a broad or limited manner Fiscal -- authority to determine revenue sources, set tax rates, borrow funds and other related financial activities Personnel -- authority to set employment rules, remuneration rates, employment conditions and collective bargaining Typically, the broadest discretionary powers are applicable to local government structure, and the narrowest are given to finance. Also, local governments endowed with discretionary authority may not always exercise it; for example, the adoption or amendment of a local government's municipal charter is infrequent. Narrow Government Authority: Dillon's Rule Dillon's Rule is derived from the two court decisions issued by Judge John F. Dillon of Iowa in 1868. It affirms the previously held, narrow interpretation of a local government's authority, in which a substate government may engage in an activity only if it is specifically sanctioned by the state government. Dillon's Rule was challenged by Judge Thomas Cooley of the Michigan Supreme Court in 1871, with the ruling that municipalities possess some inherent rights of local self-government. Cooley's Rule was followed for a short time by courts in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky and Texas until the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Dillon's Rule in 1907 (Hunter v. City of Pittsburgh) and again in 1923. Since then, the following tenets have become a cornerstone of American municipal law and have been applied to municipal powers in most states: A municipal corporation can exercise only the powers explicitly granted to them Those necessarily or fairly implied in or incident to the powers expressly granted Those essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation, not simply convenient, but indispensable State constitutions vary in the level of power they grant to local governments. However, Dillon's Rule states that if there is a reasonable doubt whether a power has been conferred to a local government, then the power has not been conferred. Broad Government Authority: Home Rule The ability of local governments to respond effectively to local conditions in the late 1800s was severely limited by Dillon's Rule; no local action could be undertaken without permission from the state legislature, which only met for short, biennial sessions. As such, Dillon's Rule generally requires that local officials spend a considerable amount of time lobbying the state legislature to approve bills granting local authority and disapprove bills imposing restrictions on them. The inflexibility of this system is the reason that many states began to adopt \"home rule\" provisions in the early 1900s that conferred greater authority to their local governments. Home rule is a delegation of power from the state to its sub-units of governments (including counties, municipalities, towns or townships or villages). That power is limited to specific fields, and subject to constant judicial interpretation, but home rule creates local autonomy and limits the degree of state interference in local affairs. The powers and limits of home rule authority for local governments are defined state-by-state. State provisions for home rule can be defined by each state's constitution and/or statutes enacted by its legislature. Not all cities make use of the discretionary powers of home rule that are provided by their charter. Functional powers are the most frequently used and expanded. Sources ABC-CLIO, The Urban Politics Dictionary, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1990. Florida League of Cities, Inc. \"Understanding Florida's Home Rule Powers for Cities and Counties.\" Accessed March 22, 2011.http://www.flcities.com/membership/home_rule_history.asp Krane, Dale, Platon Rigos, & Melvin B. Hill, Jr. Home Rule in America: A Fifty-State Handbook. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2001. Richardson, Jesse J. Is Home Rule the Answer? Clarifying the Influence of Dillon's Rule on Growth Management. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, January 2003. Russell, Hon. John D., Bostrom, Aaron, “Federalism, Dillion Rule and Home Rule,” The American City County Exchange, January 2016. United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. \"Measuring Local Discretionary Authority. M-131.\" Washington, DC: U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1981. United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. \"State Laws Governing Local Government Structure and Administration. M-186.\" Washington, DC: U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1993. Writ, Clay L. \"Dillon's Rule.\" Virginia Town & City. 24(8) (1989): 12-15.","URL":"https://www.nlc.org/resource/cities-101-delegation-of-power","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power). The Home rule delegates the power to the local governments which then exercise these powers as according to the US constitution. It gives the authority of passing laws to the domestic government, as they see themselves. Owing to this authority, the Texas government passed the laws which banned forced the Uber and Lyft to stop their services. The Home rule is not exercised in each state of the US, rather, the powers of some domestic governments are limited to just passing of the statues.

Contrary to this, the general laws cities are the powers of governments, delegated by the general law of the state. These general law cities are different from the charter cities or the home rule cities. The powers vested in them are limited in scope ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aOXsBKn2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tribune and Samuels, \\uc0\\u8220{}Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(Tribune and Samuels, “Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":648,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/V7HYLIBQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/V7HYLIBQ"],"itemData":{"id":648,"type":"webpage","title":"Can the Texas Legislature override local ordinances?","container-title":"The Texas Tribune","abstract":"It can and it has. Last year, Texas lawmakers voted to override several local ordinances with new statewide measures — including relaxing regulations for ride-hailing services like Uber and Lyft.","URL":"https://www.texastribune.org/2018/12/28/texas-legislature-local-control-uber-lyft/","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Tribune","given":"The Texas"},{"family":"Samuels","given":"Alex"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",12,28]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tribune and Samuels, “Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?”). Some of the US cities which are run under the general laws conform to the domestic statues offered by the US constitution. For example, it would be right to believe that if any general law state was to draft such provisions as like Texas (in case of ride-hailing companies), they would not be allowed to do that. The general law cities put the US constitution as the primary guide when it comes to making the new laws. The general law cities enjoy much less autonomy compared to the charter states. For example, for laws pertaining to the social issues, these states will not go contrary to what the US law or constitution has to offer. Such states may apply for the change in their status, depending upon the size of their population which must exceed the total of five thousand residents.

Bearing these aspects in mind, it is arguably right that Home Rule offer more autonomy and rights to states. In each passing day, the domestic conditions in any state change. The crime rate and such alike social aspects do not remain the same throughout the US ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eSmZs1dp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tribune and Samuels, \\uc0\\u8220{}Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(Tribune and Samuels, “Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":648,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/V7HYLIBQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/V7HYLIBQ"],"itemData":{"id":648,"type":"webpage","title":"Can the Texas Legislature override local ordinances?","container-title":"The Texas Tribune","abstract":"It can and it has. Last year, Texas lawmakers voted to override several local ordinances with new statewide measures — including relaxing regulations for ride-hailing services like Uber and Lyft.","URL":"https://www.texastribune.org/2018/12/28/texas-legislature-local-control-uber-lyft/","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Tribune","given":"The Texas"},{"family":"Samuels","given":"Alex"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",12,28]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tribune and Samuels, “Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?”). Therefore, the Home rule offers the opportunity to states for making laws considering their domestic compulsions. This is the sole reason that states adopt the options to be governed by the Home Rule. Opposite to this, the states which remain under the control of a national charter, or the US constitution cannot enjoy autonomy. Their domestic conditions remain flexible; however, the US constitution offers a rigid approach in each scenario. It remains of pressing concern for the domestic governments to create laws which don’t get clash with the constitution of chartered offered to states by the federal government. Thus, owing to the adjustable nature of the domestic compulsions, states want autonomy to build a safe environment for its citizens. It also benefits the states in terms of financial stability. Once the state is allowed a partial autonomy, it can readjust to the changing conditions it faces.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cities 101 -- Delegation of Power. https://www.nlc.org/resource/cities-101-delegation-of-power. Accessed 7 Oct. 2019.

Tribune, The Texas, and Alex Samuels. “Can the Texas Legislature Override Local Ordinances?” The Texas Tribune, 28 Dec. 2018, https://www.texastribune.org/2018/12/28/texas-legislature-local-control-uber-lyft/.

---. “Uber, Lyft Return to Austin as Texas Gov. Abbott Signs Ride-Hailing Measure into Law.” The Texas Tribune, 29 May 2017, https://www.texastribune.org/2017/05/29/texas-gov-greg-abbott-signs-measure-creating-statewide-regulations-rid/.

Texas V. Johnson

Sohaib Hayat

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Texas V. Johnson

The case Texas v. Johnson resulted in a decision by the U.S. Supreme Court that burning of Flag of United States is protected by the First Amendment of U.S. Constitution. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eVTwtPHx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Texas v. Johnson\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Texas v. Johnson”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":538,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/6D4TFLIL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/6D4TFLIL"],"itemData":{"id":538,"type":"webpage","abstract":"A case in which the Court held that burning the American Flag is protected free speech under the First Amendment.","container-title":"Oyez","language":"en","title":"Texas v. Johnson","URL":"https://www.oyez.org/cases/1988/88-155","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Texas v. Johnson”).

Facts

In August 1984, the Republican National Convention was organized in Dallas to elect President Ronald Reagan as competitor for 1984’s presidential election. There was also a group present there to protest against policies introduced by Reagan Administration and other local corporations. Gregory Lee Johnson was one of the participants of the protesting group. Near the end of the protest, he soaked an American flag, which he got from another protestor, in kerosene oil. In front of Dallas City Hall, he ignited it. As the flag burnt, protestors started shouting slogans including “America, the red, white, and blue, we spit on you”.

This conduct did not injure anyone physically, but witnessing the incident created a wave of outrage among many. The society viewed it as dishonoring the flag. Johnson was then arrested for vandalizing a respected object according to Texas’ State Law, under section 42.09(a)(3). Next, he was ruled guilty, fined $20,000 and sentenced to imprisonment for a year ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TuZwmCak","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Facts and Case Summary - Texas v. Johnson\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Facts and Case Summary - Texas v. Johnson”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":536,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/LASB3NHP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/LASB3NHP"],"itemData":{"id":536,"type":"webpage","abstract":"Facts","container-title":"United States Courts","language":"en","title":"Facts and Case Summary - Texas v. Johnson","URL":"https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-texas-v-johnson","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Facts and Case Summary - Texas v. Johnson”). Two years later, the Court of Appeals for the Fifth District of Texas approved the conviction. Though, Johnson claimed that his act was practice of free speech and is safeguarded by the First Amendment. His case was accepted by the Supreme Court for review. In March 1989, the oral arguments were heard. Reversal orders were demanded by the Supreme Court as the lower courts failed to address if the ruling of conviction of Johnson was constitutional or not. Thus, the certiorari was granted by the Supreme Court of U.S.

Constitutional Question

This case is known to be a breakthrough Supreme Court case, which was decided by the Rehnquist Court in 1989. The case revolved around a question for the Court that whether the vandalism of an American flag can be considered as a form of speech and if it was protected by the right to free speech as stated in First Amendment. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QPPOzEcN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Texas v. Johnson\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Texas v. Johnson”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":542,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/DQIECVEY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/DQIECVEY"],"itemData":{"id":542,"type":"post-weblog","abstract":"Texas v. Johnson was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in the year 1988 by the Rehnquist Court. The case attempted to resolve the question of whether the desecration of an American flag was a form of speech that was…","container-title":"Crime Museum","language":"en-US","title":"Texas v. Johnson","URL":"https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/criminal-law/texas-v-johnson/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Texas v. Johnson”). According to First Amendment of US Constitution, every citizen has rights related to religion, representation and demonstration, assembly and petition. The Amendment prohibits the Congress from limiting rights to practice religion or promote a religion over another. It allows the citizens to speak freely, while forbidding Congress from taking control of press. In addition to this, the Amendment protects the rights of an individual to gather peacefully and appeal to the Government.

Discussion

The case remained controversial among many for a long time. The State agreed that the conduct was expressive. The argument of Johnson seems more convincing then the base of case built against him. The protest was of political nature and against the policies of Reagan. The purpose of demonstration was to express his views and not to dishonor the flag. His act of burning the flag represented his views, allowing him to resort to the First Amendment. As the incident took place at the end of a demonstration and on same time as the Republican National Convention, it shows that explicit action’s political nature is deliberate and insignificantly obvious. The restraint on political expression of Johnson is based on the views as the Texas statute does not protect physical integrity of the flag. However, it does protect flag from being abused intentionally which can cause grave offense to society. But this arises the question whether the Government has authority to forbid the oral or nonverbal expressions just because other people disagree or are offended by the ideas.

Court Ruling

U.S. Supreme Court believed that in this situation burning of American Flag was legally permissible as it can be defended by the First Amendment of the Constitution. The majority, i.e. 5 out of 9 judges, stated that actions of Johnson were categorized as conduct of expression and were of peculiar political nature. The Court stated that if a society disagrees or is offended by an action which expresses views of an individual, this cannot justify the ban over the freedom of speech. The Court explicitly held that it is not legally justified for an official to define symbols as specific representation of ideas. It is noted that the solid foundation of First Amendment is the right to express freely and, in this regard, the government cannot suppress the expression only because the society does not agree to it.

Reasoning

The greater number of the Judges agreed to Johnson’s claim that his act of setting flag on fire is protected by the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. They were of the opinion that this act should be viewed as Symbolic speech and not as disrespect to the flag. They all agreed that the society might be offended by the freedom of speech of on individual or a party based on their own beliefs and customs. However, merely because the society finds an act offensive, it cannot justify the repression of free speech.

Majority of court was of the opinion that any government cannot show prejudice merely based on a point of view. They noted that the State Law of Texas exhibited discrimination based on perception as law punishes one for burning a flag as part of demonstration but does not prosecute one for burning or burying a torn flag.

Conclusion

In consistence with the First Amendment of U.S. Constitution, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeal reversed the sentence. Johnson was not punished for setting the flag on fire under the given conditions. As burning of flag did not cause a serious harm, the conviction of Johnson does not align with the goal of State to prevent breach of peace ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TWWkJLUC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Brennan)","plainCitation":"(Brennan)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":546,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/CZZWPICB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/CZZWPICB"],"itemData":{"id":546,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"In190 Supreme Court Reporter","page":"2538","title":"Texas v. Johnson","author":[{"family":"Brennan","given":"Justice"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Brennan).

It is concluded that the freedom of speech and right to express personal views are of significant importance, and under any given condition no government can suppress the rights of people to express themselves.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Brennan, Justice. “Texas v. Johnson.” In190 Supreme Court Reporter, 1989, p. 2538.

“Facts and Case Summary - Texas v. Johnson.” United States Courts, https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-texas-v-johnson. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.

“Texas v. Johnson.” Oyez, https://www.oyez.org/cases/1988/88-155. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.

“Texas v. Johnson”---. Crime Museum, https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/criminal-law/texas-v-johnson/. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.

The Ethics Of Equal Opportunity

The Ethics of Equal Opportunity

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Ethics of Equal Opportunity

Response to the Question of Ethical Concern

The effective response to this particular ethical concern is only possible by critically examining all the different features of this scenario. It is revealed that Sadiq wants to influence the authority of the CIA for the sake of his family benefits. It is illustrated that Syed Arif Sadiq is a senior advisor to Pakistani President and agrees to give his services for the CIA. He is willing for this because he wants an admission of his son, Jamaat at a top university in the United States. He has the option to achieve this particular aim by accepting the offer by the CIA officer to become part of the CIA services. On the other hand, the institute of CIA is willing to give this option to Sadiq as they have the authority to fabricate academic credentials of Jamaat and make his position strong to get admission in the top university of U.S.

Critically examining different aspects of this particular scenario reveals that it is not morally correct for the CIA to fabricate academic record for the Jammat and to pay for his education in the country to gain benefit in the form of agreement with Sadiq to work for the CIA. It can never be permitted in any form to favor any incompetent student and limits the opportunities of learning for the deserving student. There are many other options that can be used by the CIA to attain specific objectives instead of adopting the option of fabrication of academic record. This approach is unethical as it is clear violates all the other students who have the capability to take admission in the top universities of the country because they deserve this opportunity. The representatives of the CIA should follow the ethical code of conduct to maintain their professionalism and serve the nation in an ethical manner.

Bibliography

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Olson, J. M. Fair Play: The Moral Dilemmas of Spying. Potomac Books, 2011. https://books.google.com/books?id=tnEx9dn5hp8C.

The Ethics Of Intelligence Gathering Or The Dilemma Of Intelligence Sharing

The Ethics of Intelligence Gathering or the Dilemma of Intelligence Sharing

[Farrion McCollough]

[Name of the Institution]

The Ethics of Intelligence Gathering or the Dilemma of Intelligence Sharing

Be it is a security or ethical policy, the modern world has its dynamics of ethics and morality in every aspect of life. Every nation-state in the modern international system faces a kind of security dilemma which is a realist perspective in international relations. In this vein, it is the common practice of the security agencies in every nation-state to employ all means when it comes to gathering information about rogue states. Every country has one special intelligence-gathering agency which is entrusted with the task of collecting information that enhances the survival of state in this competitive world. The central intelligence agency in the USA is entrusted with this very task and here this agency follows the principle of Nicolo Machiavelli who stated in the 17th century that “ End justifies the means, and it is stated which is the ultimate end". So there is widespread use of forgery and forged documents by the CIA to gather intelligence on foreign states such as North Korea in this case.

However, if the CIA performs this venture of sending a spy with forge documents from a friendly Anglophone country, it is unethical when that friendly country is not involved. As Jack Bosley mentions that it is good to involve that friendly country in this venture and strive for cooperation. This is the better approach rather than leaving that friendly country uninvolved in the whole process of intelligence gathering. Furthermore, it is not good to send the CIA operation without informing the friendly state as they might consider it offensive to their national interests, and this would harm the future contours between the two states in modern world.

Moreover, friendly states need to be taken on board when it is about such sensitive issues such as sending people undercover with forged documents. This is the approach of the then US president Woodrow Wilson who used to consider every stakeholder seriously in the process. The consensus is really important in world politics and it is even more important when it is about intelligence gathering on sensitive matters. This is the approach of liberalism that joint ventures yield more results.

Thus, it is utmost essential that all significant participants are taken on board while gathering information on foreign lands with forged documents. The modern world has changed and so is the concept of national interests. A more pragmatic and well-comprehensive security relationship is needed among friendly states as Lord Palmerstone said, “ In international relations, there are no permanent friends or permanent enemies, only permanent interests.”

End Notes

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Kellar, Alex. “4 Prerequisites of Intelligence Cooperation.” Twilight of the British Empire: British Intelligence and Counter-Subversion in the Middle East, 1948-63, 2018, 88.

2. Lundy, Larry, Alexa O’Brien, Christine Solis, Aaron Sowers, and Jeffrey Turner. “The Ethics of Applied Intelligence in Modern Conflict.” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 32, no. 3 (2019): 587–599.

The Ethics Of National Security Policy And Intelligence.

The Ethics of National Security Policy and Intelligence.

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Ethics of National Security Policy and Intelligence.

The twenty-first-century world has its own dynamics. Every nation-state in the modern international system maintains its security by synchronizing different needs of society. In this context, it is important to develop a perfect relationship among intelligence agencies, political and public spheres. This is important for the security of the state. It is necessary that public and political institutions are taken on board to maintain democracy and safety in society.

This mutual understanding among intelligence agencies, political and public spheres is much necessary for a sense that it integrates the society and makes it unified in its purpose. Mutual understanding is necessary for successful military adventures. The global war on terrorism is an example where everyone in America and even beyond this continent extended their support. People supported the CIA and FBI in their security designs which cemented national security. Whereas, when there was no connection between intelligence agencies and public such as the as Vietnam war then it resulted in a huge negative sentiment among the public.

Furthermore, the proper ethical policy for national security is utmost necessary in order to maintain the democratic credentials of the country. It has to seek a perfect harmony among security agencies, public and political spheres. This was entirely wrong in 2005 when erstwhile US president authorized eavesdropping and tapping of calls in the name of national security. This misuse of intelligence agencies does not go along with democratic societies as that of America where people are much progressive.

Thus, it is necessary that all significant stakeholders are taken on board while maintaining national security both internally and externally. The modern world has changed and so is the case with security threats. A more pragmatic and well-comprehensive security relationship among public and law enforcement agencies is the need of the hour which should be ethical in character as well.

End Notes

Ladd, J. M. 2007. "Predispositions And Public Support For The President During The War On Terrorism". Public Opinion Quarterly 71 (4): 511-538. Oxford University Press (OUP). doi:10.1093/poq/nfm033.

"American Public Opinion And The War In Vietnam - William L. Lunch, Peter W. Sperlich, 1979". 2019. Western Political Quarterly. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/106591297903200104?journalCode=prqa.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265221667_Controlling_and_Overseeing_Intelligence_Services_in_Democratic_States

The Ethics Of Torture

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Ethical Justification of Torture

Students Name

Instructor

Course Name

Date

The UN Convention Against Torture 1984, defines torture as the act of inflicting severe pain and suffering to a person with the intent of obtaining information, serving punishment, coercion or discrimination of any form, to either the subject or a third party member, under the consent of a public official or a person acting under official capacity. Given that inflicting pain on a person is an erosion of fundamental human rights, debate to discredit or support the necessity for torture has a significant place in society, weighing the options between obtaining necessary information and undermining ones civil liberties. During the era of terrorist attacks in the United States and Europe, military state officials are often accused of employing excessive force during interrogation, sparking outrage among activists against the mistreatment of prisoners.

The ethical justification of torture raises two arguments in support and opposition of the practice, where the consequentialist argument states that protecting the rights of one person does not outweigh the protection of thousands of innocent civilians, given that the prisoners may have the information to save the lives. However, the information given is sometimes wrong, and it overall undermines the war against terrorism as well as serve as a basis for recruitment into terrorism. With the deontological argument, supporters argue that the governments have the moral obligation to protect their citizens from terror attacks, thus justifying torture to obtain useful information. At the same time, in many instances, torture does not successfully retrieve information and only ends up harming unarmed people, thus undermining the non-combatant immunity rule where an unarmed person should be protected.

Therefore, the important question is where to draw the line when to apply pain to do good, in order to justify torture as ethical. Given the fundamentality of protecting human life, evidence of severe torture in sites such as Guantanamo Bay by CIA officials and Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq prompts the need to rethink how applicable torture is in the war against terrorism.

Bibliography

BELLAMY, ALEX J. 2006. No Pain, No Gain Torture and Ethics in the War on Terror. International Affairs 82 (1) 12148. doi10.1111/j.1468-2346.2006.

Einolf, Christopher. 2016. The Ethics and Politics of Torture. Public Administration Review 76 (2) 35457. doi10.1111/puar.12516.

Alex Bellamy, No Pain, No Gain Torture and Ethics in the War on Terror (International Affairs 82 (1)), 127.

Christopher Einolf, The Ethics, and Politics of Torture (Public Administration Review 76 (2), 355.

Einolf, 355

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The Ethics Of War And Manipulation

The Ethics of War and Manipulation

[ Farrion McCollough]

[Name of the Institution]

The Ethics of War and Manipulation

The world has witnessed several wars that have been waged for different purposes. War is armed conduct where two armies represent the clash of interests- legal or political. Though there have been many important wars in the history such as Thirty years war, world war one, world war two, however, only some of the wars can be justified as legal wars. This just and unjust war is the concept in the International Law which states that war can be justified only when it is done for some legitimate reasons. This concept of Just wars was first developed by the Roman Empire who considered that not all wars are unjustified and immoral in nature.

Nevertheless, there are several grounds on which wars are justified. According to United Nations Charter, a war is just when it is fought for the right of self-defense which is mentioned in Article 51 of chapter VII. Previously several grounds were justified to conduct a war that brought more chaos and disorder in the world rather than peace. To rectify the situation, the United Nations narrowed the prospects of war in the wake of two brutal world wars.

Furthermore, the law of armed conflict is the development of this modern world to further promote peace, human dignity, and morality in the conduct of war. Several principles have been laid out in the Geneva conventions. Some of those principles are the doctrine of necessity, the doctrine of proportionality, the law of distinction and honor. These are the guidelines to use in wars for the rights of combatants, prisoners, and for civilians as they shouldn’t be treated mercilessly.

Politics is an essential ingredient in the conduct of as the actual practice of the leaders explains it. The examples of just wars in the world are limited. Nevertheless, one latest example of the justified war in the world is the War on Terror that was launched by the US after attacks on its twin towers. It was a direct attack on territory of the country and United States was forced to launch a counter-attack on Afghanistan as pers the sanctions of the United Security Council.

Bibliograpgy

Hardin, Russell. 2007. "Ethics And Politics: Cases And Comments, Edited By Amy Gutmann And Dennis Thompson. Chicago, IL: Nelson Hall Publishers, 1984, 241 Pp. Price: $29.95 Cloth, $13.95 Paper". Journal Of Policy Analysis And Management 5 (2): 408-411. Wiley. doi:10.1002/pam.4050050221.

"Chapter VII: Article 51 — Charter Of The United Nations — Repertory Of Practice Of United Nations Organs — Codification Division Publications". 2019. Legal.Un.Org. Accessed June 26, 2019. http://legal.un.org/repertory/art51.shtml.

The Fall Of Venezuela

Student

Course

Instructor

Date

The fall of Venezuela 2100

Venezuela was the one of the largest known oil reserves in the world with a democratic government, Venezuelan entrepreneurs recognized that oil resources in Venezuela possessed great potential when oil was discovered for the first time off the coast of Venezuela near the mid-1900s. Businessmen and politicians alike saw incredible economic opportunity for the South American country. Interestingly, Venezuelan citizens preferred government control of the oil industry. They recognized the potential wealth that oil could produce, but they felt that private control of the resources would enrich few while the average Venezuelan labored intensively for years in order to find economic security. They felt that the government could take the profits produced from oil and invest directly into the country’s infrastructure and agriculture. Venezuelan intellectuals and politicians warned of economic catastrophe if the government did not control oil.

Until 1943, private oil businesses still operated with little government intervention, other than political rhetoric from those that wanted the government to control more of the oil industry. In 1943, the Venezuelan government passed a law that stated that Venezuela would earn the same amount of money as the oil companies’ net profits through royalties in addition to imposing taxes on oil production and income. Oil companies incorporated in the United States agreed to the deal. Because the United States and other allied nations relied on Venezuelan oil during World War II, bureaucrats and statesmen in Washington, D.C. told American oil executives that they would get no help from their own government if they chose to oppose Venezuelan officials. The law’s nickname is “the fifty-fifty deal.” The deal was a historic win for those in favor of heavy government intervention in the oil industry and a precedent setting moment for the expectations of Venezuelan citizens.

Venezuelan citizens and politicians understood that they could negotiate with oil companies to extract more wealth and impose higher taxes if necessary. The President of Venezuela at the time of this law’s enactment was Isaías Medina. World War II had disrupted Venezuela’s imports, so this deal was especially important. Unfortunately for Medina, his term as Venezuelan President ended in 1945 when the military ousted him. The new government appointed Pablo Pérez Alfonzo as the new development minister, and he wielded exceptional power within the new government. Alfonzo virulently opposed the fifty-fifty deal. Initially, his opposition might appear to be an opportunity for oil companies to retain more of their profits, but he opposed the law because he felt oil companies were still retaining too many profits. He favored increasing taxes on oil companies to fix what he saw as an injustice. Oil profits poured into Venezuela during this time period. Venezuelan citizens began demanding that more of the oil money in the government’s hands should be spent on social programs, and the government obliged.

The increase in oil profits became yet another important precedent setting event. Venezuela recognized its position in the world, and its leaders learned that they could influence other oil producing nations. Through this influence, Venezuelan officials could make sure that Venezuela remained an attractive place for oil companies to do business. Venezuelan leaders also learned that the oil business could produce lucrative profits and the citizens could be kept happy with increases in spending on social programs. One thing that Venezuelan leaders did not learn is that they would need to save some of the oil revenues instead of immediately spending all on these social programs. The failure to grasp this concept would prove to be costly to future generations of Venezuelans and late he was ousted by the military.

Then under Pérez Jiménez’s regime, Venezuela saw historic economic prosperity. The post-World War II economic boom being felt all over the world increased demand for oil, and Venezuela became a key supplier. Venezuela gained most of its profits from foreign consumption of Venezuelan oil. Instability across the Middle East spooked European and North American oil companies, and Venezuela saw foreign investment triple from 1950-1957. Pérez Jiménez had grand visions for Venezuela. He invested heavily in a public works program that would improve infrastructure, low-income housing, schools, and hospitals. All of this was meant to impress foreign investors and change perceptions of Venezuela. Eventually, his government’s spending caught up to him. The spending became very inefficient due to corruption within his own administration. To fix the problem of corruption within his administration, he chose to ignore the corruption and cut business subsidies and social spending instead. The end of some business subsidies angered the entrepreneurial class, and the cuts in social spending angered low and middle-income Venezuelans. Eventually, he too was ousted by the military in 1958.

Venezuelans elected Rómulo Betancourt to be president and he called on a former Venezuelan leader to help shape oil policy, Pablo Pérez Alfonzo. He again created an alliance with Middle Eastern oil producing countries, and they formed the world’s first cartel of oil producing nations, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC. Together, OPEC could control foreign companies extracting oil in their countries more closely and OPEC members changed the fifty-fifty agreement to a sixty-forty agreement in favor of the oil producing nations, not the oil corporations. For Venezuela, manufacturing was growing annually at seven percent, and accounted for nearly a quarter of all jobs. Oil and manufacturing provided the most jobs in Venezuela and agriculture offered little. Clearly, Venezuelan leaders did not learn from the lessons of the Pérez Jiménez dictatorship. Increased regulation and oversight sent signals to foreign oil corporations that they would not necessarily be able to rely on Venezuela as a nation that would continue loose oversight of the oil industry as long as the country saw economic prosperity. This time period also signaled to the world that Venezuela possessed strong diplomatic negotiating skills that would allow it to dictate the terms and conditions under which foreign oil companies were able to operate in the Middle East as well as Venezuela.

In 1973, Arab oil producers announced an embargo on crude oil shipped to Western nations because of 8 Western nations’ support for Israel in the conflict. As a result, the price of Venezuelan oil rose 260 percent, and the amount of money the country earned from oil tripled. The president at the time, Carlos Andrés Pérez, asked congress for special powers to better distribute the large influx of cash. For the first time in Venezuela’s history, inflation became a major concern. President Pérez created unnecessary government jobs and increased spending on social services. Despite his efforts, inflation rose quickly to 11.6 percent between 1974 and 1975. His solution to stop the rapid inflation was to implement price controls and dictate an increase in wages and salaries. While inflation was a problem for Venezuelans, they learned a valuable lesson in economics. When inflation rises rapidly, money loses its purchasing power. Venezuelans figured out that their money sitting in bank accounts were actually losing purchasing power as the interest paid on deposits fell far below the rate of inflation. This created an incentive for borrowing and spending heavily. Venezuela found itself woefully unprepared for the 1980s. The global price of oil dropped by more than fifty percent, but Venezuelans continued to consume. Because the Venezuelan President at the time, Luis Herrera Campins, wanted to remain popular, he continued government spending on social programs. The amount of foreign currency coming into Venezuela dropped dramatically.

In an attempt to manage foreign exchange between the Venezuelan Bolivar and the U.S. dollar, Campins unilaterally ordered the devaluation of the bolivar against the U.S. dollar in 1983. He created Recadi to facilitate the exchange of bolivars and dollars and set two exchange rates. One exchange rate at 4.3 bolivars per dollar and the other at 6 bolivars per dollar. There were riots in the streets of Venezuela that left hundreds of Venezuelans dead. In 1989, poverty levels in Venezuela reached ten times their levels in 1981. Most Venezuelans did not understand that the crisis they were enduring was a result of mismanaged oil funds and overspending by the government. Instead, they blamed corruption by government officials and importers. While corruption certainly played a role, the mismanagement of oil riches contributed to the crisis far more than the corruption.

In 1992, a Venezuelan paratrooper led a coup attempt against the government. The coup failed, but the people cheered him anyway. In 1998, Venezuelans elected Hugo Chávez as their president. Venezuelans believed political corruption was the biggest thing holding back their country, and Chávez had the strength to stand up to the political class in the minds of many Venezuelans. Chavistas viewed PDVSA’s reinvestments as a trick to keep money out of the Venezuelan government’s hands and as another example of the company functioning too independently. In 2002, Chávez made his move to take control of the company. He appointed loyal allies, some with no business experience, to the company’s board. Employees protested this action in the streets and demanded that Chávez allow PDVSA to operate independently, and opposition leaders led a coup that briefly unseated him. With the military still on his side, Chávez was reinstated as leader. Opposition inside PDVSA was so powerful that workers declared a two-month strike, knowing that it would cause economic stress.

Unsurprisingly, the country lost billions in oil revenues, and gas stations inside Venezuela ran out of gas to sell. Instead of realizing that PDVSA could bring in more revenue, thus giving his regime more money to finance its socialist projects, Chávez saw the strikes as the perfect time to seize control of the company. Chávez fired over nineteen thousand employees in addition to PDVSA executives. When Chávez died in 2013, his popularity levels were high. Many supported his social programs, which had been largely successful, albeit very costly. Economically, he had inadvertently created a booming black market for currency, price-controlled commodities, and even oil with price controls and currency exchange controls ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"o7GG3Dqj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fuentes)","plainCitation":"(Fuentes)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":563,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/MSRB2ZL8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/MSRB2ZL8"],"itemData":{"id":563,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Green Left Weekly","issue":"1214","page":"16","title":"Venezuela: Despite crisis, Chavez's legacy endures","author":[{"family":"Fuentes","given":"Federico"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fuentes). At the time of his death in 2013, Venezuela’s GDP was $371 billion. The price of a barrel of crude oil was $105.87, and Venezuela produced 2.68 million barrels that year. PDVSA paid nearly ninety percent of its revenues to the Venezuelan government, but it was still far below the amount that the government spent. Spending in 2013 represented more than a fifty percent increase from the previous year. That same year, government debt levels were at more than seventy two percent of GDP ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CodtFpyb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(John)","plainCitation":"(John)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":565,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/5HE26UTH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/5HE26UTH"],"itemData":{"id":565,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Migration and Development","issue":"3","page":"437-447","title":"Venezuelan economic crisis: crossing Latin American and Caribbean borders","volume":"8","author":[{"family":"John","given":"Mauricia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (John).

A significant drop in the price of oil produced by OPEC countries would mean that debt levels would have to spike in order to maintain Venezuela’s desired level of government spending, assuming leaders wanted to keep spending levels constant and assuming that import prices do not rise. It is unrealistic to assume that prices of goods purchased by the government would not increase due to inflation. When the price of crude oil produced by OPEC countries finally fell, Venezuela was not prepared for what would happen next. As a strategy to reverse the adverse scenario, on the domestic and international levels, on May 1, 2017, President Nicolas Maduro convened a National Constituent Assembly (ANC), based on articles 347 and 348 of the 1999 Constitution15. Maduro’s strategy is allegedly to prevent a new coup d’etat, to retake the parliamentary majority of the opposition and, consequently, to control institutional political channels. His speech justified the convening of the ANC to reverse the crisis in Venezuela and improve the living conditions of the population.

In the case of Venezuela, in fact, there was a lack of popular consultation in ANC convocation in 2017. The anticipation of presidential elections calls on the population to decide on the future of the government, even though the latter still has a year of mandate to fulfill. The traditional constitutional theory teaches that, in different conjunctures, in thesis, the same constitutional-democratic rules must be applied. Who defines them? The Constitution. Who respects them? Not all, on both sides of the political spectrum. The dispute, in fact, is beyond the abstract management of constitutional norms that are, in particular, convenient or inconvenient for the situation or the opposition, depending on the historical, social, political and, above all, economic context. For this reason, constitutions are historically created, recreated and revoked, including in the European context. In the case of Venezuela, although there is a democratic deficit in the convocation of the ANC, analyzing the same political process more broadly, Maduro and the PSUV act strategically to stay in office for another term, with the management of constitutional and electoral rules ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rV9Em1U0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Messina)","plainCitation":"(Messina)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":564,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/YSQKB7RN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/YSQKB7RN"],"itemData":{"id":564,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Perceptions","issue":"1","title":"The Effects of Chavez's Populism on Today's Venezuela","volume":"5","author":[{"family":"Messina","given":"Italia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Messina).

In the colonial and post-colonial periods, the history of Latin America is full of coups d’état. In the twentieth century, attention is drawn to the frequent alternation of democratic and authoritarian political regimes, as well as the numerous constitutions promulgated and granted. Even after the last cycle of military dictatorships in the 1980s, and with the cooler global geopolitics ever since democratic stability is something that Latin American oligarchies do not promote or respect. Therefore, it is a very different scenario from the European one, where the concepts, theories, and institutions applied in Latin America today were created. This difference is due to many factors, especially in terms of institutional ruptures, which have served and serve to continue and deepen historical problems, such as poverty and social inequalities, guaranteeing the historical dominance of certain social sectors in the control of public and private institutions. As mentioned, it is neither novelty nor peculiarity of Latin America to claim the rule of law and the use of the Constitution and its norms with political connotations according to the convenience of those who are or are not in the control of the State. The abstract plan of concepts, theories, and institutional models is an ideal that does not always follow reality and vice versa. Hence the relevance of reflecting on the role of Law as a political element and part of politics, with ambiguous functionality of conservation or transformation of the social order, so that one does not take on the usual misunderstandings of taking sides on one side of the dispute by idealizing abstract elements and without comprehensive knowledge of concrete reality. The case of Venezuela demonstrates the need to go beyond the appearance of constitutional disputes for the proper understanding of the essence of political conflicts in the flow of their historical process.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Fuentes, Federico. “Venezuela: Despite Crisis, Chavez’s Legacy Endures.” Green Left Weekly, no. 1214, 2019, p. 16.

John, Mauricia. “Venezuelan Economic Crisis: Crossing Latin American and Caribbean Borders.” Migration and Development, vol. 8, no. 3, 2019, pp. 437–47.

Messina, Italia. “The Effects of Chavez’s Populism on Today’s Venezuela.” Perceptions, vol. 5, no. 1, 2019.

The Impact Of Immigration Policies On Child Development In The US And Australia (Comparative Study)

Political Science

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The impact of immigration policy on child development in the United States and Australia

Introduction

Immigration is defined as an act of coming to live for long term or permanent basis in a foreign country. In order to incorporate a code of conduct and pattern, immigration policies are formulated. Immigration policy is one of the most discussed and most divisive arguments in American politics. It is evident that many times, president and Congress have invoked a major need for reforms related to immigration, taking into account that it was a central campaign issue for both congressman candidates as well as presidential representatives. Immigration is not just the migration of the people, but a complete ideology that addresses the basic rights and necessities of people (How the United States Immigration System Works, 2014). With changing approaches in the world, immigration is termed as a complete demise or revival of a generation because immigration policies are the running head that represents a nation. It would not be wrong to say that immigration policies can cause social, moral, psychological and emotional effect on immigrants. However, the central subject to this impact is children because elders might be well aware of the facts and figures related to social moral and cultural attribute but the case is too sensitive for children (U.S. Immigration Policy Program, 2019). The first immigration portfolio of Australia was created in the year 1945. An analysis of the immigration department from the past war and the essence of “Populate or perish” has promoted some successive waves of immigration and migrants who belonged to different parts of the world. It would not be wrong to say that the immigration framework of Australia has changed over generations, in reference to little consultative public debate or declamation. According to records, Australia lacks a broader migration program, policy or mind map that could get an insight into the framework of immigration. Although there was minor attention to those ideas between 2010 and 2013, still the annual immigration framework is set by the government taking it as a part of government and its budget (Australia.gov.au, 2019). According to research, the immigration policy of Australia is a description of de facto population policy. It is found that the total number of humanitarian migrants to Australia had remained static since 1996, where it got a sudden jump in 2012 accompanied by an upward trend in 2015. By 1996, the balance of permanent migration is more towards skilled immigration rather than family immigrations, taking into account the tie that exists between the need of the labor market and the successive Australian governments (Australia, 2014). The most critical point to note, the natural increase referring to the babies who are newly born are no longer the major or primary drivers of the population increase in Australia. An analysis of all the relative dimensions and paradigms highlights that there are some major dimensions of Australian immigration such as temporary and permanent immigration, the role of the other countries and also the ratio of immigrants in Australia (Australia, 2014).

The immigration policy of the United States is defined as a framework that invites almost all types for people from different countries, but for a short period of time. The immigration policy reflects the consensus of the bipartisan group of some eminent leaders belonging to different fields such as education, homeland security, academia, labor, human rights, and business (U.S. Immigration Policy Program, 2019). It would not be wrong to say that the immigration system of the United States is much complex because there are many political and legal avenues involved in it. Immigration to the United States is actually based on some major principles such as protection of the refugees, the economy boosts by skilled people and other economic paradigms such as promotion of diversity and the availability of resources. There are different aspects associated with the immigration in the United States such as family-based immigration, immigration based on employment, immigration of sales and refugees, more country citizens, and the diversity visa programs. US citizenship and different form of humanitarian beliefs are also included in it. (How the United States Immigration System Works, 2014)

Research Objective

The objective of this research is to analyze how immigration policies of America and Australia have caused an impact on children. As children belong to that section of population who are the product of environment and conditions imposed, so this research will study how children are impacted in terms of social, psychological and moral paradigms.

Literature Review

Immigration policy is defined as the code of conduct that highlights what are the features and characteristics that are set by the country for those who are immigrants. In general, connotations of immigration act as a platform that decides a lot of future and further features of the country. According to Connor, (2019) immigration policy is a tool that can help to determine what are the future aspects of the country in terms of economy, evolution, industrialization of population, because when an immigrant made its way to another country, he has to make some efforts. The efforts by an immigrant is directly related to the social, moral and economic framework taking into account that only those countries are successful that have a versatile attitude towards immigration (Connor, et al. 2019). Another subcategory that has directly impacted and associated with immigration belongs to children because children belong to the population who are the retrievers of immigration. They are also assumed to play a central role in determining the future of the country as a resource, social representative, morally designed being and then a citizen who will react in the same way as he was treated. In accordance with the underlying idea to analyze and compare the immigration policy of the United States and Australia, it is necessary to undergo an exegetical analysis of the policies of the two countries that are assumed and supposed to affect children (Connor, et al. 2019). It is asserted that the immigration policy of the United States made by Donald Trump has a lot of dimensions that can hamper social, moral and psychological condition of children.

Immigration policy of the United States

According to the critics, it is highlighted that the Trump administration has been criticized because of condemnation from child health and zero tolerance towards the immigrants on the US-Mexico borders including those people as well who were seeking asylum. It is found that between April 2008 and June 2008, a lot of children such as breastfeed infants, youngsters as well as toddlers were relocated so that they can be separated from their parents. According to the report, about 700 children in which 49 children where less than 4 years were meant to stay away from their parents (Grimm & A, 2019). In 2016, by the estimates from United Nation High Commission for Refugees, it is asserted that about 50 million children migrated from the country borders and they were forcibly displaced. There were about 28 million children who fled because of insecurity and violence taking into account that this figure became double between 2005 and 2015. By the end of May 2018, the report from the US Department of Health and Human Services highlighted that there were about 110773 immigrant children who were detained from the US Mexican borders. According to the information provided by (Australia, 2014), it is asserted that in 2013, Australia experienced a large surge of illegal migrants that arrived in Australia and it leads to the detention of about 2000 people. According to the information collected by Nauru Regional Processing Centre, there were 7 children who were under 18 and they were placed in the detention of immigrants where 22 children were placed in a high controversial offshore (Australia, 2014). According to Shin, (2018) it is asserted that the immigrants who were detained at the US Mexico border were primarily the asylum seeker who belonged to El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, the region of the world that was plagued by poverty, violence, corruption, insecurity, and drug cartel infiltration. It is recorded that the migration through the Mexican borers to the United States was actually devastating, along with reports of treating with sexual assaults, violence, and physical abuse and kidnapping (Shin, et al. 2018). Moreover, under the impact of United States immigration policy promoted by Trump, it is found that the children who are born out of the country of the United States have to acquire citizenship by using the Immigration and Nationality Act ignoring the fact that it is one of the complex actions that may occur in the context and the judicial framework of the United States (Shin, et al. 2018). Under the implication of this practice, it is asserted that the children are badly affected. If a child is born abroad and he is adopted by the parents who are living in the United States, the children will not be granted citizenship under the immigration policy. Another instance that could affect a child would be the children of non-citizens taking into account that the service members of the United States or the government employees who actually naturalize to become citizens themselves after the birth of a child. Moreover, it is also asserted that if a child is born abroad to United States citizens who are not eligible for the citizenship of the United States residence requirements, then the implication of law and the child would be affected because of the formation of immigrant citizenship to the children (Kieslowski & R, 2018). However, it is also found that the Inadmissibility on Public Care Grounds has an indirect and serious impact on the people who are highly skilled and are seeking high income. It will automatically cause an effect on the children of such people as well (Shin, et al. 2018). It is asserted that the immigrant children who belong to the families of low income are more likely to lose services that they need for their life because their parents would be afraid of the damage to the chances of residing in the country. In broader contexts, it is highlighted that the US migration policy addresses the immigrant parents taking into account the need of making some tough choices while thinking about the collection of resources for the nutrition of children, housing and the desires of healthcare (Koslowski & R, 2018).

Immigration policy of Australia affecting children

Under the influence of Australian Immigration policy, there are a lot of facts and figures brought into consideration that Australian immigration is affecting children in an adverse way. Australian law requires the deportation of almost all the citizens who are in Australia without any valid visa. It refers to the unlawful non-citizens. It is asserted that the immigration officials are not given any other voice, except for the detention of the employees who arrive in the country without a visa. It is asserted that when a child arrives in Australia without having a visa and looking for asylum, then they have to stay in the asylum that will automatically affect the psychological health of the children. Deportation is another option that is brought into practice under the impact of immigration policy where, if there is an overstay of an individual, then the children have to spend much less time in detention and they are detained so that process of deportation can be brought into practice (Australia.gov.au, 2019). It is also highlighted that under the impact of the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the administration of Juvenile Justice, it is highlighted that in case of the treatment of children who are not charged with any kind of crime, that the detention tenure would be limited. It is highlighted that the mandatory detention of the children is termed as illegal as it is assumed to breach article 37 of the CRC, adhering to some proportionate and no punitive reasons. It is important to note that the requirements that are meant for the asylum-seeking children are more appropriate in terms of providing assistance under the rights in accordance with the article 22 (1) (Australia.gov.au, 2019). It is found that under the implications of immigration policy, special care and attention is given to the unaccompanied children so as to ensure that they can enjoy all the rights to liberty and they should act in ways that would be in the best interest of the children, as quoted in the article (20). According to research, it is quoted that special attention is required in the initial detention of the unlawful non-citizen children as compared to the adults. In accordance with the Migration Rules 1994, it is asserted that officials should contemplate to make efforts for the early release of the children by giving them bridging visa between 1999 and 2002 that is only issue to the unoccupied children (Australia.gov.au, 2019). Here other implication is found, two children and mother will be accompanied where father would be left in detention. There are also cases in which the family comes to Australia on the basis of one type of vise such as tourist visa, in such a case, children would be made eligible for any kind of lodging visas that will help to restore the lawfulness and avoid detention. The concern towards children and their growth doesn’t end here, it is found that several efforts are taken by the government for the management of the children who are living in Woomera. In 2002, 7 February, it was found that there were about nine unaccompanied students and they have been moved to foster care homes in Adelaide that is declared as an alternative place for detention. However, it is asserted that there are still several unaccompanied children who are in detention and it is the responsibility of the Woomera Detention Centre to ensure their safety... According to the information collected from South Australia Authorities, there are several recommendations that are made for the removal of children along with their parents taking into account that none of these children were transferred to the home-based alternative places of detention (Australia, 2014). According to legal framework, it is asserted that under International Law, Australia continues to be responsible for the foreseeable breaches of human rights of children taking into account the fact that it relocates the third countries. It is found that Australia takes the responsibility of any breaches of the human right that would occur with respect to a child who is under the custody of the Australian government (Australia, 2014). As detention of children is one of the most discussed concerns in the globe, Shin, (2018) asserts that in accordance with the Australian Law, referring to The Migration Act, it’s highlighted that all the children are required to be taken into detention without giving any consideration to the individual circumstances or the underlying features. An analysis of the approaches in relation to human interest highlights, this detention can be termed as one of the best interest principles because it will protect all the rights of the children. However, the most critical point is, the detention is itself a burden of children which highlights that the children are not at all happy while they are detained. It is asserted that the drawings and the illustrations that are drawn by children on the walls appear to be quite distressing. Moreover, the interviews with different people also highlight that same aspect taking into account the idea that children feel scary, they feel lonely and it is more like psychological trauma because there is no hope of tomorrow what an individual is going to get and see in future (Shin, et al. 2018). Although the child welfare organization asserts that it is not safe for children to leave them in detention still, the government has failed in giving an ear to it. Many of the critics think that many of the children are habitual and violent in nature which is just because of the environment of the detention center. It is also one of the threats to physical health and the care concerns of the children. The point is controversial, even the instructions and discussions with the Refugee and Immigration Legal center assert that children should not be kept in detention center, in fact, they should be made to live with freedom or in some other place where they can feel safe; their individual desires and needs are met because food and water is not the only necessity (Kaur & A, 2018). One of the major concerns highlighted is about the grouping that is not given any kind of consideration, as almost all age children are kept at the same place that is dangerous. Carrera, (2018) has brought into consideration the conflict of inserts as one of the issues that are associated with the detention of children (Carrera, et al. 2018)

Methodology

In order to analyze and understand the migration policy of Australia and the United States, comparative study would be used. A comparative study is one of the methodologies that is used within political science in order to analyze and compare the features and underlying essence of suffering institutions, processes, and political systems. This analysis can be, made of almost all positive dimensions ranging from national, international local and regional to some global perspectives (Kerwin & D, 2018). The reason for using this methodology in current research is the versatility of the research method. It is highlighted that Comparative Analysis is grounded upon some critical evidence and proofs that would be used for the recording and the analysis of the political phenomena. Under the influence of these methods, different features and subjects dealing with the policy frameworks can be questioned (Roche, et al., 2018).

There are number of advantages that are associated with the use of comparative analysis in carrying out research. One of the major advantage is the collection of data, the subject is method is used to collect some empirical evidence that can help to identify the underlying similarities and differences between the two legal charters (Kerwin & D, 2018).

This method would help to identify and explain the underlying patterns that are related to political phenomena and then political behavior. It wouldn’t be wrong to say that comparative politics plays a major role in the construction of science like generalization that is based some visible ideologies and believes either that abstractions that can either misguide or result in some ambiguity (Roche, et al., 2018).

In order to proceed with the subject method accompanied by comparative analysis, the immigration laws of the United States and that of Australia are reviewed. This analysis is facilitated by the critiques that are written in terms of the validity of the policies that may affect in a direct or indirect way, the life of children. As the underlying essence of the topic is to address the impact of immigration policies on children, so all the policies are analyzed under the framework of child survival and the social, moral and psychological implications of each of the policies in the long run. This analysis was guided by the analysis that is already made by different scholars, and researchers in order to assess the effectiveness of migration laws for children and their lives in the long run (Kerwin & D, 2018).

Analysis

After the comparative analysis of the immigration laws of Australia and the United States that has paved the way for the identification of both similarities and differences, the impact that these similarities and differences is defined that can affect children of the immigrant families.

Family immigration

In US immigration policy, as there are a lot of application so an individual has to watt for long time taking into account that this long listing an effect the psychological growth of a child especially if he/she has a green card identity. It would not be wrong to say that chain migration can allow immigrants especially their children to stay apart from their goals. Social development is also a question that is addressed under the family immigration taking into account that the children if allowed to immigrate in a fairly early age will help to develop great social bonding as compared to a grown-up age where that individual would be judgmental to the actions and ideologies (Kerwin & D, 2018).

Under the influence of Australian immigration, an immigrant can get a visa very easily and it is one of the reasons of people are in more ease with the idea of immigrating to Australia. It is highlighted that a sponsor is issued for the party that is interested in immigration that can help to impart an ease in the process of immigration. As a quick process, there would be more option for the immigrant to settle in time and achieve his goals (Ghezelbash & D, 2019).

Refugee Admission

Under the impact of US immigration law, the admission of the refugee is banned under Trump’s very first act as president. It is highlighted that it is a clear approach towards a conflict that can cast impact on social, moral and psychological growth of the children. Although it has resulted in 2018, still there are many complications that are posed in the way of people who are refugees and settling admission. These complications impart feeling of inferiority complex and suppression that not only affect the psychology of the children but it also distorts the moral growth because children are introduced to a more violent and destructive environment so they expect and do negative (Kerwin & D, 2018).

In contrast, under Australian immigration laws, a refugee is given visas and they are allowed to detain refugees, both with a valid and invalid visa. Such condition is more like a positive approach for the people because refugees would be facilitated in all the dimensions of life. In accordance with the legal paradigms although there are selected people who are allowed to get a visa, the most interesting fact is all selected refugees have access to the life necessities and it casts a positive impact on the social psychological and moral growth of the children (Roche, et al., 2018).

Temporary Protection Status

Temporary protection status is defined as the status of the people who are living in a particular country i.e. either the United States or Australia. In the immigration law of the United States, temporary protection status is provided to the national to some of the designated countries who are confronting any kind of conflict or disaster. However, in Australian immigration law, temporary protection status is applicable to any of the inhabitant either they have a visa or not. An analysis of the two aspects highlight that temporary Protection Status of the US is narrower in its approach that can cast a negative effect on the children who have come as an immigrant (Hirsch, et al., 2019). On the other hand, Australian Immigration Laws are the complete framework of safety for the people and facilitate those who have come for temporary living and children and their families are more welcomed so they can feel safe, leading to psychological empowerment. A comparative analysis reveals that the protection status follows the same line of conduct within two countries but the infrastructure of Australian immigration policy is more flexible and convenient as compared to that of the United States because children are treated in a far better way with an equal and positive attitude towards life and life activities (van Kooy, et al., 2019).

Citizenships for immigrants

Taking into account the course of citizenship on whole, it is highlighted that both the immigration policies, US and Australia, define citizenship as a procedure that cast a peaceful and a positive impact on the mind of children. It would help child learn more and grow psychology because both the countries incorporate the policies that are worth following and it is done without any critical approach (van Kooy, et al., 2019)

Employment and Wages

Under the implication of US immigration laws, there is discrimination between the type of employment and the wages that are designed for immigrants. On the same board, it is asserted that Australian immigration law has also formulated a pattern in terms of the employment and wages but the contradictory point is, in the US immigration policy, employment and the wages of immigrants is treated in a different scenario. This difference can affect the personal life of an individual leading to an impact on the life of children as well that can cause emotional instability and a more stress pattern. Immigrants are made to feel more alienated under the function of US immigration policy (Betts & K, 2018).

The implication of immigration code

Under the implication of the immigration code, Australia is more vigilant and welcoming to the immigrant children by treating them well and thinking about their best interest. On the other hand, the immigration code of US brings children to courts where they are questioned, leading to psychological distress and trauma. It is asserted that as a result of this pattern, a child may fail to feel safe (Betts & K, 2018).

Detention

Detention is determined as the staying of immigrant. According to the immigration policy of the United States, during detention children are separated from their parents, at any cost. It is asserted that even toddlers and children are separated from their mothers and parents at a fairly early age that is one of the major cause of violence and stress in children (Sitkin & L, 2019). In contrast, Australian Immigration Laws do not allow the separation of children from their families. Children are allowed to stay with their families and detention is provided in the company of their parent. Although it can be a complex situation, still a child is having a hope in the form of the existence of parents. Contrary in US children are tortured both psychologically and emotionally when they are got separated from their parents in a very small age and there is no greater tragedy other than this (Sitkin & L, 2019).

Treatment after detention

According to the US immigration law, when a child is separated from the parent he has to face the worst part of life alone. It would not be wrong to say that it is one of the reasons that the detention immigrant is more violent and they are more distressed. Children are highly affected by the implication of this law (Grimm & A, 2019).

In contrast, under the Australian Immigration Law, children are allowed to stay with their parents that appears to be a totally pleasant response in terms of social moral and psychological growth. However, in Australia, the case is different when an immigrant is a criminal or found alone. If a child is criminal or found alone he has live alone but here the situation appears similar to the detention under the implication of US immigration law because a child or an individual does not feel safe. Children have violent thoughts and they feel hurtful, leading to a more violent attitude of the children (Grimm & A, 2019).

Status of immigrant

It is one of the critical and controversial questions whenever the immigration policy of any country is analyzed. Under the impact and implication of the US immigration policy, it is highlighted that an immigrant will stay immigrant and he is more questioned in terms of criminal activities and other ethical complications. Such a scenario hampers the psychological growth of the children leading to a distorted ideology towards life. Children are emotionally disturbed they are meant to cater to their existence and the questions that are proposed by the native people (Wright, et al. 2017).

In Australian Immigrant law, it is highlight that the scenario is totally different because Australia is more welcoming to immigration. All the legal and ethical frameworks are formed by keeping the immigration in context. It asserted that the immigrant in Australia is more mentally stable as compared to that of the people who are immigrants in the United States. As a result, children are more into mental peace, they are more stable and positive towards society (Sitkin & L, 2019).

Life status

Taking into account the analysis of the ideology of “life status”, it is highlighted that the type of life is one of the most important factors that can cast a social, psychological and emotional impact on the life of the children. A comparative analysis of the immigration policy of United State and Australia highlights that the immigrant children who are living in the United States are treated as immigrant even after passing several years of life in the country because it is hard for them to get an equal status (Clarke, et al., 2019). Immigrants in the United Stars are the most conscious personalities, people are usually afraid of them, security concerns are associated with them, many times, and immigrants are jailed because of lame reasons that are not event relatable at that time. In contrast, the analysis of the life status of migrant children in Australia conveys a different story because children are treated more positively. They are allowed to participate in daily life activities not as a third party who is more vulnerable to threat and destruction but an element that can play a role in regulating the success of the country (Sitkin & L, 2019).

Discussion

Taking into account the facts and figures that are associated with the comparison of immigration policy of United Stated and Australia several conclusions and preferences are formulated. Taking into account the impact of immigration policies and their effect on emotional, psychological and social development following discussions can be made

Emotional Development

The emotional development of a child is defined as a calmer approach to life without any emotional disability. A comparative analysis of the immigration policies of the United States and Australia reveals that the immigration implications of the United States are more towards emotional imbalance (Brell, et al. 2019). The ideologies such as lack of feasibility in kinship, a gap in acceptance and a decreased approach toward acceptance can bring a child to the verge of emotional instability. It would not wrong to say that children can only develop emotionally strong when they are not facing any kind of trauma, where detention is one of the greatest trauma that is faced by the children. Moreover, life threats, narrowed approach towards life and decision making can cause distress that disturbs the emotional stability leading a child to a violent attitude or a stressful life.

In contrast, although Australian immigration policies are also designed under some strong and compact rules still, the overall framework and application is more feasible and positive towards children. Children are given the option and space to grow emotionally strong in some places, they are treated with compassion (Connor, et al. 2019).

Psychological development

Psychological development refers to the cognitive pattern that is visible in action as well. A comparative analysis of the US immigration policy with that of Australian Immigration policy highlights that there are some strong and compact features associated with psychological development of an immigrant in the United States. Even, it was hard because a long-time span of chain management along with overgeneralized thinking dimensions that have to be ignored in order to develop psychologically. There is different example of this psychological complexity such as discrimination and lower status of life (Grimm & A, 2019).

However, in contrast, Australian Immigration policy is positioned at more positive approach because immigrants are more welcomed. Criminals and violent children are treated without their families and they are kept separated from their families still the lifestyle is meat for the best interest without any comparison to life. Although children are more stressful because of the overcrowded place and different types of children, Still, Australia tried to help to children meet their families and it is one of the approaches that position Australia at a fairly better psychological grooming of children as compared to that of the United States (Grimm & A, 2019).

Social Development

Social development is defined as the development of children that can help them become a part of society by thinking about themselves as one of the major part of society. Social developmental include the set of norms and values that are assigned and taught to children so that they can play their part in society. In accordance with the results of comparative analysis of immigration laws, it is asserted that the immigration policy of the United State positions an immigrant at lower social status as compared to that of Australia (Koslowski & R, 2018). Although exceptions are always there, still, it is found that the social attire of the immigrant in the United States is guided and contaminated by security concerns, detention, deprivation from basic life necessities and lower approach to the standards of life that can help an individual live a more positive and fruitful life. In contrast, an analysis of the Australian immigration policy highlights that social development of children is taken and started at two different dimensions, at one dimension, if the immigrant is detained with family or he has immigrated in accordance with legal framework then he would be treated in fairly better way as compared to a narrower approach towards life. Under the implication of Australian Immigration Law, an immigrant is treated as an individual that is from somewhere but he is treated as a part of society which cast a positive impact on a child. A child thinks about his new homeland in a very positive way, guided by social responsibilities and respect towards the other members of the society (Shin, et al. 2018).

So, a comparative analysis highlight that the children treated under the impact of Australian immigration policy are not treated at a perfect social status because there are a lot of drawbacks negative aspects associated with the living standards of children when they are staying at a detention camp. However, this status is comparatively better as compared to that of the United States where a child has to cater to the tag line of immigrant always. Moreover, it is also an insight to the alarming situation where immigrant children can be both, positive resource and negative directors of the society because they would do what they have faced in their lives and later it would be hard to address violent attitude because psychological programming can’t be challenged (Koslowski & R, 2018).

Conclusion

Immigration policies are designed to facilitate the people who have migrated from different land so that they can settle in any of the countries. There are several reasons behind immigration so it is a casual understanding that immigration should be designed in accordance with the natural laws under which all the circumstances can be given equal significance. An analysis of the US immigration policy has highlighted that this policy has undergone several modifications and the current framework of this policy is more than complex (Grimm & A, 2019). The connotation of complexity is equally applicable in both the departmental structure, applicability, and universality, which ultimately affects the children as well. On the other hand, the Australian immigration policy is defined as a code of conduct for immigration that refers to the analysis of the facts and figures that can help understand the paradigms that are associated with immigration. An overall analysis reveals that the immigration policies of Australia are more flexible and they are termed as one of those policies which can address more positive concern (Shin, et al. 2018). An exegetical analysis highlights that children are the resulting product that is directly or indirectly, affected by the immigration policy because they have more areas of life and dimensions ahead. After a comparative analysis of the US immigration policy and Australian immigration policy, it is asserted that children can be facilitated at a far better level because Australia has a flexible framework. In contrast, the immigration policy of the United States is more towards biases and connotations that limit immigration, taking into account the fact that under the implication of United States immigration policy, the stay of an immigrant is questioned for numerous years which affect the social, moral and psychological growth of the children (Shin, et al. 2018).

Implication

After critical analysis and a detailed comparison of the immigration policies of both United States and Australia, it is said that research can be used at both personal and professional level. At personal platform, immigration policies and their comparison can be used to bring a change in attitude that could ultimately lead to social moral and ethical development and a better treatment towards the immigrants. It can also help to invite more research in terms of other features such as how children are programmed under immigration policy by incorporating real-time and scientific research method. In terms of professional paradigms, this research can be used to bring about some effective changes because positive attitude towards immigration is necessary to keep and maintain a friendly relationship that is guided by a welcoming approach to the global village. Moreover, this research can be used to formulate strategies that can be used by both countries, stakeholders and the immigrants to bring a shift in the framework that are casting a negative effect on children because children are the future investment for any nation. In a nutshell, this research can perform both moral and political functions because the political attitude can be used to bring positive reforms in the world. These positive reforms can be in the form of flexible policies, more avenues of progression and the provision of strategies that can address the negative attitude towards immigrants. On the whole, the other side of the attitude and adherence to the current framework may lead to future citizens who would be more biased, negative and stereotypical because they would have learned the same growing up.

References

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The Impact Of WW I On The International Relations Of The Middle East To That Of The Cold War

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The First World War a century ago is undoubtedly epoch-making and affects the political landscape in many places. However, no depth can be compared with the Middle East. The tension it has caused to the Arab world has not been alleviated to date. In Africa, Latin America, and Europe after World War II, which caused tragic casualties, most countries basically accepted the borders imposed on them by history, but the countries of the Middle East did not accept them. The countries established in the Middle East after 1914 and the divided borders are still considered illegal by the nationals of these countries and their neighbors. In this vast region, only Egypt and Iran have a long history and have not been cut off by foreigners.

Even in the face of a difficult crisis, territorial integrity can be finally realized. There are also two countries, because the powers and blood of the founders are relatively stable, they are the Republic of Turkey established by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and Abdul Azi I. Ibn Saudi Arabia unified Saudi Arabia in 1932. These four relatively stable countries surround the core of the Middle East, and in this core region are five countries plus an area that currently seems unlikely to become a country: Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Israel and Palestine. In the past few decades, no country has been able to compare with the Middle East in terms of the number of wars, civil wars, and terrorist attacks, especially considering that the area of ​​the region is relatively small. To explain the unusual history and current situation in this region, we need to understand the following: the frustrating situation in the Middle East before the First World War; the unreasonable intervention of the superpowers; the discovery of rich oil resources in the Middle East; the founding of Israel and the Cold War.

A few days after Franz Joseph declared war, the Ottoman Empire did not seem to have decided whether to join the war, and if it entered the war, it was joining the Alliances or the Allies. But shortly after the official war started, the Ottoman Empire decided to form an alliance with Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1914, Germany and the Ottoman Empire signed a secret agreement; soon after, two German warships, Gobain number and cruiser Breslau was chasing the British Navy, has fled to the east from the Mediterranean to the west and hid Constantinople. After arriving in Constantinople, the two warships were handed over to the still-neutral Ottoman Navy, and were renamed the Yavuz and Midiuri. The German officers and sailors on the ship were replaced by Turkey. The military uniform became the Turkish navy. After receiving two German cruisers in the Golden Horn of Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire immediately imposed a mine blockade on the Dardanelles. The reason for the declaration of war was also established: the Ottoman Empire and Germany blocked the sea passage between Russia and its allies. Soon after, the original Goben bombarded the Russian city on the Black Sea coast. Russia, Britain and France declared war on the Ottoman Empire.

The British-French Joint Fleet arrived at the southern tip of the Gallipoli Peninsula and decided to implement the landing campaign. The battle began with the shelling of warships, but it quickly developed into a full-scale ground attack, but the result was a fiasco. The Ottoman victory led to the resignation of the British Navy Secretary Winston Churchill, and the modern Turkish founders became famous for this battle (Mustafa Kemal Ataturk). This bloody battle is also a national pain in Australia and New Zealand. The NZ Force has tens of thousands of soldiers killed in the Battle of Gallipoli. The defeat of the Allied forces in Gallipoli became a strategic turning point in the Middle East battlefield. As the plan to attack the heart of the Ottoman Turkish Empire was defeated, the Allies turned their attention to the remote areas of this "sick man of Europe" to attack the Arab provinces that defended the relatively weak. This plan coincides with the Arab people’s eagerness to leave the Ottoman Empire. In July 1915, Sir Henry McMahon, then the British High Commissioner in Egypt, began secretly with the Arab province of Hanzhi and the holy city of Mecca, Sharif (meaning "sacred") Hussein Bin Ali. Communication. Hussein and his three sons, as well as the elite of Damascus, were dreaming of establishing a unified Arab country. The Arab country started from the Taurus Mountains in southeastern Turkey, south to the Red Sea, west to the Mediterranean, and east to Iran. In October 1915, in a letter to Hussein, McMahon unabashedly revealed the British will: the British will recognize and support the dream of the establishment of a unified Arab in the Mecca, and support the Arabs.

The Arabs abide by the credit and fulfill the agreement with the British, the Arabs against the Ottoman Empire began the insurgency, a move to the British march through Jerusalem to Damascus from the Sinai Peninsula has a decisive help. The British side sent Arab pass, archaeologist and spy Thomas Edward Lawrence, organized the Arab rebels to carry out surprise attacks, and his famous history, known as "Lawrence of Arabia." The British side has been treacherous and has not fully fulfilled the Arab agreement. In a secret letter sent back to the UK in early 1916, Lawrence believed that the Arab rebellion would be very beneficial to the British Empire because "this is in line with our short-term goal of dissolving the Islamic group, defeating the Ottoman Empire and creating chaos within it.” But the British side did not consider the unified Arab countries that Hussein and his sons dreamed of. For the British, the ally of France is much more important than the Arabs who took up arms for independence. At this time, the British and French troops were fighting side by side on the west line, and countless British and French soldiers were sent to the meat grinder. "The friendship between Britain and France is worth ten Syria’s." British Prime Minister David Lloyd George gave the French Prime Minister George Clemenceau a guarantee. Prior to this, France claimed to have ownership of the Christian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Although the British side is more willing to dominate the Arab world, under the strong pressure of Germany as a common enemy, Britain is willing to share the hegemony of the Middle East with France.

While McMahon and Hussein secret communications, Sir Mark Sykes behalf of the British, and French diplomat François Georges - Agreement "Picco is the exact opposite of a conspiracy Sykes - Picot agreement". When Osman was not yet dead, the agreement could not wait to plan the division of power between Britain and France in the Arab provinces of the post-Ottoman period. France will get the Arab province in the north and the Arab province in the south. "My plan is to go to Acre from the west, to Kirkuk in the east, draw a line, and divide the French with the North and the South." At the end of 1916, Sykes reported to the Prime Minister's Office of Downing Street and the secret agreement of the French.

The Sykes - Pico Agreement is a shameless imperialist transaction. Britain and France have arbitrarily determined the fate of other nations and countries, ignoring the conflict between Arabs and Kurds and the existing borders. The border line delineated by this agreement is doomed to the endless conflict in the Middle East for the next century.

Belfort redraws the border

The secretly signed document was not made public at first. In 1917, the October Revolution broke out in Russia, summoned to Germany, and publicized the Sykes - Pico Agreement. At this time, the British had signed another secret agreement - this time, the Arabs and The French were kept together in the dark. The British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to re-British coalition advocates the Jewish state guarantee, "the establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine." The British side can agree to the oppressed Jews for national self-determination and generously give them a piece of the Ottoman Empire. The main reason is that with the deepening of the First World War, international criticism of British imperialist practices has increased. The voices of these criticisms have made the imperialists in the British cabinet government feel inconvenient, especially one of the critics named Woodrow Wilson, who has just succeeded in re-electing the US president. The British were betrayed and did not fulfill their pre-war commitment to Hussein to establish a unified Arab state. As the victors of World War I, Britain and France divided the Middle East into four countries. Due to geographical differences, ethnic conflicts and historical conflicts, these four countries are still the most difficult countries in the world today.

Fatal and lasting impact

Just before the signing of the relevant treaty, a question was placed before the two countries, the northern side of Palestine, and the border of the later state of Israel. A think tank wrote in a letter to British Prime Minister Lloyd George: "The fact is that any demarcation between the Arab countries between Aleppo and Mecca is unnatural. Therefore, the boundaries should be completely Depending on the actual needs, the strategy is the final demarcation guide.” Finally, the final border was delineated by a British general with the help of a manager of the British - Persian oil company. Of course, the world is not only the people of the Arab world who refuse to accept the country's borders. Europe has similar problems, but the following three reasons have caused the fatal and lasting consequences of the demarcation in the Middle East:

First, at the very beginning of the 19th century, many countries in Europe developed national identity and created a political class; for Arabs, the First World War broke their historical dreams. The Ottoman Turks adopted a laissez-faire policy when they ruled the Middle East, but they did not introduce any political structures in the Arab world to cultivate cultural or economic upper levels. On the contrary, when the Arab national consciousness develops slightly, the Ottoman rulers will exile or execute the leaders of the relevant movements. This kind of behavior has seriously affected the political awakening of the Middle East in the 20th century, and the historical unity of politics and religion in the Middle East has further hindered the political growth of the Arab world.

Second, the volatility of France and the United Kingdom in reshaping the borders of the Arab provinces in the Ottoman Empire has made conspiracy theorists feel that the border may change at any time. This concern has plagued Arabs for decades after the demarcation. . There are still rumors today that a sharp turn at the junction of the desert area between Jordan and Saudi Arabia is due to the fact that the colonial minister, Churchill, was struck by elbows when he was crossed. This is certainly a bit ridiculous, but Sykes, Pique, Lloyd and Clemenceau's arbitrariness in the Middle East is no different from this absurd rumor.

Third, unlike Europe, the tensions created by this unsustainable peace in the Arab world have not been eliminated in a one-off volcanic eruption. In the Second World War, this was not the main battlefield. The conflicts left by World War I have not been resolved. The catastrophic World War II has brought new problems to this place. The founding of Israel, together with the Cold War and the competition for oil resources in the Persian Gulf, have caused unbearable problems in the Middle East. The weight of history. And these overlapping problems have caused endless conflicts, even today, 100 years after the outbreak of World War I, we still can't see the end of these conflicts.

References

Fawcett, L. L. E. (Ed.). (2016). International relations of the Middle East. Oxford University Press.

Lesch, D. W. (1992). Syria and the United States: Eisenhower's Cold War in the Middle East (pp. 5-13). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Roshwald, A. (2002). Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914-23. Routledge.