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Political Issue

Policies affecting LGBT community

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Over time there has been witnessed a shift in the value system that gives rise to many political issues that were not widely known in past. Political issue is the issue of national interest that divides general public and is considered as the subject of intense partisan debate, advocacy as well as voting. For the past few decades, LGBT has emerged as one of the primary issues that clash with the political policies and sometimes rights being given to LGBT communities serve as political issues upon which people are having opposing views. Public and governmental policies are divided into two groups. The first group consists of people who are in favor of rights of LGBT communities and believes that legislative bodies must keep in consideration this community while formulating the government policies. On the hand, there is a group of people who are against making of special government policies for this community. This fact cannot be denied that government policies are affecting the lives of gay, lesbians, and transgender and there is a need to be more careful while formulating these policies. There are numbers of legal barriers that LGBT community is facing in the recognition of their same-sex relationships and relation to their children (Gayles, et al, 2019). Major issues that this community is facing are issues that affect children of LGBT, discrimination, elder rights, hindrance in the equal access to social services, etc. Though many of the LGBT rights are being legalized by the United States Supreme Court but still discrimination in housing and job is there in some of the states.

Authorities that are involved in the making of such policies need to keep in consideration Church, state and moral values that are being practiced, but it is a bitter reality that government policies are affecting lives of bisexuals in various ways and it has become a political issue as well. Firstly, they face the issue of discrimination at workplaces; despite formulation and implementation of laws, still there are areas where the LGBT community is not being given jobs and houses easily. Next LGBT community faces issues of parenting i.e. children they adopt are not easily accepted in society because of having bisexual parents. Supporting the issue of LGBT community, a report regarding challenges faced by LGBT at workplace claims that most of the time gay, trans and bisexual choose not to disclose their sexuality at work. Fear of homophobia restricts them to show their private lives to their co-workers and clients. Transgender whose job has nothing to do with their gender, are forced to leave their work when they undergo the transition phase. LGBT community is attacked and subjected to abuse. Sexual minorities are stigmatized and excluded for being who they are and the government needs to look into this matter by making policies that would protect this community at workplaces. According to PEW Survey, around 21% of LGBT workers report discrimination that they faced at workplace against hiring, pays and promotion.

LGBT workers are discriminated and bullied twice as compared to the heterosexual employees. Also senior and elder LGBT members are not been provided with rights that would protect them during the last phase of their life (Redcay, et al, 2019). It is a bitter reality that there are no federal laws against discrimination done against homosexuals, based on their gender identity and sexual orientation. There are only around twenty-two states that are supporting this community by protecting their basic rights of freedom of choice. So as a whole, it could be said that the LGBT community is facing many political and social issues that are hindering them from living a happy and contented life. Human right organizations and bodies that make U.S government policies need to pay attention towards formulating policies that would facilitate this community.

References

Gayles, T. A., & Garofalo, R. (2019). Exploring the Health Issues of LGBT Adolescents. The GLMA Handbook on LGBT Health, 133.

Redcay, A., McMahon, S., Hollinger, V., Mabry-Kourt, H. L., & Cook, T. B. (2019). Policy Recommendations to Improve the Quality of Life for LGBT Older Adults. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 1-8.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Political Philopshies

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Philosophy

April 11, 2019

Critically evaluate Hume's criticism of social contract theory

Hume claims that the social contract ideology is flawed because people accept the duty of abiding by the laws of government only when they have consented or promised for that. His central argument is that states are not developed or sustained through a social contract. He criticizes the contract theory by examining the nature of the original contract. He presented his argument in "Of the Original Contract" by putting forth the proposition that social contract lacks historical evidence. By considering the history of western civilization and ancient Greeks he comes to the point that there was no social contract between the government and the people. As history lacked social contract, the relationship between state and citizens’ was the product of coercion. The governments used the brutal forces for maintaining authority that also reflects the role of strong political willpower.

Leaders have always used excessive force for implementing laws that make social contract theory unrealistic. People who were governed lacked the power to challenge the rulers. There has always been a clear division between the leaders and the public. Due to the absence of power the governed had no other choice but to follow the orders of the state. Hume relates this ideology with blind obedience. The wider claim of Hume means that there was no implicit and explicit agreement between the people and the government. The agreement between the two parties lacked conscious. He claims, “the most men never make an inquiry about its origin or cause any more than about the principle of gravity” (Hume). People never made any conscious investigation about the rules that were imposed by the government. This reflects their weaker state that convinced them to accept the orders without knowing its outcomes. The argument also indicates that the government is the single most powerful entity, having the right of controlling people.

Because the people are born to a system where the government is holding superior power, they cannot challenge the laws. Their entry into such a system gives longevity to it, resulting in the favour of the state. This indicates that the most simple choice for an individual is to stay in the position where once his father and forefathers lived. Following the old system of power is the easy thing because it doesn’t involve any changes or challenges. He mentions, "they learn that they themselves and their ancestors have for several ages, or from time immemorial, been subject to such a form of government or such a family they immediately acquiesce and acknowledge the obligation to allegiance" (Hume). This confirms that the choice of people to stay dutiful to the government is due to their connectivity with their ancestors. They are ready to take the same roles as taken by their forefathers. This reflects that the people continue to follow the old system of power division in which no agreement is required between the governed and the state. The role of the state has never been challenged by anyone.

Coercion is the single most powerful element that rejects the theory of social contract. Hume mentions that people possess knowledge of what was done to the people who challenged the state. He claims, "all governments have been founded originally, either on usurpation or conquest or both, without any presence of a fair consent or voluntary subjection of the people" (Hume). This encourages people to accept the rules and reject their idea of protesting against the laws or governing principles that they find unfair. When people look backwards they are more willing to accept the roles taken by their father and ancestors CITATION Ste91 \l 1033 (Buckle and Castiglione). They believe that protests have not occurred in the past so they must also fit in the same system. This undermines their capacity to question the integrity of the laws formulated by the governments. This also reflects Hume’s idea that the chances of better tomorrow are oblique or non-existence due to this habit of backward looking.

The flaws in the election system also reject the philosophy of social contract. The philosopher claims that the power of election always rests with the small group that is capable of deciding and imposing laws. Even after revolutions that occurred throughout the history the system of the election remains unchanged. A small percentage of men are holding supreme power that allows them to control the larger population. Hume has criticized that ancient Athens failed to provide any real democracy to the people. This was the central reason for the existence of their power CITATION Jef78 \l 1033 (Murphy). This same tradition is followed by the leaders of every age because they bring the public to a position where they follow orders of the rulers. People lack choice in every situation according to Hume. He relates this idea with the restrictions faced by people in leaving their native land CITATION Bro07 \l 1033 (Brownsey). He claims that a poor artisan or a peasant cannot leave his country when he is unaware of the foreign culture and language. Even if he manages to leave his land he will have to submit himself to the powers of the state in a foreign land. Hume makes an argument that the obligations of the people never ends.

Moral duties are stronger that contract theory. The philosophe claims that people follow the governments’ because they are convinced by their obligatory duties. He distinguishes between the natural duties and the obligatory kind. The natural duty means one's responsibility towards his family and children while the obligatory kind means duties required for living in the civil society. By this philosophy, it is the obligatory duty of the citizens to follow the authorities. Hume states, “when we assert, that all lawful government arises from the consent of the people, we certainly do them a great deal more honor than they deserve, or even expect and desire from us” (Hume). In reality, people are not honoring states more than they desire because they are aware of their manipulative nature. Obligatory duty is learned through experience because people observe the response of their elders to the government and leaders.

The absence of natural state rejects the social contract theory. A fair agreement can occur between the state and citizens only when they are allowed to make a free choice. But in reality, people are lacking a free choice. People believe that "we are bound to obey our sovereign, at least in a government that rules by a very strong authoritarian hand" (Hume). The philosophy of Hume reflects that he believes in absolute monarch in which public lacks any kind of power. People have a duty to obey the leaders but they have never been put in a conscious state of making a contract. This according to him is essential for the existence of the society because without rulers or laws there will be no governing body and people will engage in more injustice.

The overall analysis of Hume's philosophy depicts that he has rejected the theory of social contract. He believes that there is no conscious or implicit agreement between the people and the government. The only reason that convinces people to follow rules in their obligatory duty towards the sovereign authority.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Buckle, Stephen and Dario Castiglione. "HUME'S CRITIQUE OF THE CONTRACT THEORY." History of Political Thought 12.3 (1991): 457-480.

Brownsey, P. F. "Hume and the Social Contract." The Philosophical Quarterly. Vol. 28. 2007. 111 vols.

Murphy, Jeffrie G. "Hume and Kant on the Social Contract ." Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition 3.1 (1978): 65-79.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Political Philosophies

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Political Philosophies

Rousseau's notion of freedom

Famously known in the age of enlightenment, Jean Jacques was a political philosopher French from origin who has played a significant role in assessing civil society. Rousseau was very critical about freedom than anything else, and this is why he raised the issue of liberty more than any other concept of political philosophy. He stated in his work of social contract theory that all the humans are born free in this world. Gifted by nature, all the humans come to this world with a free will and certain freedom. But over time, people get bond their needs and starts relying on them. They become slaves of their desires, and it becomes hard to break their chains (Rousseau, 2012). Rousseau was of the view that the modern man depends heavily on his needs which becomes the cause of many social evils including exploitation and dominance. The dominance of other people to fulfill their needs and desires leads to poor self-esteem and depression. He thought that this is not a desirable way of how society should be working. Maintaining a difference between animals and humans, he introduced a concept of social contract theory. He encouraged the people to form a productive but genuinely independent political society. For this Rousseau' created a problem in the community where people are slaves of their wants, and this is why to achieve them they hurt other individuals. To avoid this naturally created problem of exercising all sorts of freedom especially physical liberty, he proposed a solution in the form a civil agreement. The agreement was in the way of social contract which stated that all the individuals must enter in the society with a particular type of deal. This agreement will force the people to limit their physical freedom so that other individuals do not get hurt from the actions. It was for mutual protection of all the individuals and to maintain peace and harmony in the society. The idea was to make the people more human by introducing discipline, morality and rational behavior in the community. People will have to sacrifice their physical freedom in the social agreement, but in return, they will receive more civil freedom as they will now be able to think and evaluate. This will promote the concept of rationality and morality in society. They will no longer be dependent on their instincts, needs, and impulses. In many contemporary societies, people even lack this kind of freedom as they are forced to obey their authoritative king or government and can't decide on their anything. These kings are not even accountable to their public depriving them of their civil freedom. Through this kind of agreement, Rousseau hopes to maintain a balance in the freedom for the people in society.

Powers of civil society according to Locke

John Locke is one of the influential philosophers of politics in modern times. He talked about the fundamental rights that people have even without the presence of any particular kind of society in his "Two Treatises of Government." According to him, men are by nature free and equal which was against the assumption that God has given equal chances to everyone to rule in the monarch. He made an argument on the rights of people which includes the right to life, the property, the freedom, and liberty, etc. and said that all of these rights have nothing to do with any society. He claimed that these rights are independent of the community and people willfully give some of their rights to the government so that they are defended, protected and are made disciplined. He also added that men are more suitable for undertaking the matters of political government under control as a result of the social contract made by the people. People give their powers and freedom to the government with the condition that they will receive stable, peaceful and comfortable lives for themselves. So governments solely exist with the choice of people to protect them and make goods and services available to them. Some governments failed to do this and are replaced by another kind of governments. He further states that that legitimate government will be based on the separation of powers. According to him, the first power is the legislative one, and it is also the supreme one because it makes laws for the other two powers for implementation. Legislative power has ultimate authority. However, the legal is still restricted and have to follow the natural law and specify punishments accordingly. Executive power is then given the responsibility to apply these laws for enforcement. Federative power is the power of government which act will act according to the natural law.

Role of God in Locke’s Second Treatise

Locke talked about the two kinds of laws regarding God, the divine law and the natural law. He said that the divine law according to traditional Christianity is the one that comes directly from God through revelations or prophets. They are very specific and cannot be easily discovered and explored. These laws are only applied to those people on whom they are directly revealed and top whom God wants to be bound to. These laws cannot be generalized for the whole public (Ashcraft, 1994). However, natural laws are those that can easily be discovered through reasoning and logic, and they can be applied to all the people of society because they are not hidden. Although Locke was in favor of natural law because they can easily be applied to anyone in the community he did not object on God's interference in laws as long as they were logical and reasonable according to him. For him, both the forms of laws were consistent and can also be overlapped in some cases but they cannot exist independently. Hence, Locke did not reject the stricter rules of the Bible in contrast to the ones derived by the natural laws. The problem only occurs if the teachings of the Bible are drastically different and are contradicted with natural law.

A requirement of stability in Hobbes

Hobbes was of the most regarded political philosophers of the 17th century whose work competes with the writings of Aristotle, Plato, Locke, Kant, and many other philosophers. Hobbes is remembered for his early development of the famous social contract theory in which he emphasized the existence of a sovereign authority that is absolute. This authority is formed by the power submission of the civil society to receive stability in the environment in return. He was in favor of the prevalence of rationality, morality, and discipline in the community and said that there is a need to have such an independent institution which protects the rights of the people. The social contract must be made to be facilitated by the unlimited, undivided power build with the help of people choice (Hobbes, 2006). His perspective of the social contract was politically quite strong to justify the reason for the existence of such a divine power over people. However, when it came to moral philosophy, he lacked the depth to convince the civil society for the requirements of the stability.

Assessing the role of God and religion in Hobbes

The book “Leviathan” by Thomas Hobbes discusses religion and politics by analyzing different academic factors in the world. The chapters of the book address all theological themes in depth, all the while focusing towards the significance of the author's work. The book argues on many different things such as the peace and social utility that is achieved in common wealth. Moreover, the paper discusses various aspects of good and bad such as differentiating the common-wealth, Christian common-wealth, and the kingdom of darkness. The biblical reference that is provided in the book is made through understanding the presence of God and religion. Moreover, the way it shapes a philosophical framework for the entire arguments to come in the book. The most attentive and influencing aspects of the book discuss the elementary motions, aspects of human nature, and the materialistic principles made by people living in the world.

The author tries to shape his argument in the book by narrating the nature of mankind that is inherited in them. This nature mostly depicts fear and violence. He discusses that mankind is always trying to find a way to destroy each other and put everything in jeopardy due to their nature. Humanity is so flawed that the only way to achieve peace is through constructing a Leviathan. The chapters in the book, discusses different issues one by one, such as the Christian doctrine, the philosophy of religion, the politics, etc. The author's philosophical methods provide proof of his principles which are based on geometrical conclusions. The fourth part of the book focuses on false religious beliefs and the role of God. He is the creator of all humanity and the universes, and the faith which he sets is the one to be observed by people. These principles of religion are what structures the basic argument in the book. Hobbs derive the conclusion to his book from discussing the fundamental steps that are driven from the irrefutable philosophy.

Works Cited

Ashcraft, Richard. "Locke’s political philosophy." The Cambridge Companion to Locke (1994): 226-251.

Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. A&C Black, 2006.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Rousseau: The Basic Political Writings: Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, Discourse on Political Economy, On the Social Contract, The State of War. Hackett Publishing, 2012.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Political Profile Of Pennsylvania's 5th Congressional House District

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Political Relationships Between Blacks And Latinos/Hispanics

Political relationships between blacks and Latinos/Hispanics

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Political relationships between blacks and Latinos/Hispanics

Introduction

We cannot deny that post-racial accomplishment slant were spread all through America during the presidential election held in 2008 and it kept going long till the inauguration ceremony. “When Barack Obama won both the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections, some pundits concluded that we now live in a “postracial America”” (Shaw et al., 2018). Many of the Americans thought that casting their votes for Obama at that time is proof that the United States has moved from its bigot past and is currently moving past race and ethnicity. Obama’s hope message meant that there is a hope of a future that is less racialized. Anyway, this inclination however inebriating it was, is brief. After some season of the introduction, the conduct of legislative issues returned to where it takes off. In the midterm election of 2010, violence and racialism is seen as was seen before. Politics of racialism does not change overnight. For this regard, Obama's election was an anomaly. Every political and demographical study, every indicator of socioeconomic factor shows that poverty, wealth, education, spatial segregation, incarceration rates, the pattern of voting is directly related to the race. America is the combat zone of the philosophy of two racially institutional requests that vie for power. The post-racialism claim that is developed by the conservatives so that it can dismantle public policies of race-consciousness such as confirmatory action, busing or even redistricting does not have the capability to sustain the data avalanche. Studies have shown that how racial material inequality and disparities will affect adversely American society.

Discussion

After the end of the Obama era, Trump got selected as a president in the year 2016. “Trump’s victory was built on Republican votes to be sure, but also included the votes of working-class Whites, some of whom had supported Democrat Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012” (Shaw et al., 2018). For a lot of the Americans, millions of voters were those that switched from Barack Obama to Donald Trump. According to the study, which is presented by the three political scientists from America, statistical data with a large sample is gathered of Obama-Trump switchers. The finding of the study is that these voters shift more on the account of xenophobia and racial hostility and not as the consequence of economic factors. White voters with anti-immigrant and racially conservative attitudes switch votes from Obama to the Trump at a higher rate than those individuals having progressively liberal perspectives concerning these issues. It is written by the paper authors that a little evidence is found of the economic marginality and dislocation on the significance of voting switch in the election of 2016.

This paper held fit to the studies of sizeable slate conducted over the period of previous 18 months or so, with most of them concluding the same thing that is: Tremendous evidence is present that voters of Trump are motivated by the resentment of racial segregation as well as intimidating sexism. With very less evidence of any economic stress related to it. This is not only a matter of ideological ax-grinding or historical interest. We can comprehend the exact manner by which the 2016 decision was influenced by the help of racism in molding how our point of view is alarmed with the midterm 2018 electorate run-up. In a more broad sense, it would help us in understanding the subtleties of the primordial divide in America over the racism issue and why the issue of racism will keep on politically break the nation for what's to come.

The study that is written by three scholars i.e. Tyler Reny of UCLA, Loren Collingwood of UC-Riverside, and Ali Valenzuela of Princeton University, composed a database that contains the information of 64,000 American voters. Inside this enormous example, the examination is limited to the white voters who changed from Obama in 2012 to Trump in 2016. After that, they split the white voter sample into two parts, between non-working and the class of working voters, and after that discover the common reason among the switches of switching the vote. To perform this task, they test is ran on three contrasting questions: test measuring scores on hostility/mass immigration, racial minorities directing attitude, and monetary pressure measure (e.g., regardless of whether the family pay of an individual is lower or higher than the pay of the median in the country of their inhabitance).

The produced results were very surprising. Firstly, the distinguishing characteristic of the vote switching is caused due to the immigration and racism directing attitude. The more conservative racially Obama voter was, the more likelihood is present that they will switch to vote for Donald Trump. On a similar note, the more liberal racially a Romney or voter of the third party was, the more chance is present that they would switch for the Clinton.

Secondly, in Trump switching, the class is highly irrelevant. Keeping the constant racial attitudes, the working-class of white voters were not to opt for switching to Trump. The class of white working voters who switched to the Trump tended to as high score as that of anti-immigrant and racial conservatism measures of attitudes of the wealthier switcher.

Thirdly, the measure of the correlation between the two economic stress and switching of the vote were weak or altogether non-existent. The evidence is minute for the supporting of "economic populism" or "economic anxiety" Trump surge explanation.

The writers of this study state that they have found the strong association between immigration attitudes and racist symbolism and switching for Trump and Clinton than other factors such as local economic dislocation or economic marginality and vote switching. In fact, the marginality was too small that the association between the vote switching and the economic marginality is negligible in either direction.

The findings presented by the study is counterintuitive as it seems: How it is possible that people who elected a black man as a president somehow becomes attracted to racial demagoguery of Trump? The premise that is unspoken behind this question is the certain sort of narration produced by the white redemption: By giving the vote to the Obama in the year 2008 and 2012, white American racial demon is exorcised. But in actuality, the truth is far from this sort of explanation. In 2008, Obama lost the 12 point votes of the white Americans in 2008 and this figure goes up in 2012 to 20 points(Reny et al., 2019). Another point to be noticed is that by voting Obama once or twice does not asserts that someone is automatically is removed the prejudice from himself against the immigrants or the black people. It is possible that anti-immigrant or anti-black sentiments are maintained while supporting Obama. Some other factors came into play in those cases such as financial collapse and the catastrophe of the Iraq War, which may have a predomination over social hang-ups of white voters in the election of 2008-2012.

The election of 2016 was dissimilar to previous elections. One reason for this is that the second term of Obama featured the racial conflict in a significant amount. The movement of "Black Lives Matter" was started in the year 2013. The Michael Brown killing in the year 2014 in Ferguson and the consequently the week of unrest and protest, kicked off a racially polarizing and massive national debate over the violence done by the police against the African Americans.

Secondly, the reason is that the very presence of Obama as the president was polarizing racially. Michael Tesler, from the University of California-Irvine who is a scholar, has in detail documented the effect of Obama's presence as a president to the racial lines produced by polarized America.

This thing would bode well that the development of this impact would be more grounded, longer the stay of Obama in the workplace, setting the significant kickback to organize in his last year.Third and the most important of them all, the two contesting candidates spun the election into a type of referendum on race relations in America. Trump in his campaign, called the Mexican immigrants as rapists and vows to build a US and Mexico wall. It is vowed by Trump in his campaign that he will ban the Muslims, and describe the life of black people in America as a hellscape of poverty and violence(Ricard, 2018). While the elections of 2012 in which Mitt Romney contested against Obama, the campaign by him is not so overt, which asserts that the likelihood of attracting the voter is less who held the racism latent and anti-immigrant attitudes.

Clinton in her campaign positioned herself as the racial justice champion. While the rhetoric by Barrack Obama on racism is that of typical post-racism(Richomme, 2012). Obama positioned that rather than divided, the country is more united while the Clinton goes out for issues of frontal nature such as immigration and police violence. There are many of the valid reasons for this discussion, for example, Clinton tried to use the rhetoric as mentioned above in order to gain the vote of minorities, while Obama was more inclined towards getting a vote from skittish whites.

Conclusion

In conclusion, every political and demographical study, every indicator of socioeconomic factor shows that the poverty, wealth, education, spatial segregation, incarceration rates, the pattern of voting is directly related to the race. The post-racialism claim that is developed by the conservatives so that it can dismantle public policies of race-consciousness such as confirmatory action, busing or even redistricting does not have the capability to sustain the data avalanche. According to several studies, racial material inequality and disparities will affect adversely American society.

References

Reny, T. T., Collingwood, L., & Valenzuela, A. A. (2019). Vote Switching in the 2016 Election: How Racial and Immigration Attitudes, Not Economics, Explain Shifts in White Voting. Public Opinion Quarterly, 83(1), 91-113.

Ricard, S. (2018). The Trump Phenomenon and the Racialization of American Politics. Revue LISA/LISA e-journal. Littératures, Histoire des Idées, Images, Sociétés du Monde Anglophone–Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-speaking World, 16(2).

Richomme, O. (2012). The post-racial illusion: racial politics and inequality in the age of Obama. Revue de recherche en civilisation américaine, (3).

Shaw, T., DeSipio, L., Pinderhughes, D., & Travis, T. M. C. (2018). Uneven roads: An introduction to US racial and ethnic politics. CQ Press.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Political Science

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What the U.S- Mexico Border Wall bring to us?

The border security has remained an issue of concern in the United States, particularly since 2016, Presidential elections have been a hot topic. Donald Trump has throughout used this issue to raise support for himself. After coming to the oval seat, the President has been supporting the building of the Border wall on the international border between the United States and America. Donald Trump- the President has many times in his election campaign and during his term in the office has voiced for this wall, as according to him this is the only way, the undocumented immigrants can be stopped and America could be made stand again. The interesting fact is that the President has called initially to the Mexican leadership to pay for the cost of the building of the wall, which later on was decided by the Congress that the U.S administration will pay for the expenses of this wall. Reacting to this the President stated that in the future, the Mexican authorities will pay for this cost in one way or in a direct way.

There is another side of this issue, which is the majority supported by the critiques of the President. They claim that doing such things can raise other concerns. For example, they claim that the immigrants will still be coming to the border crossings and their life could come at stake. They also claim that this endangers the climate of that area too, as much part of the forest will be cut down. The critiques of this will also claim that a huge sum of money at the first instance would be spent on building and then annually much budget would be allocated in maintaining the security of the wall. This is the case at present with this wall, with the Presidency at one side and the opponents mainly the Democrats on another side.

The Mexico border wall issue is not new into American politics. Its histories could be traced since 1848 when the United States took over the land from the Mexican authorities and the Rio Bravo was officially called as the border between the United States and Mexico. It has been mentioned in many of the researches before that the human movement in, across and outside the border numbers to approximately thirty million, much of them are although the legal immigrants but they also include huge numbers of the illegal movement also ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ktmxgpev","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Heyman)","plainCitation":"(Heyman)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":26,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ETAZSI3G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ETAZSI3G"],"itemData":{"id":26,"type":"article-journal","title":"Constructing a virtual wall: Race and citizenship in US–Mexico border policing","container-title":"Journal of the Southwest","page":"305–333","volume":"50","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Constructing a virtual wall","author":[{"family":"Heyman","given":"Josiah McC"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Heyman). This trend in the human development raised after when the United States invited the Mexican labor to work on the farms in the United States, during World War Two. After the war was completed, and the United States border forces were back at their fronts in the United States especially on the border area between the United States and Mexico, the U.S authorities took serious notices of the illegal movements at the borders.

President Eisenhower repatriated some one to two million Mexican back to their own country. Despite such steps by the authorities in the United States, the illegal movement continued and till date, it remains a high problem for the U.S authorities. There are at present strict restrictions before entering into the United States, but due to the lengthy and broad border, these restrictions are considered not enough ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8yjhJnvV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vila)","plainCitation":"(Vila)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":28,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/B4N3S2XZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/B4N3S2XZ"],"itemData":{"id":28,"type":"book","title":"Ethnography at the Border","publisher":"U of Minnesota Press","volume":"13","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Vila","given":"Pablo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vila). It is a routine exercise that the bodies of the dead immigrants could be found on the border. This shows the life dangers which exists in the crossing and ultimately entering into the United States. Behind all such reasons of entering into the United States, it is the economic concerns. Due to the weak economic conditions of Mexico and for finding better opportunities for job, these immigrants move into the U.S, with taking that much risk- much importantly the risk to their lives.

Considering the above facts and the historical consequences of all such things, a thorough and a non- biased analysis requires many other aspects also. For example, there exist many animal species, which are also at risk of displacement. Cohn explains that working both in the U.S and the Mexico which concerns with the displacement of such species have also raised many concerns over the building of this wall ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"AdLRRKnv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cohn)","plainCitation":"(Cohn)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":27,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H7NP85HP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H7NP85HP"],"itemData":{"id":27,"type":"article-journal","title":"The environmental impacts of a border fence","container-title":"BioScience","page":"96–96","volume":"57","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Cohn","given":"Jeffrey P."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cohn). In addition to this many such international organizations have also called that it is useless to build such a wall when there are already many sewer restrictions are at place. Such organizations and the critiques of the Trump organization also claim that this wall brings nothing but the human loss, the mega cost, the animal displacements, etc. Near to the Arizona side of the border, many mammal animals have alone been found dead. The Owl species of this side of the border are one of the rare species in the U.S. if this wall is built despite the presence of such huge concerns of the animal husbandry organizations, the ecology of this large area will be disturbed too much of the extent.

The second most important non- political aspect of this wall is the environmental concerns. Many of the non- partisan organizations that work for the betterment of the ecology and the environment of the globe claim that considering the huge ecology of the border area- it is pertinent to let the area be that much eco- friendly as it is. However, at part of the White House authorities, they have put aside all such concerns. In the early 2000s, such greenery friendly steps were also ignored. Fox mentions that at that time the federal authorities oversaw all the environmental friendly concerns just to allow the barriers building to continue ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SkXXnGul","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fox)","plainCitation":"(Fox)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":29,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/99MACXAR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/99MACXAR"],"itemData":{"id":29,"type":"book","title":"The fence and the river: Culture and politics at the US-Mexico border","publisher":"U of Minnesota Press","volume":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The fence and the river","author":[{"family":"Fox","given":"Claire F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fox). If such steps are taken in the future, the whole ecosystem of the area and the area near to the border will be affected badly as the human environment is also dependent over these natural habitats of ours. It will therefore much bad to make wipe off such species who have all the right to live on the face of the earth.

The layout design of the proposed wall suggests that the area of the two thousand miles will be covered once the wall has been built. The experts who have been working on such projects at other places claim that such projects remain insufficient if at any side the economic situations remain bleak. The cost projected at present for this wall is more than two billion U.S dollars. The financial experts opine that this will take the U.S towards getting more debts from both external and internal sources. Another important aspect of this is that the people who enter into the U.S have a valid visa, the problem with them remains that these people outlive their stays. This is the real issues. The people who come to the U.S illegally are not that much more- when compared to the people with visa. Similarly, there are more administrative reasons which will be short enough to stop illegal immigrants from coming to the U.S.

This shows the ineffectiveness of the wall, compared with the fences which exist today. Another thing to this is the human smugglers who are the primary reasons for making sums of people at the border. The people who cross the border into the U.S are not the ones who came there individual but they are brought here by the human smugglers. Also, the people who fled from Mexico are not the Mexican, they include the people of other nationalities also. Mainly the Africans and some Europeans which consider this way of entering to the U.S as more cheap and safe. In light of these researches the critiques of the wall suggest that despite building this wall, Trump administration might consider helping countries such as the Mexican authorities and the authorities of other countries administratively. According to them, this is a cost-effective and enduring way to end the crisis of the illegal immigrations snide the U.S.

The White House administration at present very much politically motivated for building this wall. Many political commentators believe that the administration of the U.S is by choice standing at the point of no- return, and they have taken this decision a more kind of political staunch from which now they are shy of tracing themselves back. This administration has also planned to increase the number of security personnel’s (the patrolling guards) to ensure that the numbers of illegal immigrants is dropped. The financial expert opines that such hiring will need drastic budgetary cuts from the accounts of the other institutions. Along with the hiring process, their procurements, and finally their pieces of training will also add much to the budget of the federal government. The patrolling experts have also much time voiced that considering the rough terrain of this area, it is not beneficial to hire more such guards as these people quit their jobs too early and after every bi-annual, the situation comes to the similar point.

Thus, this wall about which the President is much vocal brings with it many human losses, the environmental consequences, the human losses and more importantly a bad image to the American nations. The building of this wall just reflects the irrational stances of the present administration and people consider that they are shaming form taking administrative measures as it will bring them to a politically down position. This must always be kept in mind that these immigrants who are fleeing to the country in which they want to make their life- in the country which at the time required the forefathers of these people to share their burdens at farms and at many other workplaces.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cohn, Jeffrey P. “The Environmental Impacts of a Border Fence.” BioScience, vol. 57, no. 1, 2007, pp. 96–96.

Fox, Claire F. The Fence and the River: Culture and Politics at the US-Mexico Border. Vol. 1, U of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Heyman, Josiah McC. "Constructing a Virtual Wall: Race and Citizenship in the US–Mexico Border Policing." Journal of the Southwest, vol. 50, no. 3, 2008, pp. 305–333.

Vila, Pablo. Ethnography at the Border. Vol. 13, U of Minnesota Press, 2003.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Political Science

Political Science

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Political Science

MODULE 11 (SEGMENT 11)

Article: Strengths and Weaknesses of the 2 Party System

As every coin has two sides. The same applies here with the 2 party system as there are several strengths and weaknesses of the 2 party system. Some of the credible strengths of 2 party system are; 1) all of the information about politics becomes much easier to analyze and understand, 2) availability of several interests an opinions are accommodated, 3) political stability is gained, and 4) the voting choice become less or fewer.

In terms of weaknesses, the 2 party system is considered as weaker because 1) it bring the government to a standstill position, 2) promotes corruption, and 3) ignores alternative options and provides limited options.

How should the political parties adapt to new technology?

Ans: The political parties can adapt to modern technologies in a number of ways. First and foremost, they can use social media for their campaigning. It will save resources like paper and fuel used, decreasing the overall expense of their political campaign. Media like Facebook and Twitter can be used to pinpoint the issues faced by the populace in their locality instead of going door-to-door, which is the traditional way of public campaigning. Corner meetings can be replaced by Facebook Live sessions, which can easily address Diasporas in real-time. In the elections of 2016, US President Donald j. trump hired a firm called Cambridge Analytica to pinpoint the issues of the "Swing States" using social media and succeeded in capture a crucial number of votes to secure the “Top Job”.

MODULE 12 (SEGMENT 12)

2000 Election: What Happened?

It is very crucial for me that I learned about the "2000 Election: What Happened”. In brief, in 2000 Election, the Republican George W. Bush has pitted against Democrat AI Gore. The basic election has shown that the popular vote has been won by Gore while the required electoral votes (270) for the presidency have been garnered. While in the end, the result of the election was mainly finalized by the Supreme Court of the United States where the decision has been made in favor of Bush based on 5-4 votes.

What are the characteristics that you appreciate in a candidate?

Ans: The most appreciated quality in a candidate is far-sightedness. It simply means that the candidate running for any political office should have a detailed plan to make his constituency prosperous. Another characteristic that is highly appreciated in any candidate is his ability to come up with a solution to the age-old issues that are plaguing society, like unemployment, crime, and access to natural resources. Lastly, a candidate is highly appreciated in a society when he is free of any scandalous accusations. People may forgive a corrupt individual, but they would never forgive a person with accusations on his character. William Jefferson Clinton, popularly known as Bill Clinton became highly unpopular with his scandal with a White House Intern Monica Lewinsky surfaced, even though he managed to improve the internal debt situation of the US by a considerable margin.

MODULE 13 (SEGMENT 13)

Article: Civil Rights

The fight for Civil Rights goes back to the 1800s where the biggest strides have been made in 1950-60 mainly for African Americans. This Civil Rights then saw boycotts and protests affect legislative change while it is often used to refer to the fights and struggles of the population especially the struggle of African Americans.

How should the government balance security with freedom?

Ans: There is a paradoxical relationship between security and freedom while governments are concerned. If the government gives complete freedom to the populace, then there will be no security. That is why it reserves certain rights to itself so that we would walk the streets. For example, the government reserves the right to administer capital punishment to people that kill their fellow citizens or the people who commit treason with the ruling regime. The government often balances both security and freedom. Check posts are established at critical points so that the safety of the public is not compromised, which is the whole point of establishing a government. Similarly, the government imposes a set of laws so that a stable system is established in society and people manage to conduct their day-to-day businesses with ease and safety.

MODULE 14 (SEGMENT 14)

Article: The Domain of Government vs. the Domain of the Private Sector

It has been found very interesting and fruitful with the study and analysis of the article suggested in this course. The article covers even all aspects of the terms, the domain of government vs the domain of the private sector. According to the research findings as well as according to the authors’ view, many political observers have observed an inquiring similarity between the domain and of government and domain of the private sector. In the recent past time, the last congress almost led to a joint conference between both of the parties where some important elements have been comprised.

The difference between these two domains is that people, the public or community mainly draw the line between the domains of government and the domain of the private sector. While, domain of both and the difference between government and public permeates both ideologies. In short, the difference in the domain of the government and the domain of the private sector is dependent on the setting and standards.

What policy tools are available to the government on the economy?

As one of the main and major activities of the government is to control, manage and run the economy, there is a need for different policy tools to the government on the economy. Hence, the main policy tools available to the government are taxation and spending. The policy tool called tax is used to influence the economy through the determination of how much funds or financial resources e.g. money the government should spend on different things, activities, and projects, etc. while what amounts should be spent by the public. For example, if the government is in need to spend more, then the government puts more taxes and vice versa.

Spending is the second economy tool to the government for managing and running as well as stabilizing the economy. This tool is available to the government to drive financial resources such as money of the government in different sectors which are required for the economic boost. In short, both the economy tools are available to the government and governments use them to control, stabilize, and run the economy in a fine and efficient way or manner.

MODULE 15 (SEGMENT 15)

Article: Friedrich von Hayek: Supply-Side vs. Demand Side

Friedrich Hayek is an Australian economist whose contribution to the studies of economics is highly credible and significant even all over the world. Friedrich is majorly known for his defense of classical liberalism. He has contributed a lot to the psychology, politics, and economics. The articles about Friedrich or his work is used in the current times and thought even in the entire world.

Supply Side is an economic concept proposed and presented by Ronald Reagan. This concept is aimed to increase the supply of goods and services available to consumers. The main theme behind this concept is that businesses would put more efforts towards production and research and development of goods and services if the government keeps corporate taxes down or low. Another logic is when a huge number of products are applied to the market place then there would be more chances of more revenues. It would be so because consumers swill is more likely to buy things when they see more things available to them. On the other opposing side, the demand side is the economic concept that focuses on increasing the demands of goods and services. The idea and concept behind increasing demands are to increase the wealth level of the consumers or buyers. The ways to increase demand is the creation of more jobs and the provision of higher wages and other financial benefits to the people.

Would you advocate free trade agreements to spur growth?

Yes! I will advocate free trade agreements for the purpose to spur growth. I would do or prefer to advocate free trade agreements because it has several benefits. The benefits like;

free trade agreements help increase the value of freedom of business and operations

it assists and reinforces the rule of law

Free trade agreements foster economic development in developing nations or poor countries instead of only empowering economic development in developed countries.

MODULE 16 (SEGMENT 16)

Article: Realism vs. Idealism

In the article, the author and researcher have put a searching criticism on the theory of Protagoras. The author prefaces his discussion with the words “A wise man is not likely to talk nonsense, let us try to understand him.” The study (article) shows that the author’s view is that idealists and the wise men are not interchangeable. The remark has been made by the fact and reality that in the current discussion and analysis views are highly fastened on the idealist and this is scarcely exaggerating to distinguish as sheer insanities. In short, a number of misrepresentations have been considered for clarifying the atmosphere of Realism and Idealism.

Broadly, what are America’s foreign policy objectives?

The foreign policy of the United States is designed regarding the interaction of the state with other foreign states and how the US set standards and policies of interaction with the organizations, systems, and corporations of the country (US).

The objectives of the foreign policy of America is very wide-ranging and complex. The officially stated objectives of the foreign policy of the state include many things such as; 1) including setting standards for the bureaus and offices in the department of states of the US, 2) as mentioned in the foreign policy agenda of the United States, “to develop and sustain a more democratic, safe, secure, and prosperous world for the US public and international community.” Additionally, the goals of controlling exports such as nuclear hardware and nuclear technology and secure American business around the world. Despite this, the US foreign policy also includes securing international education, prosperity, and protection of US citizens outside the US.

References

Lasswell, H. D. (2017). The future of political science. Routledge.

Lowndes, V., Marsh, D., & Stoker, G. (Eds.). (2017). Theory and methods in political science. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Mauk, D., & Oakland, J. (2017). American civilization: an introduction. Routledge.

Mercurio, J. (2017). POL S 102 Section 15 Introduction to American and California Government and Politics.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 9 Words: 2700

Political Science

Political Science

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Political Science

Introduction

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion,

or prohibiting the free exercise thereof;

or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press;

or the right of the people peaceably to assemble,

and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

(Amendment-I)

The United States of America won independence from the British Empire on July 4, 1776, and the US forefathers passed a document on September 17, 1787 to create a national government consisting of Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary, and to divide power between the center and the states; the document is called the US constitution. The first amendment to the constitution was submitted for ratification on September 25, 1789, and the states adopted this amendment on December 15, 1791. This amendment supposedly empowers media which claims to be the forth pillar of the country. This amendment prohibits Congress to propagate any particular religion or to create hindrance for anyone to practice a religion. Moreover, it criminalize media censorship and oppression of the peaceful protesters (Franks, & Ribet, 2009). The media celebrate revere this amendment as a milestone in the history and claim full freedom of speech under the light of this amendment. Moreover, it considers itself the guardian of society that protects the American values and helps the society to grow dynamically.

Body

The first amendment to the constitution appeared soon after the promulgation of the constitution and it solved a great matter that helped the USA to evolve as a democratic society. The third clause of the first amendment is typically about media and it mentions clearly the even Congress do not have legitimate power to censor any media platform (newspaper, TV, or radio, etc.) or any media person (Boykoff, 2012). Precise description of the freedom of press nulls any kinds of doubt that media has legal authorization to claim a credible place in society. Thomas McPhail argues in his article Development Communication: Reframing the Role of Media (2009) that the first amendment where gives the right of speech, it also increases its responsibilities. It must have a code of ethics to follow while spreading news. The current accusations that media spread fake news question the credibility of this forth pillar.

The United States is a democratic country and a democratic state attempts to provide maximum possible freedom to its citizens. Democracy belongs to people as the honorable President Abraham Lincoln pointed out that democracy is the government of the by the people, of the people, of the people, for the people. Such a kind of society requires all the minds to contribute to the development of the country. The legislators make required laws to facilitate the people and the executives execute those laws for the same purpose whereas the judiciary watch if the laws are being executed with their soul. The possibility of error still remains as masses might not feel satisfied with the laws made by the legislators. Here comes media to point out the flaws in the laws in action and suggest possible changes apart from suggesting the forming of new laws. This amendment helped America to evolve as a dynamic society where the better law formation process continues. This American tradition of free-press is a norm in the large part of the world including South and Central Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Authoritarian states like Russia, China, and the middle-eastern states have a different rather opposite approach regarding the freedom of media. They do not believe that there is any need of having this forth pillar because they think that their legislators have enough capability to form the required laws for people (McPhail, 2009). They support the existence of only guided media. Therefore, media in such states cannot claim to have the status of the forth pillar of the society. Joseph Man Chan writes in his article China: Media Liberalization under Authoritarianism (2003) that China has the potential to become a super-power in the contemporary century, but it cannot rise until it has free-press rather it might fall like the Soviets (Chan, & Qiu, 2003).

Conclusion

The first amendment to the American constitution awards media with full freedom and authority to play a critical role for the betterment of society. This assurance by the American forefathers enabled media to play a productive role in society. It is the reason the media claim to be the guardian of American society because it played instrumental role for the prosperity and development of America. Such kind of freedom might not surprise an American or a person living in any Capitalist country, but it could be quite alarming for a person who lives in an Authoritarian country (Chin, 2011). The non-capitalist and non-democratic countries feel comfortable with a subjugated kind of Media, but they perhaps do not know that a society cannot develop like America without having free-press. Nevertheless, the media’s claim they it is the guardian of the American democratic values is justifiable.

References

McPhail, T. L. (Ed.). (2009). Development communication: Reframing the role of the media. John Wiley & Sons.

Chan, J. M., & Qiu, J. L. (2003). China: Media liberalization under authoritarianism. In Media Reform (pp. 39-58). Routledge.

Franks, S., & Ribet, K. (2009). China—Africa media relations. Global Media and Communication, 5(1), 129-136.

Boykoff, J. (2012). US media coverage of the Cancun climate change conference. PS: Political Science & Politics, 45(2), 251-258.

Chin, Y. C. (2011). Policy process, policy learning, and the role of the provincial media in China. Media, Culture & Society, 33(2), 193-210.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Political Science

Influence of John Locke’s Social Contract Theory on America’s political, economic and social structure

[Student’s Name]

[Institution affiliated

Influence of John Locke’s Social Contract Theory on America’s political, economic and social structure

John Locke’s Social Contract theories influence America’s political, economic, and social foundations. Locke wrote extensively about America’s socio-political and economic, the writings that have continued to influence America’s thoughts and actions. Locke’s social contract arguments about citizen’s rights to revolt against their oppressors were tremendously influential in shaping America’s democratic revolutions that followed the attainment of independence. According to Locke, the state of nature and humankind “is a state of perfect and complete liberty to conduct one’s life as one best sees fit, free from the interference of others” (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017 p5). This statement shapes America’s political landscape by encouraging them to fight oppressive regimes such as Jim Crow regimes and exercise their freedoms

America’s entrenchment of capitalism and private ownership property stem from Locke’s natural laws, which gives people rights to own property. Locke believed that private property endows economic freedoms and free trade because it enables people to own and control factors of production (Biernat, 2015). Private ownership, as practiced in modern American society, makes people own assets that allow them to generate more wealth. Individual liberty is a strong basis for America’s constitution and natural law. If a person tries to limit or control another person’s liberty to own property, that person is threatening the income stream hence denying and obstructing natural law. Likewise, Locke believed that everyone is created equal with certain unalienable social rights, among them the right to pursue happiness. The America’s social system is guided by strong believe in unalienable social rights, which are entrenched in the constitutions and guarded by America’s justice systems.

References

Biernat, M (2015) John Locke Economic Theory. Retrieved from https://political-economy.com/john-locke/

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2017) Social Contract Theory. Retrieved from https://www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Political Science

Political Science

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Political Science

1.

According to Locke’s Second Treatise, political power is the right of some people to only make laws for the public good. It means that no person has control over the other person.

2.

Men living in a state of nature are those rulers or governors who have an independent government. Thus the situation for such men is that they are free and equal ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BGBbbh58","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Locke, 1728)","plainCitation":"(Locke, 1728)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":191,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/F5QIPUZU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/F5QIPUZU"],"itemData":{"id":191,"type":"book","title":"Two Treatises of Government: in the former, the false principles and foundation of Sir Robert Filmer [in his “Patriarcha”], and his followers, are detected and overthrown. The latter, is an essay concerning the true original, extent, and end of Civil Government..","publisher":"A. Bettesworth","author":[{"family":"Locke","given":"John"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1728"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Locke, 1728).

3.

The role of legislative is to provide justice to the people and decide the rights of the people according to the standing laws. The legislative cannot take the part of someone’s private property

4.

In “The Declaration of Independence" it is stated that all men are created equal; this is the idea of self-evident truth, which is borrowed from John Locke.

5.

The reason for the formal declaration was to let the "supreme judge of the world" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BgF1IsbO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jefferson, 1952)","plainCitation":"(Jefferson, 1952)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":193,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/QY544IR3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/QY544IR3"],"itemData":{"id":193,"type":"book","title":"The declaration of independence","publisher":"Encyclopedia Britannica","author":[{"family":"Jefferson","given":"Thomas"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1952"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jefferson, 1952) know that they are free now. It was necessary to state the reasons so that people can understand the facts.

6.

The purpose of the government is to secure the rights of the people. When the government is unable to do this the safety and happiness of the people is affected. They derive their power from the consent of the people.

7.

All men are created equal means that no one has power over the other. The conflict that may have stemmed from this statement is that this statement is degrading the authority of the kings and rulers.

8

The king has violated the right of freedom of trade and freedom of private property. Jefferson blamed the king because he had caused injuries to the people.

9.

The declaration is revered because this was a document which explained the concept of self-evidence in few words and gave the concept of democracy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LmhYPEx4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lucas, 1989)","plainCitation":"(Lucas, 1989)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":196,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/NN4JVG6K"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/NN4JVG6K"],"itemData":{"id":196,"type":"article-journal","title":"Justifying America: The Declaration of Independence as a rhetorical document","container-title":"American rhetoric: Context and criticism","page":"67-130","author":[{"family":"Lucas","given":"Stephen E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lucas, 1989)

10.

Yes, because Jefferson made it clear that all men are equal and no one has the authority to rule them.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Jefferson, T. (1952). The declaration of independence. Encyclopedia Britannica.

Locke, J. (1728). Two Treatises of Government: in the former, the false principles and foundation of Sir Robert Filmer [in his “Patriarcha"], and his followers are detected and overthrown. The latter is an essay concerning the true original, extent, and end of Civil Government.. A. Bettesworth.

Lucas, S. E. (1989). Justifying America: The Declaration of Independence as a rhetorical document. American Rhetoric: Context and Criticism, 67–130.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Political Science

Student’s Name

Instructor’s Name

Course Code

Date

Political Socialization and Public Opinion

Political socialization and public opinion is regarded as factors which shape opinion of people on matters of political in the country. The political values are built out of political sensitization. In the United States, the most important political socialization is the family and friends, clubs and organization where we belong, talk show, pop culture, print media, and pundits and cementers. According to Neundorf and Smets (23), the debates and news on political issues covered or discussed is core to the socialization and normally shape people’s political opinion. However, every country or society has what drive the political formation.

Americans see their country as one of the greatest country in the world. Most Americans believed their country has achieved a lot in terms of democratic space and provision of fundamental rights. They believe in their political formation as respect the status which represents American values. Opinion polls conducted shows that 60% of America is the greatest country in the world CITATION Jam15 \p 12 \l 1033 (Davies 12). Though many people disagree with political opinions, I agree with most political opinions. The political opinions represent what Americans think about their country and it mostly used during the political campaigns to influence voters in a certain direction. However, I disagree with opinion polls to some extended especially political opinions conducted by radio talk show, TV station with formed opinion which supports certain political party because of the bias on the opinion. For example, an opinion conducted by Fox Station would be on the side of Republics and other median houses which have declared openly to be on the side of certain political parties. It would be difficult to trust the information. This makes the liberal and conservatives to see opinion polls differently. The opinion polls are viewed based on who conducted the opinion poll. So whoever publish the opinion poll who be viewed first before even discussing the content ant result of the poll. I trust an opinion poll to an extent and the trust depends on the firm which conducted the opinion poll.

Moreover, this happens because of the bias on the way opinion poll questions are structured to give a certain result. The manipulation of the opinion poll occurs at the time when an opinion poll is conducted. The way questions are structured can result to bias result which favors either liberal or conservatives. The traditional conservatives and liberals have total different opinion on how matters of national important should be conducted and these normally used to shape the opinion as reporteed by the Associated Press and NORC (21). However, in order to get the truth of the political opinion poll, it is good to look at the questions structure, the method used to analyze the data. However, it would important to have a look at several other opinions poll regarding an issue of contentious to get the result of the opinion poll from other organization. It is not proper to rely on only one opinion poll from one organization. For instance, it would be advisable to look at the opinion poll from CNN, Fox, Gallup and CNBC and other organization before regarding an opinion a liar or bias.

The exit polls predict the final election result. In the United States, most exit polls have correctly predicted the presidential result. This makes the exit polls more reliable and can be depended on to know who is more likely to be elected the president, governor, senator and other positions in the United States. It is pointed out that people tend to liar or give false information to during the interview so that they can influence the mass or the people to their side. The liar is meant to shape the opinion of others. In brief, the opinion poll is used to shape the political minds of people and it is important to have honest polls, which majority of Americans can rely on.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Associated Press and Norc. "Global Issues: Americans’ Foreign Policy Priorities." The AP-

NORC Center For Public Affairs Research (2015): 2-15.

Davies, James. "The Family's Role in Political Socialization." The Anal of American Academy

of Politcal and social Science (2015): 2-31.

Neundorf, Anja and Kaat Smets. "Political Socialization and the Making of Citizens." Political

Socialization and the Making of Citizens (2017): 2-15.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Political Science

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Political Science

Response to Question 3

One of history’s most important revolutions resulted due to a conflict between the British government and the people living in the colonies of Britain. These colonies were also called American colonies which became the reason of the war known as The American Revolutionary War. The reason of the conflict was several tax measures that the crown and his majesty passed between the years 1764 and 1774, which the colonists strongly opposed. A principle stance was taken against the taxes by the American leaders because the laws that were created by British government offered no representation of people who were being taxed. At that time, only uptown and well-off class had the right to vote in America and in England but even the colonized American people were given no right to express their opinions on the parliament decisions and actions. So, the deprived colonists started the “No taxation without representation” mantra. When the British government responded restlessly, colonists started opposing the policies of the government along with challenging English rule, and created revolutionaries well known as sons of liberty or liberty boys. This group was responsible for the propagation of terror as they directly involved those people who violently opposed the dynamics of the British rule. Many leaders came forward for the cause of revolution like Benjamin Franklin, Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, and opposed the British lawmakers. The ideals of a renowned philosopher, John Locke were followed by these men which were analogous to the ideals on which the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America is based. This concept shed light in the announcement of independence, several state constitutions and the bill of rights.

The sudden eruption of protests intensified to massacres in Boston in 1770, burning of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772 and then Boston tea party in 1773. In response, the government closed the port of Boston. In September 1774, several delegates from the thirteen colonies met at the First Continental Congress to respond and by end of spring of 1775, battles of Concord and Lexington were fought between colonial minutemen and the British army because the British army tried to take over American weapons near Boston. Then in May 1775, a second continental congress met and established the continental army under the supervision and authority of George Washington. The following month, the battle of Bunker Hill was fought and Olive branch petition for peace was offered to King George which was rejected. Then congress commissioned a committee of five men and drafted the official statement of its position. The Declaration of Independence signed the separation of the monarchy and the creation of a new nation, the United States of America ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ghnouVfv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wallace)","plainCitation":"(Wallace)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":403,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/2TEZ4843"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/2TEZ4843"],"itemData":{"id":403,"type":"webpage","title":"American Revolution | Causes, Battles, Aftermath, & Facts","container-title":"Encyclopedia Britannica","abstract":"American Revolution (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and many North American colonists.","URL":"https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Wallace","given":"Willard"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,25]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wallace). The world was surprised when this young nation of militiamen overwhelmed one of the best armies in the world. The declaration of independence signaled the separation from the monarchy of British rule and resulted in the creation of a new nation that was named “The United States of America”. The world was surprised when this fledgling nation of militiamen overpowered and defeated one of the finest armies in the world.

Liberty, independence and republicanism are the powerful causes and with firm commitment, the patriots have worked for these causes and brought the revolution that caused many social changes in American society.

The first change that appeared soon after the revolution was the abolition of slavery. Prior to the American Revolution, every new world colony has legally sanctioned slavery and every colony has outnumbered the population of slaves. In the late 1770s, nearly twice as many Africans were in the bondage of slavery throughout the colony of New York and within Georgia. The revolution brought about abolition in all the northern states by 1804 even in the southern colonies, the revolution brought liberation, abolition of strict policies and banned the importation of slaves from one place to another. People started voluntarily freeing their slaves and this resulted in the freedom of 10,000 slaves in Virginia and Massachusetts by judicial decree ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uHSMI7mG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hummel)","plainCitation":"(Hummel)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":405,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/28TSVKKG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/28TSVKKG"],"itemData":{"id":405,"type":"webpage","title":"Benefits of the American Revolution: An Exploration of Positive Externalities","container-title":"Econlib","abstract":"It has become de rigueur, even among libertarians and classical liberals, to denigrate the benefits of the American Revolution. Thus, libertarian Bryan Caplan writes:  “Can anyone tell me why American independence was worth fighting for?… [W]hen you ask about specific libertarian policy changes that came about because of the Revolution, it’s hard to get a decent answer. …","URL":"https://www.econlib.org/library/Columns/y2018/HummelAmericanrevolution.html","title-short":"Benefits of the American Revolution","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Hummel","given":"Jeffrey"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,25]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hummel). The second change was the separation of church and state.as a result of revolution the five southern states and New York disestablished itself from the Anglican Church and adopted the constitution. Through amendment United States become the first country to separate church and state at the national level. The third change was adoption of Republican government with limitations on state power incorporate in bills of right. The reform of the penal codes all over the colonies and making them less severe, and eliminating brutal punishments as ear cropping and branding. The fourth big change after the revolution was extinguishing the remains of feudalism and aristocracy. The feudal land tax, primogeniture and entail are abolished in all the new states. This was also a blow against hereditary privilege and the patriarchal family and facilitated the rights of daughters and widows to possess property CITATION Bai17 \l 1033 (Bailyn).

Another revolution that took place in France was different from that of the American Revolution. Unlike French; American did not fight for abstraction.at first Americans also took up arms against British but it was a different scenario then the French revolution, Americans did it to protect and preserve their traditional rights of Englishman. The Americans only slogan was ‘’no taxation without representation” and it was Americans chief complaints. When this becomes impossible to achieve then the Americans fought for their right and declared independence and won it in the battle ground. Americans fought for the tangible goals and to preserve their traditional right rather than to overthrow and established social order. The American Revolution was more about home rule unlike the French whose revolution was about who should rule at home. So, the French took on the Sisyphean task of striving for abstractions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hLv3ECee","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jensen)","plainCitation":"(Jensen)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":407,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/PBCR4D25"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/PBCR4D25"],"itemData":{"id":407,"type":"book","title":"The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-constitutional History of the American Revolution 1774-1781","publisher":"Univ of Wisconsin Press","number-of-pages":"318","source":"Google Books","abstract":"Events surrounding the writing and ratification of the first constitution are recounted and interpreted.","ISBN":"978-0-299-00204-6","note":"Google-Books-ID: pFXLAMC1xtUC","title-short":"The Articles of Confederation","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Jensen","given":"Merrill"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1970"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jensen). They fought for liberty, equality and fraternity and these cannot be achieved through force by the state. The Americans state foundation was laid down upon the experiences of the past and that was the guide for their future and The French, on the other hand not only experienced troubles but also defied these problems. Reason unrestrained and unguided by history and experience proved unable to establish stable government or to secure liberty in France. Instead, it led them to descend into the Terror, the reign of Napoleon, and, ultimately, to the restoration of the monarchy.

The American Revolution freed the colonists from the British rule and it gave fresh blow and hope to other colonists of the world that they can free themselves from monarchy if united. The revolution then spread across the globe and opened ways to all the other revolutions like the French revolution, Haiti, South Africa and approached the subcontinent or south Asia. The revolution ended the cruelties and hardship of the monarchy and all civic and social inequalities or injustices. It resulted in a new united nation.

Works Cited:

Bailyn, Bernard. The ideological origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press, 2017. ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hummel, Jeffrey. “Benefits of the American Revolution: An Exploration of Positive Externalities.” Econlib, https://www.econlib.org/library/Columns/y2018/HummelAmericanrevolution.html. Accessed 25 Nov. 2019.

Jensen, Merrill. The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution 1774-1781. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1970.

Wallace, Willard. “American Revolution | Causes, Battles, Aftermath, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution. Accessed 25 Nov. 2019.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Political Science Final

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Question Answers

Congress uses committees to get work done. List and explain the four types/categories of committees which are used in Congress.

Answer: There are three main types of committees in U.S Congress which are standing committees, select or special committees and joint committees related to other administrative tasks. Other committees such as the party committee, task force committee and committee of a congressional member organization are different from those of established committees. Task force committees are formed by resolutions, joint committee constitutes members of both houses (Senate and Congress), whereas the select or special committees are formed by separate resolutions of the houses.

What is the role of the Speaker of the House in the House of Representatives? What is the Vice President’s role in the Senate?

Answer: The role of the speaker of the House of Representatives is more like the custodian of the house. He or She acts as the presiding officer of the House, administers the oath of office of the members and works to maintain order and decorum of the house. In addition to this he also recognizes the members to speak on the floor of the house. Other than overseeing the Presidential tasks in the absence of the President of the United States, the Vice President's role in the Senate is constitutional. Vice President is not allowed to preside over a session of the Senate or cast a vote (just in case of breaking a tie).

Explain the role of the Congressional Budget Office. Are they important in controlling how Congress allocates money? Why?

Answer: The Congressional budget office role is non- partisan. It produces an independent analysis of budgetary and economic issues presented to Congress. This office issue reports about budget allocations and provide analysis relevant to the tasks in hand of Congress. The Congressional budget office releases annual reports and proposes the cost estimation for the proposed legislation. The Budget Office cannot recommend policy changes to Congress. In consideration of all these roles, the Congressional budget office role is important.

What is the Office of Management and Budget? What do they do for the President?

Answer: The office of the Management and Budget is the largest Office inside the executive offices of the President of the United States. The OMB is required to produce the Presidential budgets. In addition to this, it looks after the policies and quality of the agencies programs and analyzes if they comply with the President's policies and the coordinates of the policy initiatives.

Who has control of the budget for the United States? Explain the role of the President and Congress in allocating the money throughout the country.

Answer: The control of the United States budget largely rests with Congress. It looks after the role of other executive branches in the allocation and usage of the federal budget. There is a notion that since each U.S citizen is affected by the way how the government allocates budget, therefore its control should rest with the Congress. The role of President and Congress is relevant in budget allocation to regions and countries with strategic and security concerns. They cannot dictate the Congress for allocating money throughout the country.

What is the Hatch Act and what does it do? Do we still need this Act to protect government workers?

Answer: The Hatch Act of 1939 was passed to control the political activities of the Federal government employees. Since the involvement of the federal employees in politics creates hurdles in their job performance, therefore they are regulated by the terms defined in this Act. By this Act, the federal employees are restricted from sending petitions while their presence in the office. The United States still need this act as it prevents the federal employees to distract their attention towards political activities while they are at work.

Explain the structure of the federal court system.

Answer: The structure of the federal court system of the United States rests upon three main levels. The United States district courts, the United States circuit court of Appeals and the United States Supreme Court. In the United States, each level of the court oversees a different kind of legal cases and serves differently to the legal system. In addition to this, both civil and criminal cases are brought in front of the same federal court system.

Why is a defense attorney important in our court system? How does his role protect people?

Answer: The defense attorney speaks in favor of the people who are charged with criminal activities. The defense attorneys specialize in the defense of individuals and the companies working inside the United States. There are a number of defense attorneys who work individually and retain private offices whereas some work for the government within various jurisdictions with criminal courts. The defense attorney speaks in favor of the people who are charged with criminal offenses.

What is the Iron Triangle? Explain how it works.

Answer: The Iron triangle comprises the policy-making relationship in the United States. It elaborates how the three arms of the United States administration are bound to one another in discharging their duties. The three arms include the Congressional Committees, the Bureaucracy, and the interest group. The Iron Trainable as a concept was introduced by Gordon Adams in 1981. There is a general consideration that it works mostly in a clash with each other as the three remains busy in consolidating their power bases.

What is lobbying? Is it legal? Can private citizens lobby Congress or the Government?

Answer: The act of Lobbying includes persuasions, importuning and influencing the policymaking framework. The Congressman normally influences the policy-making processes. Normally lobbying is observed during the decision-making process pertaining to the strategic and security-related matters. Generally, it is considered that according to the article I of the constitution of the United States of America, lobbying falls under abridging the right of people. Therefore, it is considered legal. The private interest groups have been observed influencing the Congressional proceedings.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Political System In Dominican Republic

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Political system in Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic has a parliamentary political system which comprises of three categories executive, legislative and judicial system. This division depicts that this is a democratic country which promotes freedom of speech. The Dominican Republic has a long history of political instability due to several revolutions which harmed the economy as well but since the last revolution which took place in April 1965, the government has been successfully elected by the public. Ever since, the government is peacefully run by the democrats.

The effect of civic education has a negative impact on the governmental bodies such as army and judicial system CITATION Ste00 \p 1854 \l 1033 (Steve E. Finkel 1854). It is undeniably true that political instability has an adverse effect on educational system. A country with strong and effective political system can only survive in the times of excessive competition of both political and technological development in the world. Stable economy is also an important factor in the development of any country and especially a country like Dominican Republic that needs to improve its economic condition along with political condition as well. Some researchers conducted research on the educational achievement of Dominican Republic. The researchers revealed that Dominican Republic is a developing country in which more than 64% population is under 25 years of age and are still in schools and colleges. This means that they will require more time to contribute in the economy of their country by getting employed CITATION Edu90 \p 5 \l 1033 (Eduardo Luna 5).

The Dominican Republic has numerous private sector organizations that are given equal importance to interfere in political matters like any other government organization can interfere. This amalgamation of government and private organizations on the basis of politics is difficult to understand for the general public (Betances 50). The sectarianism in the country which once broke out in 1961 due to the killing of a prominent member of a subsequent important catholic family has still some negative effects on the country’s political stability. The mistrusting of middle- sector groups on governmental institutions is a very common practice in this country. The reasons for mistrusting government can be the political instability and insecurity of interfering of foreign countries.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Betances, Emelio. State and Society in Dominican Republic. New York: Routledge , 1995.

Eduardo Luna, Sarah Gonzalez & Richard Wolfe. "The underdevelopment of educational achievement: mathematics achievement in the Dominican Republic eighth grade." Journal of Curriculum Studies (1990): 5.

Steve E. Finkel, Christopher A. Sabatini, Gwendolyn G. Bevis. "Civic Education, Civil Society, and Political Mistrust in a Developing Democracy: The Case of the Dominican Republic." Science Direct (2000): 1854.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Political Theory

Political Theory

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Political Theory

Part One:

Q1. Ans: Political Authority is having a powerful influence on a government.

Q2Ans: According to Hobbes the best form of government is Absolute monarchy. Hobbes describes the political authority as the unaccountable sovereign. Leviathan represents the evil force that challenges the power of God.

Q3: Ans: According to Anarchist there should be no power to rule the country, and they demand moral autonomy. The Communitarian Anarchists want a revolution that takeovers the patriarchal capitalist states. Market Anarchists demand free market, and they want the government of the country should be demolished by giving a chance to the independent market.

Q4. Ans: Public good is the commodity provided to all the citizens without any profit in return. Public goods are created or protected by the government.

Q5: Ans: It is the political obligation to follow the laws and regulations defined by the government. Different philosophers call it as a moral duty.

Q6. Ans: It is the support we show to our institutions as, and in return, we are protected by those institutions.

Q7. Ans: Civil disobedience is disobeying the state laws openly. However, civil disobedience of unjust laws is justifiable, but in the case of democracy people choose their leaders. If a democratic society is not fulfilling the demands of people, then they can follow the civil disobedience trend.

Part Two:

Q1. Ans: It is because every person has a unique opinion or point of view. It is not necessary that people may agree on one point. As a result, a conflict in interests will arise between the people.

Q2. Ans: Political decision requires three levels which are factual information; people who prefer the choice that affect them, and moral principle.

Q3. Ans: Pluralism is the distribution of the Power. It denotes a system where more than one groups or states coexist.

Q4. Ans: The low levels of political knowledge or political interest is explained through low participation of the citizens in political activities like political campaigns, participation in elections. There are several reasons for it. One can be a lack of political awareness among the people.

Q5. Ans: Through moral ways, minorities can be protected from the majority.

Part Three:

Q1. Ans: Individual Freedom refers to the choice to think and act for their interests without any restraint or limitation. It also applies to be free from the oppressions or regulations imposed by the government.

Q2. Ans: The costs of goods or services do not allow people to act according to their will. IT is because here, their ability to purchase matters. If a person cannot afford a good no matter how much he desires he cannot act according to his will. Therefore, when the government increases the prices, it is taking away the freedom of an individual to operate independently. Likewise, if the government decreases the costs, then it is giving a chance to the individuals to perform according to their willpower.

Q3. Ans: Positive liberty is the ownership of the ability to act independently, and it is free from any internal restriction that limits a person to respond. For example, a person who is free from negative thoughts like greed and distrustful.

Negative Liberty is the freedom from intervention by other human beings. It is the absence of any external limitation on a person. For example, it is free from any form of law and order.

Q4: Ans. A government can increase the inner freedom of the citizens by giving them a chance to participate in political matters and provide them with an opportunity to raise a voice to resolve public problems. Secondly, the government can also protect the citizens through the provision of civil rights.

Q5. Ans. John Stuart was an influential British Philosopher of the 19th century. He said that everyone has the right to do whatever makes him or her happy. According to him, a person should be free from any state or social control while seeking happiness. According to him the role of the government is to provide freedom and rights to the general public.

Q6. Ans. Mills' principles of personal freedom ignore the code of ethics and social, moral standards. He did not discuss the consequences of individual liberty that may cause problems for society.

Q7. Ans. Human rights are all those rights that all human beings deserve regardless of class, race, gender, language, nationality, and religion. Human Rights include a right to live, express, right to education and right to work.

Part Three:

Q1. Ans. People in the cave are chained due to which they cannot move their legs or necks. They have only one capability that they can see their shadows. The source of light in the cave is the fire above and behind them.

Q2. Ans. The prisoners who are trapped in the cave have a belief that their shadows exist in actual.

Q3. Ans. When the prisoners of the cave saw sunlight for the first time, they felt pain in their eyes. It was genuine because they have not seen sunlight since they were born.

Q4. Ans. Plato's allegory of the cave tells us that everything we see in the actual world is just a misconception and a trick. It is not real. However, the reality is different.

Q5. Ans. According to Plato, the truth lies in knowledge and wisdom. In order to seek reality and truth, a person should gain knowledge. The more knowledge he will get, he will be able to know the truth.

Q6. Ans. I had an experience with a product. I saw a commercial of the product, and they were exaggerating the product as the best product in the world. There were people from the general public, and they were sharing their stories about the product. There were people of middle age, and they are speaking about the product with high confidence. However, when I bought the product, I came to know that the reality is very much different from what I saw.

Q7. Ans. If an individual had been living with an illusion in his whole life, there comes the point when he starts thinking of it as a reality. For instance, people who were chained in the cave thought that their shadows are for real. It is the same for the real life that individuals start thinking of an illusion as reality.

Q8. Ans. According to my opinion, the "cave" of Modern life is the television. It is very unrealistic, but still, people watch it. The stories, Dramas, and Films distort the reality and depict real life as a fairy tale. As a result, many of the people become the targets of the shows shown on television.

Q9. Ans. I agree with the Socrates that people complicate shadow with reality. There are many things which are not real, but people think of those as realities. For example, superstition fear is two of the examples.

Q10. Ans. Prisoners will be free when they change the way they think. For that, they need more knowledge and wisdom that allows them to feel out of the box by using their critical skills.

Part Four:

Q1. Ans. Rawl has represented Two Principles of Justice. The First Principle of Justice is about the individuals that every individual should have equal rights in a system and everyone should have equal opportunities for freedom. It is primarily concerned with the distribution of the rights and authorizations. On the other side, the Second Principle is about the arrangement of social and economic disparities in society. According to Rawl, there should be more significant benefits for disadvantaged people in the community. Secondly, there should be equal opportunities for all.

Q2. Ans. According to Miller justice must be equal for all and at this point, he agrees with Rawls' first Principle of Justice. According to him, Justice is something to do with equality.

Q3. Ans. Miller disagrees with the Second Principle of Justice. He emphasizes that justice is a process that treats each equal regardless of the poor or rich society.

Q4. Ans. Decisions based on the flipping coin is unjust because it does not offer equal opportunities for both of the parties. In this process, one has to win, and the other has to lose. However, justice is about giving an opportunity to win for both.

Part Five: Montesquieu

Q1. Ans. Montesquieu was a French Philosopher. He belonged to a wealthy military family. Montesquieu got his law degree from the University of Bordeaux. His interest in the daily activities of the parliament in Paris made him participate in politics.

Q2. Ans. In contrast to the ideas of Hobbes and Locke, Montesquieu believed that in the state of nature people are fearful that's why they prevented themselves from violence and war. He said that people who are afraid, want to live with others in society. The state of war occurs when people interact in a community, they do not fear anymore, and inequality arises. This inequality causes conflict.

Q3. Ans. According to him the primary purpose of the government is to maintain rules and law, political freedom, and people's property. The best form of government is the English government.

Q4. Ans. He misinterpreted the political power of England that power is concentrated in parliament. He thought he saw the separation of the powers of the government.

Part Six: Rousseau

Q1. Ans. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher and writer. He born in Geneva and belonged to a middle-class family. He got his early education from Geneva and also traveled to Italy for the sake of learning. In 1751, he wrote his first essay for a contest and won it.

Q2. Ans. According to him a state of nature brings freed, equality, peace, and happiness for the people. When the individuals started claiming the ownership of the property, disparity, killing, and conflict resulted. Rousseau argued in the social contract, the rich trick the poor to choose them as a leader.

Q3. Ans. The relationship between the social contract and the sovereign is that every individual in society is sovereign.

Q4. Ans. According to Rousseau direct democracy is ensured when all the citizens vote and obey the laws. At the same time, people must have political power. The religious view is that he thought God as part of the state.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

POLS 150 FINAL TERM PAPER ( World War I Of 1914‐1918)

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Political Science- Final Term Paper

Introduction

World War I which is often referred to as the Great War is the first deadliest incident of the twentieth century. This catastrophe began in the year 1914 and lasted for four years, with its cessation in 1918. During these years the world witnessed immense destruction and disease eruption. Some estimates suggest that around 9 million people faced death and those injured critically were numbered many ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vxbodhqV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ferguson)","plainCitation":"(Ferguson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":958,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/397KEAYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/397KEAYZ"],"itemData":{"id":958,"type":"book","title":"The pity of war: Explaining world war I","publisher":"Hachette UK","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The pity of war","author":[{"family":"Ferguson","given":"Niall"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ferguson). Some historians argue that the causes of this war emerged in the early 90s in the previous century. They base their reason on the pretext that the world was witnessing hunger, diseases, and expanding capitalism, therefore a major outbreak of war was not out of sight.

There were several participants in this mega military conflict. Many of the participants formed alliances to subdue their opponents. These alliances were also formed to grab more power and ultimately for expanding the colonies that were already in control of some might powers. Germany was considered first to ignite the war causes and went into it with many of its alliances. This war was fought majorly in the European continent, with the U.S being also affected. The rise of nationalism, the influence of imperialism, the alliance systems and many other major conflicts were the reason for such magnanimous destruction in war ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LxlnX4jU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ferguson)","plainCitation":"(Ferguson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":958,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/397KEAYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/397KEAYZ"],"itemData":{"id":958,"type":"book","title":"The pity of war: Explaining world war I","publisher":"Hachette UK","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The pity of war","author":[{"family":"Ferguson","given":"Niall"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ferguson).

World War I 1914- 1918

The most interesting aspect of analyzing this war is nationalism. Historians believe that it was the primary initiator. During the last decades of the nineteenth century, many groups of people in different areas of the world were getting together for a similar cause. Nationalism was than coupled with the increasing demand for food, wealth and resources. Just as mentioned above that because of the capitalist kind of economic infrastructure of that time, people considered their resources as occupied by some wealthy classes. A feeling of despair and disgrace slowly reached to a point where war became inevitable.

Sarkees mention that since the war erupted in Germany, it was quite evitable that it will take into its fold the other countries of Europe too ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7SOL9u9W","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sarkees and Wayman)","plainCitation":"(Sarkees and Wayman)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":960,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/2JRH4WEU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/2JRH4WEU"],"itemData":{"id":960,"type":"book","title":"Resort to war: a data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816-2007","publisher":"Cq Pr","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Resort to war","author":[{"family":"Sarkees","given":"Meredith Reid"},{"family":"Wayman","given":"Frank Whelon"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sarkees and Wayman). These all economies were based on capitalist infrastructure and in protecting their economic interests, they favored being part of the conflict. Woodrow Wilson is the President of the United States, closely observed the unfolding and suggested some peace negotiations too, but it was too late. Sarkees has also argued that the United States was too late in offering the peace deal, as Germany on other hands in the same year announced major submarine warfare against all its opposing participants ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jpE91KHQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sarkees and Wayman)","plainCitation":"(Sarkees and Wayman)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":960,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/2JRH4WEU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/2JRH4WEU"],"itemData":{"id":960,"type":"book","title":"Resort to war: a data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816-2007","publisher":"Cq Pr","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Resort to war","author":[{"family":"Sarkees","given":"Meredith Reid"},{"family":"Wayman","given":"Frank Whelon"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sarkees and Wayman). Such conflicting turmoil during the passage of war turned it into the biggest humanitarian catastrophe of the twentieth century.

Concepts to the War

The socio-political concept of war:

The socio-political concept of war is about how politics and society play a role in driving a state into war. According to International law, war could be fought between two political and sovereign entities and not involving their population ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3U3GObrQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van der Dennen)","plainCitation":"(Van der Dennen)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":961,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H234KSNM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H234KSNM"],"itemData":{"id":961,"type":"article-journal","title":"On war: Concepts, definitions, research data–a short literature review and bibliography","container-title":"Yearbook on Peace and Conflict Studies","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"On war","author":[{"family":"Van der Dennen","given":"Johan MG"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Van der Dennen). This is how then the political states act as. Normally for the sake of maximizing the political stakes in international affairs and for analyzing the popularity of the ruling elite among masses, the political elites strive states into war. This is what the social concept of war is. The social concept can also be seen in the manner restricts public access to state resources and expanding ills of the society. In such ways, the society became interested in grabbing the resources from the enemy states and become an active participant of the war. This socio-political amalgamation is the classic and most observed concept for war initiation.

Conflict experts and war historians have a different interpretation of this concept. Some believe that war must be prevented at this step and both people and the political elite could be convinced for not initiating any conflicting step ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6lpyKcLa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Braybon)","plainCitation":"(Braybon)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":963,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WW87DDD8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WW87DDD8"],"itemData":{"id":963,"type":"book","title":"Evidence, History and the Great War: Historians and the Impact of 1914-18","publisher":"Berghahn Books","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Evidence, History and the Great War","author":[{"family":"Braybon","given":"Gail"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Braybon). But others believe that once the political elite decides to explore and grab resources by violent means, they cannot be barred from doing so. The best way of understanding the socio-political concept of war is to understand how society and politics are interlinked with each other and drive each other. These both are the primary constituent of any country and their rise for conflict is in other terms the declaration of war.

During World War I, the restrained food supplies and prolonged conflicts changed the social structure of many societies. Many social groups started fighting over small areas of land and over mainly the food supplies. With time, as the war was getting elongated, these conflicts started erupting. The societies generally feared that they will soon run out of the resources and ultimately they will have to starve. Therefore, protests for more equal distribution of wealth and for the upbringing of a justifiable economic system started erupting. Some notable from the societal setups started emerging as prominent faces and their struggle started gaining attention. Such notables finally started categorizing themselves as the political elites or the representatives of the poorest classes of those societies.

These social conflicts were too sewer that even the victors of minor conflict often some time felt helpless and degraded. Other affected social aspects of the World War I were decreased housing facilities, inflation and lack of male population (which is observable still today). The political class which rose from this time of crisis soon started taking hold of the affairs and a political vacuum so abruptly filled with people having zero senses about the societal affairs. During World War I, such as the socio-political atmosphere. The deprived ones in such atmosphere were the poor with having no money to pay for the expensive goods which caused resentment against the better off people in different communities. The period of World War I provides an interesting case study of how socio-political aspects in society are important and shape the future course for societies and countries.

The judicial or legal conception of war:

This is a wide and continuously searched about an aspect of war. This entails that there must be some equal conditions for war initiation and equal damage be inculcated upon the parties involved in a war. The terms equal condition is debatable and opened for wide interpretation. For example, one may consider the pre-war military and economic statistics as standard terms for war initiation and some just might think in terms of geographic landmass or contiguity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sJO9bPeV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van der Dennen)","plainCitation":"(Van der Dennen)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":961,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H234KSNM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H234KSNM"],"itemData":{"id":961,"type":"article-journal","title":"On war: Concepts, definitions, research data–a short literature review and bibliography","container-title":"Yearbook on Peace and Conflict Studies","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"On war","author":[{"family":"Van der Dennen","given":"Johan MG"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Van der Dennen). For example, the United States should just attack Russia because Russia is bigger in land mass compared to the United States, and similarly India or Pakistan should attack each other just because they are geographically contiguous. This judicial concept being much debatable is also considered unethical too, as it does not provide a substantiated reason for war initiation. Some policy expert believes that although unethical this is what the driver in major conflicting in world history remains.

The judicial concept of war is also referred to as a definite period of time during which the interstate relations are conducted in a violent manner and no care is carried in terms of destruction and damage ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"p5Lfg2Jc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van der Dennen)","plainCitation":"(Van der Dennen)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":961,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H234KSNM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H234KSNM"],"itemData":{"id":961,"type":"article-journal","title":"On war: Concepts, definitions, research data–a short literature review and bibliography","container-title":"Yearbook on Peace and Conflict Studies","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"On war","author":[{"family":"Van der Dennen","given":"Johan MG"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Van der Dennen). This lay the basis for uninterrupted conflict and undefined damage. Such happens unconsciously and states that take on the presumption that calling for peaceful settlement might leave them non-credible among the committee of nations. To avoid such confluence and being ready for engaging anytime in war, states, therefore, build their military capabilities. So in fact, one may argue that the judicial conception provides a kind of legal basis for war preparation in term of military means.

World War I was the first of its kind magnanimous conflict of the twentieth century. At that time there was no prominent international regulatory mechanism that would have restrained the states from going to war. Similarly, there was no mechanism of interstate relation. As like the declined military-industrial complex, there were no international obligations or bindings that would have forced states to opt otherwise. Every modern concept about the war was not present at that time. These were the reasons that war went over to such high scale. During the war, the battles were mostly fought in hands to hand or with the inclusion of some experienced tactics. During the last years, after the involvement of President Woodrow Wilson, and with some news leaks of American weapon building, it became apparent that the countries involved in war will now decide something otherwise. This is how the war conception during the periods of war started. It involved making clear what are the interest in hands are, and which weapon to be used in which battleground.

These all set the basis for weapon manufacturing and lawmaking pertaining to termination of future wars. The establishment of the military industrial complexes in major states of the world was also proof of the facts that war conception has started. New and state of the art weapon manufacturing and inclusion of new warfighting strategies are all the results of the conceptions made during the World War I. American President Woodrow Wilson played an important role in bringing the conflict to an end. The fourteen points he presented to Congress played a significant role in this direction. These fourteen points called for political independence and set the course for negotiations. Finally, the signing of the treaty of Versailles and the establishment of a league of the nation were the final stamps of the legal or judicial conception of war. At present, such conceptions have taken over a more refined form. The establishment of the United Nations and the presence of state of the art military industrial complexes are all the proofs of this conception.

Conclusion

The eruption of World War I brought new dynamics into international politics and significantly altered the course of history. It introduced such dynamics into the international political and social sphere which were not experienced before. It also made apparent that what is the value of weapons and war readiness. Since this war changed the course of history, therefore, every new concept in the domain of warfighting, weapon manufacturing and legal definition of war till date is associated with this war ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lniaMfUa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ferguson)","plainCitation":"(Ferguson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":958,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/397KEAYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/397KEAYZ"],"itemData":{"id":958,"type":"book","title":"The pity of war: Explaining world war I","publisher":"Hachette UK","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The pity of war","author":[{"family":"Ferguson","given":"Niall"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ferguson). World War I is therefore interested in studying how the war concepts are defined and are practically implemented.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Braybon, Gail. Evidence, History and the Great War: Historians and the Impact of 1914-18. Berghahn Books, 2003.

Ferguson, Niall. The Pity of War: Explaining World War I. Hachette UK, 2008.

Sarkees, Meredith Reid, and Frank Whelon Wayman. Resort to War: A Data Guide to Inter-State, Extra-State, Intra-State, and Non-State Wars, 1816-2007. Cq Pr, 2010.

Van der Dennen, Johan MG. “On War: Concepts, Definitions, Research Data–a Short Literature Review and Bibliography.” Yearbook on Peace and Conflict Studies, 1981.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

POLS 3667 Early Modern Political Thought I

PPLS 3667 Early Modern Political Thought

Question: For Locke, politics aims toward a particular end. What is the chief end for uniting into “political society,” according to Locke? Be sure to include how Locke arrives at this chief end and what recourse individuals have if government violates this chief end.

Introduction: John Locke is one of the most influential political theorists of the modern time. He has contributed in several fields of political sciences. In his writings, he has presented the idea about the relation between the state and the individual in a new perspective. In his work titled the two treatises of Government, Locke has identified how the relationship between the state and the individual can move forward in the form of an agreement. He has at various places in his work and also defended that how the man was born free but is also naturally bounded for being a subject for a monarch. Locke argues that in the civil society the governing factor must be the majority.

He believes that the majority will never deliberately choose the ones who can ruin their freedoms. According to him, the time when one enters into the civil society, he submits his allegiance. Similarly, he also submits his will for following properly in an orderly way the rules and the decisions of the majority. For the readers Locke then presents two arguments; at first, he discusses the historical context of the majority rule. For him, the Kings or the Sheiks are all example of such authority as for them, the absolute power resides in the hands of them.

The Political Society according to John Locke: Locke’s political philosophy has many strands. The first of them is ‘Consent’. He describes the individual as free. There is no obligation attached to the human being when he comes to this world. He mentions that the freedom is inherent for everyone. The new born, according to Locke is free and is not answerable to any political authority. According to him, the consent of the individuals derives the political mechanism. This is how individuals then joins to form the societies. Societies create an environment that is according to the needs of the individuals who reside in it. In this form, everyone’s presence is in a direct way or in an indirect way is profiting others.

Locke believes that there are some obligations at part of every individual. The obligations are in the sense of preserving one’s freedom. As this is the law of nature that every human is born free. The rights and duties are assigned, when the consent tilt toward one of these two sides. He mentions that every time we take these obligations voluntarily. He differentiates between the obligations we take by our choice and the obligations which comes upon us naturally. The obligations of nature requires no consent. For him, the only way of becoming a part of the society is by expressing consent.

The doctrine of consent by John Locke suggests that if any person is walking on the road, he has already expressed his consent to the government. This makes one to think that why the resident is bound to obey that government. Locke answers by mentioning that his birth on that land, leaves no reason to not obey the government. The reason is as the person own any property, and that is how he has stakes. This then passes to the generations. As the children inherit the same property and this is how they consent their will to the same government.

If any individual inherit the property from his ancestor, he is at the same time accepting the will of their ancestors of obeying the same authority. This brings the acceptance of property as the synonym of expressing one’s consent. This is why the property is actually the interests. Locke has also interpreted this acceptance of property in two ways. On one side he believes that by accepting the inheritance. The person has expressed his consent. On other side, Locke mentions that in this whole process, the one who has inherited the property has not made any declaration about the political obligations.

In summary, John Locke believes that people are born free and independent of every jurisdiction. There are no duties and no rights of the people at the time of their birth. There is natural law, and every new individual is subjected to follow that. According to him, the disturbance starts when anyone grabs the natural rights of others. As described above that after when the land has been acquired, this would be considered as the submission of will to the government. This is also how the one will now be a part of the society and will start managing his affairs within a society. For example, when one has acquired the land, he will harvest some eatable into the land. After when the fruit or the grain is ready, he will bring that to the market and sell. This process is like a cycle and now it has connected the specific individual to the society at large and with the government at particular. At this point of mutual affairs, the natural law has been closed. There is now the society and the individual which will now protect each other.

What is next according to John Locke, after the formation of the society? It is the creation of a justice system. Locke believes that this justice system is a kind of compromise among many people at large. First, they come together to decide, what the law of their land will be. At the second place, they choose from among them who will be the sole authority to decide the affairs of the individuals. Finally, they will start obeying the laws and the authority of that particular person. He opines that this system is good as long as it protects the interests of some particular groups. As according to him everyone in the society does not have the same conditions to follow, therefore this will eventually result in the demise of the system. This is how Locke based his argument on the divine law.

Locke has based his views in relation with the divine law. For him, the divine law is so pure that any changes to it will significantly alter the face of the earth. For basing his argument, Locke has taken the property as a variable. He claims that when one inherits the property, he actually inherits the interests of his ancestors. To explain this he mentions that the large property develops large interests. These interests’ then derives the individual to grab more power. Power for him is actually the protection of his authority. This has been described by him as a vicious cycle.

Here comes the question about one who does not have any property. How will he express his consent? Locke’s explanation to this remains unsatisfactory for many. For example, he mentions that they are the subjects if they have nothing to offer to the state. He believes that the relation to the individual with the state is also based on the presumptions of give and take. If he has nothing in his possession, what is he the offering to the state? Nothing. This is why this one-sided affair will be treated as subjection. This subjection will be the submission to the state and to its every law. This is the reason why the political scientist argue that Locke’s political opinion has revolved around interests.

What after when the consent has been shown, and the government is formed? For John Locke, it is the preservation of that. He calls it as the end product and mentions that the preservation of this system is the next thing that comes at priority. He believes that once the system will get strengthen and will develop into a strong system, it will allow many from the people to build their interests. That is how these interests will lead them to take part in the political process more actively. Some people believe that this idea is presented by him, as he failed to provide an alternative for the ones who have no stakes in some solid form.

Still, after presenting with such a broad idea about the expression of will and creation of the government, John Locke believes that Consent still dominates the entire political system. If the people are happy with the governments they will never think of bulldozing the system. But the day, they will feel that their interests in what so ever form they are, have not been treated properly; they will take their will out of them, in result the whole system will collapse which is the end of the government, according to John Locke.

In between the expression of will, the creation of the government and then the demise of the government; Locke has placed some other political perspectives also. For example, Locke mentions that in order to protect the system or in other words the government, the interests group (the people at the helm of affairs) will use every mean to protect their governments. In doing so, Locke mentions that they will go to any extent. If the rebellion is strong enough to bring those people down, the government cause the violent means also to curb the rebellion. This is how it will go toward the killing of people, which are by every mean unjustifiable.

John Locke's ideas about the creation of government, the preservation of the government and ultimately the demise of the governments are based primarily on the consent or the will of the individual. This will is somewhere in a Meta form, like the property, and somewhere in the form of being submissive. In this way, Locke has created an interests of every person in the state. This is also how the society is like for Locke. The political scientist of this century, however, disagree with any prospect of John Locke ideas. They opine that the evolution of the world at large and the societal aspect in specific has given the excuses for the reinterpretation of John Locke ideas.

Conclusion: The end of the government has not been elaborated much expressively as Locke has mentioned about the creation of the society and the interests groups. If one analyzes the ideas of the governments presented by John Locke, it appears evident that Locke has placed not the consent in beneath all, but the interests. For example somewhere the interests are in the form of property protection, somewhere in the form of expressing will, somewhere in the form of protecting the government and somewhere in the form of expansion of one's authority. In the world of ours, the principles of government presented by John Locke remains of significant importance. To this day, the interests exist but are interpreted differently. The governments of today also has the interests of power which is shaken when the people starts gathering against them. The interests today has taken some other forms and so does the will of the people.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 6 Words: 1800

Pols3800

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Political Science]

[July 1, 2019]

Pols3800

News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations

Mass media control public policies and public minds. Modern states have much important executive, legislative and judicial functions to perform, but no one can deny the role of media in the smooth functioning of the state. In the same vein, the article ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mta2gDFh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Miller and Krosnick)","plainCitation":"(Miller and Krosnick)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":350,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/RY7C53ZJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/RY7C53ZJ"],"itemData":{"id":350,"type":"article-journal","title":"News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Politically Knowledgeable Citizens Are Guided by a Trusted Source","container-title":"American Journal of Political Science","page":"301","volume":"44","issue":"2","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","DOI":"10.2307/2669312","ISSN":"00925853","title-short":"News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations","journalAbbreviation":"American Journal of Political Science","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Miller","given":"Joanne M."},{"family":"Krosnick","given":"Jon A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Miller and Krosnick) throws light on the powerful impact of media in this globalized world. Succinctly, this article begins with the premise that news media can alter executive policy-making and executive performance. Both authors and researchers begin with a persistent notion that news and media direct public opinion and become a reason for several policies. The goal is to evaluate the role of cognitive mediators in news and its priming. They highlighted that point that news media cannot alter every opinion. Media is powerful but not that it can shift and direct all views in society. This article considers all mediating variable like accessibility and the political knowledge of the public regarding any issue. The independent variables were accessibility and political knowledge and then resultant priming was dependent. These authors used several methods of research such as literature reviews and experiments to really decipher the nature of media on public minds, and it’s on executive’s performance. They used different sources to back up their claims as one can see the names of Klapper and McCombs. The results deduced proved their point that media and its priming is effective only when it corresponds to “General Will’ of the society. However, this totally presents an experimental approach which is not duly applicable in human situations.

Explaining Presidential Approval: The Significance of Issue Salience

This article of Edwards, Mitchell, and Welch ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vg79Ct5T","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Iii et al.)","plainCitation":"(Iii et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":352,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/AZ6NKQL7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/AZ6NKQL7"],"itemData":{"id":352,"type":"article-journal","title":"Explaining Presidential Approval: The Significance of Issue Salience","container-title":"American Journal of Political Science","page":"108","volume":"39","issue":"1","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","DOI":"10.2307/2111760","ISSN":"00925853","title-short":"Explaining Presidential Approval","journalAbbreviation":"American Journal of Political Science","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Iii","given":"George C. Edwards"},{"family":"Mitchell","given":"William"},{"family":"Welch","given":"Reed"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995",2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Iii et al.) takes into account that the US executive considers only those issues that are much relevant for the public. After that executive action, people are authorized to evaluate the performance of their executive. It focused on the proposition that the executive is attentive to only press issues of the time. The researchers Edwards, Mitchell and Welch chose their hypothesis and proved it with various findings. Various variables such as different attitude, values and perception are listed in this article. Nevertheless, they opined that salience is the most important variable in any executive action. They stated this factor of salience changes regularly and this is the reason that changes the actions and policies of the law-making in the country. Moreover, the researchers have also connected salience and priming to show that they are different, but they come together when there is urgency. A non-experimental approach such as polls and different analyses were conducted to evaluate the symbiosis between salience and media priming. Different cross-sectional studies and variation in salience of issue were also considered in explaining the president's approval. Hence, they proved their hypothesis that the public decides the salient issue and then public evaluates the progress of president upon those issues. One shortcoming in this research is the lacking of objectivity which makes it a subjective piece of writing. The right amount of objectivity should also be the aim of any research.

Conclusion

The information available in both articles is really substantive and the knowledge it presents can be effectively applied in the workforce. This research and the incorporated methods can be used in evaluating the new initiative of telecommuting. Researchers have developed several research methods and various research methodologies to facilitate beginners in their work. Experimental and non-experimental approaches are available, and so is the case with a variety of variables in society. Since human life is a complex phenomenon, so it is duly important to find the perfect balance between the objective and subjective methods of research.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Iii, George C. Edwards, et al. “Explaining Presidential Approval: The Significance of Issue Salience.” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 39, no. 1, Feb. 1995, p. 108. DOI.org (Crossref), doi:10.2307/2111760.

Miller, Joanne M., and Jon A. Krosnick. “News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Politically Knowledgeable Citizens Are Guided by a Trusted Source.” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 44, no. 2, Apr. 2000, p. 301. DOI.org (Crossref), doi:10.2307/2669312.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Presidential Authority: Operation Geronimo

Presidential Authority: Operation Geronimo

Author’s Name

Name of Institution

Presidential Authority: Operation Geronimo

After 9/11, the United States authorized its military’s commander to use force against those who were involved in this attack. Their special concentration was on the main commander of Al Qaeda, Osama Bin Laden. After almost 10 years, the US Special Forces killed Osama Bin Laden in May 2011. It is important to consider that Bin Laden was killed in his hometown in Pakistan. The US Special Forces killed him with a surprise attack on his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. With that killing, a series of questions and objections were raised that were based on the legality of this particular operation. A number of reasonable explanations were provided by Obama’s administration to justify this attack (Schaller, 2015). However, many officials did not accept these justifications as they did not fully resolve the surprisingly complex objections.

The president of the US, Barack Obama, addressed the nation and the whole world from the White House that a successful operation was conducted in Abbottabad, Pakistan resulting in the death of Bin Laden. The phrase “Justice had been done” was used by Obama on that occasion for the families who lost their loved ones in the brutal attack of 9/11 (Wallace, 2012). However, it is necessary to determine the legal authority of the President to execute this operation. To successfully implement that legal authority, it is essential to understand whether Al-Qaeda was a terrorist group under the International Humanitarian Law (IHL). According to the IHL, Al Qaeda qualifies as an organized armed group as it had the potential to carry out intensive military operations. One example of that intensive military operation can be seen in the 9/11 attack.

It is noteworthy to mention that International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is only applicable in terms of armed conflict. There are two main types of armed conflicts including international and non-international armed conflict. People often consider Al-Qaeda as a group of criminals, but it is completely unjustifiable. One cannot place Al-Qaeda with other criminal groups such as Solntsevskaya bratva and the Tijuana drug cartel. After 9/11, the government of the US has taken the position that it is in an armed conflict with Osama bin Laden and his group. According to the United Nations Charter, the US has the right to self-defense itself from its enemies. It can be justified with the help of a significant case “Hamdan v Rumsfeld”. In that particular case, it was made clear by the US Supreme Court that the US is in an armed conflict with the terrorist organization Al-Qaeda (Schaller, 2015). Therefore, “the application of Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions triggered a non-international armed conflict between the US and Al-Qaeda” (Wallace, 2012).

In addition to this, the International Humanitarian Law (IHL) also justified the legal authority of the president to plan and execute the operation against Al-Qaeda. Al-Qaeda was a well-known organized terrorist group as it used various tactics such as assassinations, kidnappings, suicide attacks, hijackings, and bombings. Al-Qaeda not only attacked civilians but the military as well. It even attacked in areas such as Europe and the US regardless of having any active hostilities there (Wallace, 2012). Hence, it is justifiably an organized terrorist organization under IHL. Furthermore, Obama had a legal authority to execute this operation on international land. First of all, the Obama administration wanted to defend its country from any terrorist attack. After the 9/11 attack, every president wanted to provide a safe and secure land for their civilians. Obama held five meetings with the National Security Council to ensure whether Bin Laden was in that specific compound or not. Pursuing an aggressive course of action is completely justified as per the United Nations characters of the US.

According to the national strategies of Obama, “the United States has a right to act pre-emptively against terrorists” (Schaller, 2015). It is notable to mention that it was in the national security strategies of Obama’s administration to act pre-emptively against terrorists regardless of having knowledge about the place and time of the enemy’s attack. Like the Bush administration, Obama’s administration followed the traditional position of attacking a terrorist group to eliminate specific threats. This is one of the main purposes behind Obama’s legal authority to plan and execute the entire plan. In addition to this, the right to self-defense in case of an armed attack, also gave the right to Obama to execute the entire operation on international land. The right to use force allows the US military to combat its enemies even on extraterritorial lands.

With the help of all the above justification, it is safe to say that the killing of Osama bin Laden was legal. According to the International Humanitarian Law, there is a non-international armed conflict between the Al-Qaeda and the US. The authorization of this operation by Obama is completely justifiable as per the Supreme Court decision as well (Wallace, 2012). The US can target a terrorist group if it comes under armed conflict. The mass killing of American civilians in the attack of 9/11 ultimately generated an armed conflict between the US and Al-Qaeda. Moreover, the evidence overwhelmingly established that Osama Bin Laden was a strategic level commander of the Al-Qaeda group. The US Special Force remained well within the rights as per IHL to execute an operation on international border to capture and kill a terrorist.

References

Schaller, C. (2015). Using force against terrorists ‘outside areas of active hostilities’—the Obama approach and the Bin Laden raid revisited. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 20(2), 195-227.

Wallace, D. A. (2012). Operation neptune's spear: the lawful killing of Osama bin Laden. Israel Law Review, 45(2), 367-377.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

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