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American Political Economy

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Answer 1

Classical political economy is divided into market self-regulation and creation of value and distribution. People like Adam Smith who was considered as the father of economics helped the separation of various concepts which were initially studied together. One of the best explanations of politics was presented by Adam Smith in the name of invisible hand. This concept helped to identify a new relationship between politics and the civil society or more specifically politics and economics. This concept was in line with the thoughts put forward by Steuart. A society went through a change which was brought about automatically from inside of it. A state or government had a minimal role to play in this regard. State had a role to play when these changes had to be implemented, their importance had to be identified by the state and it also led the society through these changes. Smith was of the view that, there should be a separation of political and non-political decision making in the society. A political unit may work to satisfy the private wants but production and distribution of these goods should be considered non-political. There was also a clear difference between the political and economic laws, and role of government in developing both types of laws was different. Political laws were developed and implemented by the government whereas in the economic laws, a caretaker role of government was desired. A free market allowed people to act as sellers and buyers at the same time. A person selling a product to seek some money took that money to the market to purchase some commodities from the market. People who had produced their own products took them to the market for sale to receive money and purchase other commodities needed by them. There was a clear circulation of resources around the market as a result of people acting as sellers and buyers at different points in time. By working for himself, each person basically provided money and goods to other people. A person who wanted to sell a low demanded product will not be able to get enough cash to purchase commodities for himself as well. The skills of labor were also considered a commodity by this system. A person or a group of persons was not able to find employment simply because their skill set is not in demand in the market. The hardships created by the inability of selling a product do not affect the market negatively. These hardships created the incentives for various individuals to match their skill sets with needs of other people and other means of production CITATION Rob98 \l 1033 (Heilbroner and Thurow). This issue was related to the problems faced by the individual seller only and a group of sellers will not suffer from this lack of demand for their product. The time of hardships will be very short according to the classical economists and it will last only until people are not able to match their skills to what is required by the market. People produce or sell with an intention to buy other commodities for their own usage. This will prevent a market failure despite an individual failure CITATION Rob80 \l 1033 (L.Heilbroner).

Answer 2

The first issue raised by Karl Marx regarding the free market system was that there will be no profit for people because everything will be selling for its exact value. There would be no increment in price of a given product and a buyer will be left with a lower amount of money at hand when he has purchased some commodity from other sellers. The person who worked as a laborer in any setting will value his skills according to his subsistence wage. The main argument of Marx was that the worker will be working for a ten or eleven hour shift but will be compensated with lower amount of wage. The difference between the value created by a laborer and value received in return would bring profit into play for a capitalist CITATION Jam92 \l 1033 (Caporaso and P.Levine). Adam Smith ignored the fact that a capitalist created a monopoly regarding access to the factors of production required to produce the goods. A worker cannot ask more than the worth associated with him as a commodity. This also went against the point forwarded by Adam Smith that a group of sellers may not fail to sell their commodities for a long period of time. We could easily see that a group of laborers will not get any work if it is not willing to work at the current level of wage. Marx argues that the capitalist has a much longer view of the proceedings to maximize his profits. Marx had an opinion that there was uncertainty in the whole system and at almost all the stages of an economic system.

Keynes criticized the argument that a free market economy will self-regulate itself. The first argument refers to a problem in system which does not allow some sellers to find appropriate buyers. A market mechanism will not allow some people to have sufficient purchasing power with the buyers. The wants and means will not be matched properly. This will create an under-utilization of current resources of society. The failure of aggregate demand should not be treated as a political issue. The addition of a number of automatic mechanisms which helped to rectify the situation. There was a certain level of uncertainty in the ability of capitalist system to reproduce wealth. Keynes shared the idea of underutilization of resources but did not agree to the violent nature of capitalism. Keynes also criticized the opinion of Adam Smith regarding the presence of circularity in the system. The increase in demand of any particular product forced the firms to increase their levels of production and decrease the amount of inventories they have CITATION Cap \l 1033 (Caporaso and Levine). An increased level of production meant that there will be more utilization of resources in the form of labor and capital. Revenues are created for all parts of a supply chain when there is an increase in the production of goods and services. These revenues are either used for purchasing further resources or saved to be used in future to purchase capital equipment. The circulation concept presented by Adam Smith did not consider the concept of saving or any other resources flowing out of the circular system. The concept of selling and buying put forward by Adam Smith was criticized by Keynes by arguing that not all the amount of money received by sellers is used to buy the things required. The flow of value is maintained by the fact that a major portion of worker’s income is dependent upon their wages or salaries. Firms seek revenues and profit so that they can reinvest for further production. A part of money received by all parts of the system goes out of the normal circular flow. This money is used to satisfy the speculative motive of money supply. In the current scenario, financial institutions have an important part to play in the whole system. They provide the producers with the required amount of capital to extend their operations. For a private system to work properly, individuals should be allowed to own property or capital stock unlike Adam Smith who argued that people will sell the commodities to buy their necessities. A self-regulating economy is not expected to provide proper livelihood to people who are dependent on it and also cannot provide the capital needed for the expansion of production when needed.

Answer 3

Yes, the critiques of both Marx and Keynes on Adam Smith are valid. The first reasons of this argument is that he presented a very simplistic view of the economic activity undertaken by the society. There were people at that time who gave loans to people even at that time. This amount could be used to extend the production which would mean that some part of money will be used for purposes other than buying and selling the products. The existence of invisible hand has also been correctly criticized by both economists. Keynes in particular argued that the government will have to play an active part in the economic activity if the system has to run smoothly. Marx introduced the concept of profit in the buying and selling notion presented by Adam Smith. The circularity of economic system has been challenged by Marx and Keynes in different ways. For the modern economic systems, there is a considerable part played by the financial services. Keynes concluded that business capital spending is an absolute must for the economic system to prosper. If the businesses cannot initiate the capital spending, government has to intervene in the proceedings to make sure that enough money is available for businesses to spend on capital investments. The thesis statement can be developed from the whole analysis, Adam Smith argued that the economic system will be regulated to grow by an invisible hand. Marx had an opinion that there was uncertainty in the whole system and at almost all the stages of an economic system. Keynes came up with the role of government to rectify any issues faced by the economic system.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Caporaso and Levine. Theories of Political Economy. NewYork: Cambridge Univerity Press, n.d.

Caporaso, James A. and David P.Levine. Theories of political economy. Oxford University Press, 1992.

Heilbroner, Robert and Lester Thurow. Economics Explained. Simon & Schuster, 1998.

L.Heilbroner, Robert. The Worldly Philosophers. NewYork: Simon & Schuster, 1980.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

American Politics

American Politics

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

American Politics

Introduction

American politics has a great impact on the economic condition of the nation. Political bodies introduce different policies and programs to increase the living standard of the people. One of the great concerns of every administration remains public goods. Public goods not only provide the facility to the general public it also helps in ensuring the equal distribution of resources. The purpose of the essay is to understand the concept of public goods and their role in politics. It remains the priority of the government to provide public goods to the civilians; however, the government often faces conflicts over public goods. The conflicts over public goods basically arise mostly due to the change in priority of government and opposition parties. In addition, public demands also impact the public good formation.

Discussion

Public goods are goods that provide benefits to all individuals. These goods are non-rivalry and non-excludable because public goods are not for competition in the market rather these are provided to ensure the equal access of the public on the resources. People usually enjoy the benefits of public goods without paying for it and no one can prevent the consumer’s access to the good ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2etn3mj9bc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Definition of public good in Political Science.,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)}","plainCitation":"(“Definition of public good in Political Science.,” n.d.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1379,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ccgWoSRn/items/A5ABHUSM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ccgWoSRn/items/A5ABHUSM"],"itemData":{"id":1379,"type":"webpage","title":"Definition of public good in Political Science.","URL":"http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless-static/www.boundless.com/political-science/definition/public-good/index.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",6,22]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Definition of public good in Political Science.,” n.d.). In addition, public goods are non-rivalry because consumption of one individual does not impact the simultaneous consumption by other individuals. Examples of public goods include fresh and healthy air, national defense, street lighting, knowledge, and disaster control system. Politicians especially government tries to achieve the maximum benefits of public goods for the nation. However, the numbers of factors make it difficult to organize collective action. The problem arises usually for the public goods that are impure goods that mean they are unable to provide benefits free of cost, for instance, healthcare facilities, education, and highways. Free of cost public goods create difficulties for producers as private cost exceed the private benefits. Therefore, the government usually applies some sort of payment for the maintenance of public goods. The production and maintenance costs of public goods lead to the conflicts between government and opposition or government and public. For instance, the Obama administration announced the different programs to provide the healthcare where many Democrats had the priority to give the benefits in the form of money. Their perspective was different because they thought that money will increase the choice of spending for the poor families. However, various politicians raised the question that it will decrease the interest of the poor family for seeking the work ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tjQFDFfw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf ({\\i{}ANOPGA.pdf}, n.d.)}","plainCitation":"(ANOPGA.pdf, n.d.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1378,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ccgWoSRn/items/VMAEYB8Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ccgWoSRn/items/VMAEYB8Q"],"itemData":{"id":1378,"type":"article","title":"ANOPGA.pdf","URL":"https://philpapers.org/archive/ANOPGA.pdf","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",6,22]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (ANOPGA.pdf, n.d.).

Another example of the public goods that can lead to the conflicts between politicians is the total cost of the good. Court has the power to reject the policy or strategy of the government if it is not beneficial or harmful for a specific community. Besides these, there is the concept of collective demand of the public. On public demand, the government provide the public good if the marginal benefit of the public good is greater than the marginal cost of the public good. For instance, if the public demand for the expansion of the highway to reduce the problem of heavy traffic then the government has to take cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis is the calculation that provides the ratio between the total costs of the public good with respect to its benefits. If the cost of the goods is less than the benefits than there are the least chances of the conflicts otherwise opposition opposes the idea and sometimes the court has to interfere in between. The cost of the highway includes the cost of land for expansion, construction cost, and maintenance cost of the highway. The benefits of the expansion of the highway include a decrease in a traffic jam, a decrease in the number of accidents and the increase in passenger trips as highway could be used by more people. The government can play a role here to avoid the conflicts by estimate the total costs, benefits and assign the monetary value. The most important role that government plays for the approval of the project is to adjust the inflation rate and applying the discount rate to identify the project value. By controlling these two factors that is inflation and discount rate, public goods can be provided. In addition, to avoiding the conflicts with opposition parties, different proposal and plans can be provided to find out the way in which all political parties agreed to the decision ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2laaamapk4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}A Politics of Public Goods,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)}","plainCitation":"(“A Politics of Public Goods,” n.d.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1381,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ccgWoSRn/items/I963HZPB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ccgWoSRn/items/I963HZPB"],"itemData":{"id":1381,"type":"webpage","title":"A Politics of Public Goods","container-title":"Demos","abstract":"We need to restore the positive concept of public goods that existed decades ago.","URL":"https://www.demos.org/blog/politics-public-goods","language":"en"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“A Politics of Public Goods,” n.d.). The most useful public goods are hospitals, educational institutes, parks, and roads. These are the public goods which benefit the maximum number of people with or without payment. The payments over public goods are applied to avoid the misuse of the goods or for its maintenance. In other words, the government can efficiently improve the conflicts by directly providing or indirectly encouraging the facility of the goods.

Conclusion

Public goods are goods that are non-rivalry and non-excludability in nature. The main purpose of the public goods is to provide benefits to all individuals. Sometimes conflict arises due to the collective action problems. Opposition parties or demand of the public create difficulties. At such point, cost-benefit analysis plays an important role. It provides the ratio between the total cost of the projects and its benefits. Through maintaining the inflation and discount rate for the production government could avoid conflict. In addition by providing different proposal or strategies to maximize the benefits of the public goods, the government can bring the priority of all the parties on one decision.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY A Politics of Public Goods. (n.d.). Retrieved from Demos website: https://www.demos.org/blog/politics-public-goods

ANOPGA.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://philpapers.org/archive/ANOPGA.pdf

Definition of public good in Political Science. (n.d.). Retrieved June 22, 2019, from http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless-static/www.boundless.com/political-science/definition/public-good/index.html

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

American Politics

Bill of Rights

Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees

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Bill of Rights

Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments in the American constitution. The provisions of the Bill of Rights remained under debate for nearly two centuries. Despite its interpretation, the first eight amendments of this bill remain silent about the common law of America. These amendments in the Constitution of America were made at times when the society was largely divided and there existed no mechanism for speedy communication. This is the reason that some critics argue that the Bill of Rights is largely inconsistent with the present day society. Right after the passage of these amendments (the Bill of Rights), its application was limited to the federal government. These were some constitutional limits which paved the way for the fourteenth amendment in the Constitution of America. This essay will argue that such a flawed approach in the Bill of Rights was the reason that civil liberties could not get the constitutional cover for such long in American history.

For over two centuries, the Bill of Rights remained unexecuted. During this period a debate over its interpretation was going on among the learned Congressman. Some believed that the rights which are enshrined in the Bill of Rights are what nature has bestowed upon every person on the earth. Further, if the states are not bound by law under this Bill, there remains no reason for selective interpretation or application of such Constitutional provisions. As many Congressmen were of the opinion that there are some inherent flaws in the Bill of Rights, therefore the fourteenth amendment was passed in 1868 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jxfKo8Ni","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hersch and Shinall 2015)","plainCitation":"(Hersch and Shinall 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1177,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ECEI2NH4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ECEI2NH4"],"itemData":{"id":1177,"type":"article-journal","title":"Fifty years later: The legacy of the Civil Rights Act of 1964","container-title":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","page":"424-456","volume":"34","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Hersch","given":"Joni"},{"family":"Shinall","given":"Jennifer Bennett"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hersch and Shinall 2015). This amendment in the Constitution of America defined civil liberties. After the passage of the fourteenth amendment, the Bill of Rights was divided into two broad areas: freedom and rights if individuals and liberties and rights related to crimes and criminal procedure. Right after the passage of the fourteenth amendment the Bill of Rights rose to prominence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ew99KNEI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hersch and Shinall 2015)","plainCitation":"(Hersch and Shinall 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1177,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ECEI2NH4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/ECEI2NH4"],"itemData":{"id":1177,"type":"article-journal","title":"Fifty years later: The legacy of the Civil Rights Act of 1964","container-title":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management","page":"424-456","volume":"34","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Hersch","given":"Joni"},{"family":"Shinall","given":"Jennifer Bennett"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hersch and Shinall 2015).

In addition to bringing more clarity in the Bill of Rights, the fourteenth amendment helped in protecting the rights and liberties of the citizens of America. The Bill of Rights remained inconsequential for a very long period because of delay in its interpretation. The courts in America also considered the natural rights of the human being in a clash with the Bill of Rights, which resulted in the criminal conviction of many people in America ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9GMscgvo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Siegan 2018)","plainCitation":"(Siegan 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/TNK9C4F2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/TNK9C4F2"],"itemData":{"id":1176,"type":"book","title":"Property Rights: From Magna Carta to the Fourteenth Amendment","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1-351-32595-7","author":[{"family":"Siegan","given":"Bernard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Siegan 2018). The lawyers, Judges and every person associated with the American legal system considered the Bill of Rights as of secondary importance since it was not legally applicable to the States of that time. The reason of its abrupt rise to prominence was the passage of further amendments which included the amendment for the abolishment of slavery, the amendment related to the equal protection of the law and the amendment which conferred the right to vote upon every American citizen including the women ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0abHPa49","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Siegan 2018)","plainCitation":"(Siegan 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/TNK9C4F2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/TNK9C4F2"],"itemData":{"id":1176,"type":"book","title":"Property Rights: From Magna Carta to the Fourteenth Amendment","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1-351-32595-7","author":[{"family":"Siegan","given":"Bernard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Siegan 2018).

The Bill of Rights has always remained an essential part of the American constitution. It has served in various judicial proceedings (although some of them remain debatable), but the American political and legal experts believe that its spirit remained very pure ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uhNgi0DK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cogan 2015)","plainCitation":"(Cogan 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1178,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3Q4ZGSQE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3Q4ZGSQE"],"itemData":{"id":1178,"type":"book","title":"The complete Bill of Rights: The drafts, debates, sources, and origins","publisher":"Oxford University Press","ISBN":"0-19-932421-2","author":[{"family":"Cogan","given":"Neil H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cogan 2015). The conflict of Bill of Rights with the natural rights of the human persisted because of structural flaws in the Constitution, and not over their spirit. Since the passage of further amendments related to individual rights, the Bill of Right became clear and became the legal tool for civil rights protection. Since the protection of civil rights is the core of American politics, therefore the debate about the legality of such amendments had never gone out of the focus of the American lawmakers. The legal status of the Bill of Rights remained primary and of consequential importance throughout the history of America, therefore it appears that some structural flaws (and not the lack of spirit of Bill of Rights) could have overshadowed the importance of the Bill of Rights.

References:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cogan, Neil H. 2015. The Complete Bill of Rights: The Drafts, Debates, Sources, and Origins. Oxford University Press.

Hersch, Joni, and Jennifer Bennett Shinall. 2015. “Fifty Years Later: The Legacy of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 34(2): 424–56.

Siegan, Bernard. 2018. Property Rights: From Magna Carta to the Fourteenth Amendment. Routledge.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

American Politics

American Politics

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

American Politics

Madisonian Democracy

The Madisonian model or Madisonian democracy is considered to be a structure of government in which the governmental powers are characterized into judicial, legislative, and execution. The reason behind the implementation of the Madisonian model was to structure the government in a way that could result in prevention of imposing dictatorship either by minority or majority. The aim of proposing this scheme of government by James Madison was to balance the influence and power of all branches (Schultz, 2016). The matter of fact is that the separation of power has been resulted due to the courts interpreting laws, president enforcing laws, and Congress passing laws. One thing that must be considered here is that all three governmental branches do not depend on each other, still, they tend to cooperate by necessity.

As per Madison, there is an increase in the number of individuals both in minority and majority who are actuated and united because of some common interest. Madison identified only two possible ways to resolve the issue; one is to control the effects as it will limit their impact. The other possible way suggested by Madison is that the government should limit liberty. The argue of Madison is that under the proposed Constitution, the minority fiction would not be able to assert itself. The reason for that is due to the republican nature of the constitution. There is no doubt that a faction that tends to encompass a majority of people undoubtedly possess a sum of great problems. However, the issues were tackled by Madison as he first contended a pure democracy which results in providing no cure for fiction. The reason for that lies in the fact that the majority can always tyrannize the minority. Still, when it comes to the republican system created by the Constitution, it tends to offer the solution. The possible distinctions as per Madison that result in mitigating the faction in a proposed system are; the population and size of the union, and representative government.

Outcomes of Madisonian Democratic Institutions and Civil Rights Movement

The period between the 1950s and '60s was considered to be the height of civil right movement. During this time, there was seen a continual struggle for racial and social justice of African American in the U.S. The greatest achievement from the Civil War was the abolishment of slavery, however, it still could not eradicate the discrimination. There are a series of important events that brought social change during the civil rights movement. In the year 1955, the Montogomery Bus Boycott was seen to take place after Rosa Parks was arrested because she refused to give up her bus seat (Shi & Tindall, 2016). The boycott resulted in African Americans uniting themselves together and they stopped using the bus system. The 1961 Albany Movement is remarkable for a large number of groups joining it. The movement was disbanded after almost 12 months of protecting, and it could not accomplish its goals as well. The Birmingham Campaign of 1963 came to a successful end as it ended the discriminatory economic policies against the resident of African Americans in the Alabama city. A number of rallies, boycotts, and marches took place in the Chicago Open Housing Movement. The king along with 30 other individuals was injured. The Movement continued through 1967. Poor People's Campaign, in 1968, resulted in gaining the more human and economic rights for the poor Americans.

There is no uncertainty that Madison was a critic of democracy. However, the overall view tends to mislead a large number of individuals. In the current scenario, the work of Madison should be read as an invitation to redefine, and not a rejection of democracy (Sloss, 2017). The Madisonian democracy reflects itself as an arrangement for holding one another accountable in enacting policy. Check and balance is definitely not the core of a civic ethic that results in extending beyond federalist arrangement and inter-branch relations. When it comes to popular political participation, they are quite necessary, however, not a good approach at the voluntarist grounds. For Madison, it has been observed that the participation is put into accountability service for the ancient Athenians (Schultz, 2016). Studies and research show that in perfectly understood democracy, the citizens enhance and reinforce the efforts of each other in order to comply with justice.

Conclusion

Considering the Civil Rights policy in the United States and the Civil Rights Movement, it is concluded that the democracy of the U.S. is somehow reached at a breaking point. Although the U.S. democracy is strong, but it tends to show some cracks. Due to less engagement of voters and other factors, the economy has become a great challenge for the U.S in the 21st century. Studies and research show that the majority of Americans do not trust the federal government. The matter of fact is that democracy should be determinant to have as many individuals as possible to vote. The voters must be provided with the objective and quality information as it may serve them to elect the best possible candidates. In the current scenario, there is a high need for the U.S. democratic system to overhaul as it may strengthen the U.S. politics. An important point to consider is that the U.S. still has performed well in certain measures of democracy such as freedom of speech, free and fair elections, and judicial limits on executive power. When it comes to the civil rights policy in the U.S. it provides the right to equal protection, due process, free speech, and protects from discrimination. Therefore, the other side of the coin stands in the support of U.S. democracy as it serves in providing the basic human rights to each citizen.

References

Schultz, D. (2016). The Case for a Democratic Theory of American Election Law. University of Pennsylvania Law Review Online, 164(2), 8.

Shi, D. E., & Tindall, G. B. (2016). America: A narrative history. WW Norton & Company.

Sloss, D. (2017). Human Rights and Constitutional Democracy. Human Rights Quarterly, 39(4), 971-986.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Among California’s Three Branches Of Government, Which Do You Believe Is The Most Powerful, Compared To The Powers Of The Other Branches?

[Your Name]

[Instructor Name]

[Course Number]

[Date]

Political Science: California’s Most Powerful Government Branch

Among California’s three Branches of Government, Which Do You Believe Is The Most Powerful, Compared to the Powers of the Other Branches?

Like other states, California’s government also put every possible effort to ensure that there are fully fine and fair practices of the government of the state. The Constitution of the state’s government has also been written which works as a set of principles that state how the people of the states should and would be governed.

The people and leaders of California wanted to have a strong and fully fair government in the state. They also have a concern, which is to protect the people or individuals of the state and prevent the government of the state (California) from abusing its authority and power over the citizens and region. For the purpose, it was and still clear to everybody that such fair and fine government can be brought into presence and action by having three different branches of the state’s government (Carrillo, and Danny, P.P. 655). Hence the three main branches have been developed or the three branches in which California’s government has been organized are; 1) Executive, 2) Legislative, and 3) Judicial branch. These branches have been designed for the purpose to save the government of the state from any corruption or unfair practices.

All of these branches (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial) have been given the power and authority that they can use and apply as per the policies and laws. Further, each of these branches has different types and levels of powers and authorities and each of these powers and authorities is given to the branches as per the requirements and their regulations.

In short, there is always a difference when it comes to having more things to analyze. Similarly, there is a difference in the powers of the three branches of California’s government. While based on these difference (difference in power each branch have), these branches can be more and less powerful than one another. Hence, it can be stated that there are many crucial and important reasons because of which one branch is found the most powerful when compare to the power of others. So there are reasons and facts that clarify that the Executive Branch of California’s government is the most powerful than the rest (Carrillo, and Danny, P.P. 655).

Executive Branch of California’s Government

The executive branch is the branch that is mainly run by the governor of the state. The governor is elected by the people of California for four years each time. The individuals that are aged for more than 18 years and are the residents of California can be elected as the Governor of the state. The governor of California is the only and sole source of communication between the state and the federal government of the United States and the other 49 states of the country.

In terms of responsibility, the executive branch of California’s government is responsible for administering and enforcing the laws of the state of California. While in the practices, the executive branch of California’s government much closely with the legislative branch of California’s government for the purpose to shape the proposed legislation (Carrillo, and Danny, P.P. 655).

A number of state departments are also included in the executive branch of the government of the state. The officials that have been elected publically, appointed by the state's governor, hired into the civil service system if the state, run and direct these departments included in the executive branch of the government.

Why the Executive Branch of California's Government is the Most Powerful

More than a single or few reasons and facts are there make the Executive Branch of California’s Government is the Powerful than the other branches. In other words, many reasons and facts (in shape of power) stand out the Executive Branch of California’s government than others. The branch can be seen more powerful when one finds, analyze and compares the powers and authorities each branch of the government exercises.

There are many debates concerning the powerfulness of branches of government of California’s government. I myself was thinking that the executive branch of California’s government has not much power as others while thinking that it has the least power. But (Vogel, P.P. 149-152) finds and lists several reasons that switch one’s thinking. The main argument that the Executive and President branch is the most powerful is still up in the air, but the strong reasons are always there that why the branches are the most powerful especially at the current moment.

The very first and initial reason because of that the executive branch of California’s government is considered as the most powerful is the leader of this branch (Governor) of this branch is elected by the whole population of the states while the Governor works as the Chief Executive and Head of the State of California. It means that the Governor who is the actual head of the state’s government has the hugest amount of power. While he/she is highly connected or associated with this branch while having an association with every branch of the government. Beyond this, another crucial reason that the Executive branch of California’s government is most powerful is its power of persuasion (Carrillo, and Danny, P.P. 655). It is also important to note that it is even more powerful and important that who you are persuading.

In California’s government, the executive branch and Governor try to persuade other concerned and associated parties. Persuasion is one of the hugest deals because it gets individuals and groups on your side, obviously. Hence, this branch (executive) of the government becomes powerful because it gets the right people to go with the ideas and policies. For instance, in the film titled “Lincoln”, Abraham Lincoln tries to inspire and persuade individuals in the office not preferably decided about what they (people) feel regarding slavery. While similar things have seen going in the current time (Vogel, P.P. 149-152).

Other aspects of the government are also there in which the Executive Branch is found the most powerful than the other branches of the state’s government. For example, the executive branch has the authority to exercise practices over the other two branches of the government. The executive branch can be found having the power and authority to appoint judges as well as nominate heads of other agencies of California (California State Capitol Museum, N.P). This power makes the branch most power and differentiated from others because appointing judges and heads of other agencies is the act of appointing heads or leaders and decision-makers for Judicial and Legislative branches.

In addition to this, it has also been written in the Constitution that there is a proper check and balance of every branch of the state's government. Hence it can also be said that every branch of the government is powerful in the same way as others, as well as no branch, is stronger than the other two.

But! It has also been listed clearly that the executive branch has the authority to keep a proper check and balance of Judicial and Legislative branches. Hence this can be reflected as the superior power of the Executive branch over the others. It means that the Executive branch of California’s government is powerful than others. Additionally, it should also be noted and considered that the Executive branch can exercise this power and authority when the budgets and permission for the check and balance are approved by the federal government (California State Capitol Museum, N.P).

The Executive branch of California’s government can do check and balance of both of the branches (Judicial and Legislative branch). The branch can develop and implement policies and strategies as well. Briefly, the Executive branch can be found more powerful than others because it has the authority to nominate justices that serve for life thereafter (Vogel, P.P. 149-152). In this, the governor of the state can veto statutes proposed by the legislature of the states and could appoint or assign some entities (such as justices and judges mentioned above).

As indicated in the Constitution of the United State that the Executive Branch of the federal government tends to be the most powerful mostly, same situation or case can be found on the state level in the government of California (California State Capitol Museum, N.P). The Executive branch of the state’s government tends to be the most powerful mostly.

In short, the specific powers that each branch of California’s government has are as follows.

Powers of Executives Branch

Including all the above powers, generally, this branch of California’s government enforces the state's laws and policies.

Powers of Legislative Branch

Among all other powers, the legislative branch has the power to make state’s laws, declare legal decisions regarding California State, regulate intrastate activities, trade, and commerce with other states, and manage state policies (Vogel, P.P. 149-152).

Powers of Judicial Branch

The main power of the Judicial branch of California’s government is to interpret and limit other branches of the state's government. It includes deciding which law and policy are allowable and which is not.

Work Cited

California State Capitol Museum. "Branches of Government - California State Capitol Museum in Sacramento, California". Guide, Citizens', and Branches Government. Capitolmuseum.Ca.Gov, 2019, http://capitolmuseum.ca.gov/legislation/branches-of-government. Accessed 23 Nov 2019.

Carrillo, David A., and Danny Y. Chou. "California Constitutional Law: Separation of Powers." USFL Rev. 45 (2010): 655.

Vogel, David. "Promoting Sustainable Government Regulation: What We Can Learn From California." Organization & Environment 32.2 (2019): 145-158.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Analysis

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Philosophies of Marx and Smith and the Book The Worker’s Union

The Workers' Union was published by the nineteenth-century French author and the social theorist, Flora Tristan. She left an impact on many of the great philosophers including Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Her struggle for women rights rose from her own experience as a female who had to make a living for herself, her mother and afterward, her children after getting separated from her husband. Tristan urged the French workers that they should put aside their work Rivalries in order to get united nationwide. Her goal was to get the workers their rightful wages through unity and not through the violence. This book of her is about the methods for organizing such unions, the targets of the union, and also she talked about the reasons for emphasizing the women’s rights in its formation. She provides many proposals including the increased access of laborers children to education, making a safe haven for the young persons and the workers that get sick or injuries. Tristan was a social prophetic of Marx. Engels also seems to be influenced by the ideas of the French writer, as his work “Condition of the Working Class in England” has quite the same theme as the book London Journal that was published sometime before that of Engels’s. Marx and Engels never acknowledged the influence of Tristan on their writings however people usually compare the works of these two philosophers with that of Tristan.

Women Rights

The Approach of Tristan in her book is towards the emancipation of the women. She takes the charge of getting women the due equal civil rights that they were deprived of. In comparison to the romantic writers, Tristan was not a novelist. During the mid of the 1830s, she became active in the movement of women rights. She was of the view that divorce was a way of freedom from the system that caught women in the marital cycle of prostitution. After she became famous for her writings, she saw herself as the “Women Messiah” that would bring freedom to the working class of the women. During the early years of the 1840s, Tristan shifted her writings from simply the women rights to the rights of the working class. This ideology of her can be seen in Marx's approach towards the role of women in the development of society. He was of the view that the position of the women in the society could be used as a scale for the development of that society in general. He was not simply calling the men of the society to change their views on the roles of the women in society, rather he was creating a dialectical statement openly related to his general philosophy of society. He thought that society had to change the thinking that one individual has to provide the other one. Instead, they would have to change their thinking to the idea that men and women both are equal and they both have equal responsibility towards each other ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"H2omr8m8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Feminism and Global)","plainCitation":"(Feminism and Global)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":305,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/STYNTGGW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/STYNTGGW"],"itemData":{"id":305,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Monthly Review | Marx on Gender and the Family: A Summary","container-title":"Monthly Review","abstract":"In recent years, there has been little discussion of Marx’s writings on gender and the family, but in the 1970s and ’80s, these writings were subject to a great deal of debate. In a number of cases…","URL":"https://monthlyreview.org/2014/06/01/marx-on-gender-and-the-family-a-summary/","title-short":"Monthly Review | Marx on Gender and the Family","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Feminism","given":"Heather BrownTopics:"},{"family":"Global","given":"Philosophy Places:"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",6,1]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,24]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Feminism and Global). Marx and Engels found the origin of women’s suppression in their part inside the nuclear family in class societies. They assumed that women’s part as natural “reproducers” consequences in their inferior rank in the nuclear family, and thus through civilization. In industrialist cultures, women in aristocratic families breed inheritors; women in working-class families reproduce a generation of the labor force for society. After the death of Marx, the Engels took the task of organizing and writing the unfinished and unpublished work called The Origin of The Family, most of it was done with Engels. Engels drew on Marx’s then unpublished transcripts. He also recognized that his volume owed a colossal debt to Ancient Society, the revolutionary work by American lawyer and anthropologist, Lewis Henry Morgan, which had been printed seven years ago. In his book, he stated that a division of work between males and females does not essentially suggest discrimination. Women’s financial input in hunter-gatherer civilizations generally provided the greater part of the nutritional necessities of the group. While men and women’s title role speckled, they were neither higher nor lower but both valued and obligatory for the group. In the words of Engles “In order to make sure of the female spouse’s faithfulness and consequently the fatherhood of the kids, she is provided entirely into the control of the other half; if he murders her, he only exercises his rights” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Xvf2fkq2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Engels and Women\\uc0\\u8217{}s Oppression\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Engels and Women’s Oppression”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":307,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/ELNKRVLH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/ELNKRVLH"],"itemData":{"id":307,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Engels and Women’s Oppression","container-title":"Left Voice","abstract":"What does Engels say about the root of women's oppression? Is there validity to his argument today?","URL":"http://www.leftvoice.org/Engels-and-Women-s-Oppression","language":"en-US","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,24]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Engels and Women’s Oppression”).

Working Class

There is a basic difference between the other contemporary female writers and Tristan. She was not a bourgeoisie rather she belonged to the working social class. In her book The Worker's union she talks about the ways the workers should put their demands. She was of the opinion that the workers should put their demands actively and frequently rather than in a violent manner. She supported the fact that the workers stand up for their rights and openly demand them. However, she totally rejected the idea that violence should be incited against the authority to get their demands. In the first section of the book, she appeals to the Proletariat to form a single, and global trade union organization. Tristan positions that suitability will be given to anyone who “works with his or her hands” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gbQ4XyG8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}L\\uc0\\u8217{}Union Ouvri\\uc0\\u232{}re (The Workers\\uc0\\u8217{} Union) (1843) by Flora Tristan | Towards Emancipation?})","plainCitation":"(L’Union Ouvrière (The Workers’ Union) (1843) by Flora Tristan | Towards Emancipation?)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":302,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/9EGF7HXU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/9EGF7HXU"],"itemData":{"id":302,"type":"webpage","title":"L’Union Ouvrière (The Workers’ Union) (1843) by Flora Tristan | Towards Emancipation?","URL":"http://hist259.web.unc.edu/flora-tristans-lunion-ouvriere-the-workers-union-paris-1843/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,24]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Towards Emancipation?). She used the growing statistics of diplomatically vigorous employed classmen to help her in establishing women's freedom. She claimed that the working class men would only be liberated themselves if they helped emancipate their women. After all, if the men did not help equal the pay for women, the men were sure to lose their jobs to the cheaper labor.

For Marx, the investigation of social class, and their constructions and variations in those constructions are fundamental to the understanding of capitalism and other communal methods or means of manufacture. He stated that the capitalists are the vendors of assets, buying and abusing labor force, using the excess worth from occupation of this labor power to mount up or increase their wealth. It is the proprietorship of money and its use to abuse labor and multiplies wealth is fundamental at this point. Workers, on the other hand, are the ones who have not a bit of the basic premises, tools, resources, or the currency to obtain these things that are desirable to involve in making a living. While the Capitalists do have all these, but to bring them to usage with efficiency make a revenue they require other persons to work them. So they suggest salaries to labors that will permit the workers to survive and let the industrialist to revenue from the whole thing prepared after this survival is salaried for. The lesser the salary and the greater working hours for that income, the more they are exploiting the employee, i.e. the more cash they’re making at the worker’s cost. Engels was also struggling for the rights of the working social class. His work "The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1845" is targeting the proletariats and was written at the time of industrial revolution. The language he used is significant for the description of the bourgeoisie and is important as related to the Engels' overall vision of a war between the rich and poor. He says in his work that the attitude of the aristocrats to the working class not only designates them as selfish pretenders but also envisages an unattractive forthcoming for this advantaged class because of their short-sighted obliviousness of truth ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oTd5I5HF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fortushniok)","plainCitation":"(Fortushniok)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":303,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/P7GHN3SG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Tqq4tlqy/items/P7GHN3SG"],"itemData":{"id":303,"type":"article-journal","title":"Analysis: Conditions of the Working Class in England","source":"www.academia.edu","abstract":"Analysis: Conditions of the Working Class in England","URL":"https://www.academia.edu/16756367/Analysis_Conditions_of_the_Working_Class_in_England","title-short":"Analysis","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Fortushniok","given":"Dylan"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,24]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fortushniok). The writer labels the bourgeoisie as self-centered tycoons by illuminating the Corn Law and their objectives to revoke it. The opinion of the working class in England commenced modifying with the overview of the Anti-Corn Law Group in 1842 backed by bourgeoisie businesspersons. Engels claims that by making the law unsound and negated the builder can contest with cumulative labor demands because of a sparse population.

Conclusion

The book of Tristan proposed the ideas that are useful for the organization of the workers and the ways they can get their rights. Not only has this but she also told that for a better economic system of a country the involvement of the women is also necessary. She ultimately talks about women's rights and their part in the system of economy of a country. Similar is the views of Marx and Engels. They both have worked together, and they also share the same opinions to some extent. Marx and Engel viewed the working class as the power that could bring change to the economy of the country as well as to their fate. They both also presented their philosophies of the rights of women and were of the view that women are equal to men and that they should not be deprived of their rights because they are the other pillar that supports the economy of the country paid or unpaid.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY “Engels and Women’s Oppression.” Left Voice, http://www.leftvoice.org/Engels-and-Women-s-Oppression. Accessed 24 Apr. 2019.

Feminism, Heather BrownTopics, and Philosophy Places: Global. “Monthly Review | Marx on Gender and the Family: A Summary.” Monthly Review, 1 June 2014, https://monthlyreview.org/2014/06/01/marx-on-gender-and-the-family-a-summary/.

Fortushniok, Dylan. Analysis: Conditions of the Working Class in England. www.academia.edu, https://www.academia.edu/16756367/Analysis_Conditions_of_the_Working_Class_in_England. Accessed 24 Apr. 2019.

L’Union Ouvrière (The Workers’ Union) (1843) by Flora Tristan | Towards Emancipation? http://hist259.web.unc.edu/flora-tristans-lunion-ouvriere-the-workers-union-paris-1843/. Accessed 24 Apr. 2019.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Annotated Bibliography

Student’s Name

Professor’s Name

EAC150

31 May 2016

Political Science: The Impeachment clause

Pritchett, Charles Herman. The American Constitution. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977.

The constitution of the United States of America is the primary source that is used for the understanding of legal issues relating to it. The book details all the laws that are implemented on a federal level in the United States of America. The impeachment clause is mentioned in the constitution in section 4 of the constitution and can only be interpreted once we go through the article as a whole. The procedural details regarding the issue can also be fully grasped once the use of primary materials is done properly. In essence, the constitution of the United States of America gives the Congress the right to impeach a sitting president, the vice president and all the higher officers of the government on accounts of treason, bribery, and other such high misdemeanor-based crimes. This book gives you a first-hand reading of the clause and lets you make your own mind up on how the clause should be implemented.

Wolfe, James, and Heather Moehn. Understanding the US Constitution.

It is a commentary on the constitution of the United States of America from the distinguished authors. The commentators aim to provide a basic understanding of the constitution and how it is generally being implemented across the states. The book can be used by the lay man to get a grip on how the constitution is being implemented across the states. In order to understand the impeachment clause, this book can be relevant as it explains complex issues without the use of heavily loaded jargon. Most of the laws of the constitution of the United States are generally very difficult to grasp without the presence of qualified attorneys but this book attempts to provide a commonplace account of how the American constitution will look like or should like when implemented. Historical precedence is also discussed for different laws as implemented in the past.

"Trump Impeachment Trial Live Coverage: Senators Ask Final Questions Before Critical Vote on Witnesses." NBC News. N.p., 2020. Web. 31 Jan. 2020.

The impeachment trial of Donald Trump is one of the most talked about things in the current affairs of United States politics. The interpretation of the constitution has been in question from the get-go. This article highlights one of the most important steps that were undertaken while impeachment inquiry was being initiated. Before the initiation of the vote, witnesses were called to testify to set the facts of the trial straight. The details of that procedure are documented in this article which helps the common man understand the complexity of the issue. This article details the proceedings of the hearing and how the proceeding of the testimony went when the impeachment process was initiated. The voting process in the senate that had to be done in order to move forwards with the impeachment was also detailed in this article.

Tillman, Seth Barrett. "Killing Two Constitutional Birds with One Linguistic Stone: Tricky Resignation and the 'Poorly Drafted' Ineligibility Clause and Impeachment Clause." SSRN Electronic Journal (2009):

This article discusses the flaws that were seen during the drafting procedure of the impeachment clause. The procedural elements of the impeachment and ineligibility clause are critiqued from a logical as well as an implementation perspective. It is a good article if one needs to understand the details of what an impeachment trial is supposed to look like and what is still missing in the procedure. A good understanding can be developed if one gives this article a good read. This article is written from the viewpoint of being critical. The different aspects of the clause that can be improved over time are also mentioned in detail in the article which makes it much more relevant in the context of this decade.

"Impeachment Clause: A Wild Card In The Constitution Howard J. Trienens Visiting Scholar Program 85 Northwestern University Law Review 1990-1991." Heinonline.org. N.p., 2020. Web. 31 Jan. 2020.

This article provides a detailed and an easy way to understand discussion on the topic of impeachment and how a scholar understands the complexities in the clause as well as the implementation of the article. This explanation can also be considered as authoritative as it is coming from a scholar in the field. The procedural elements that need to be understood during the process of research are very carefully articulated in this article and the grey areas are also very well highlighted. This article also defines the subjective parts of the clause and the points in which legislation is due in the future for further clarity. It is, in essence a commentary on the clause and is much more opinionated. Since the opinion presented is of qualified individuals thus the article becomes much more of an authentic source of information. The writer suggests that there are conceptual flaws and that the law needs to be rethought and this idea makes it relevant to the present situation.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Answer Questions

Part 1:

regime de la terreur: Reign or terroranarchists: person who tries to bring anarchySkirmishers: light infantry Mlada Bosna: Young Bosniastate-imposed terror: countries that support terrorismnarco-terrorism: associated with trade in illegal drugsHague Conventions on Warfare: multi-lateral treaties that addressed the conduct of warguerrilla warfare: irregular warfare with small number of combatantsinsurgency: active revolt or uprsisngethnonationalist terrorism: terrorism based on ethnicities and having separatist tendenciescolonialism: occupation of another territory and governing it directly or indirectlyAtlantic Charter (pg. 46-47) Joint declaration by Roosevelt and Churchill

Menachem Begin: Israeli politician

Irgun militia: Zionist militants

United Nations Special committee on Palestine (UNSCOP): A committee formed on UK’s request to settle Palestine issue

Global Terrorism Database (GTD): An open source database that has the information related to terrorist events that happened around the world within 1970 – 2017.

EOKA: EOKA is an organization that battled a campaign to end the British rule within Cyprus. The full form of EOKA is Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston.

FLN (French Front de Libération Nationale)

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)

skyjacking (Aircraft hijacking)

Black September (Its a conflict fought in Jordan)

ASALA (Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia)

JCAG (Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide)

left-wing international terrorism: terrorism meant to overthrow capitalist or conservative governments thug (thugee): a violent person Hezbollah: A Palestinian group aimed at forming Palestine as an independent country Sikh militants: Militants of Sikh religious organizations American Christian patriot movement: an extremist and radical movement of American political commentators Ruby Ridge and Waco: a takeover of a government facility by protestorsAum Shinrikyo: Japanese doomsday cult

Part 2:

1) Terrorism evolved from an anarchist, anti-colonial wave in the late 18th century to a political and religious movement. The French Revolution saw acts of terrorism and then it continued till the start of the 20th century when regular attacks took place in modern day Israel and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Gavrilo Princip assassinated the Archduke Ferdinand in 1914 and Aum Shinrikyo bombed Japan’s subway, killing dozens.

The term terrorism began to surface in late 18th century France and the criterion of being termed terrorist was very clear as anyone who fought against the interests of the empire or state was labelled terrorist. Towards the beginning of the 21st century however, the term has been highly politicized. The distinction between terrorist and freedom fighter is less obvious now, especially as a result of the Almaty Declaration, reaffirming the right of self-determination for all peoples.

2) Ethno-nationalist or separatist is a type of terrorism signified by Audrey Cronin. According to Cronin, these type of terrorists take up arms due to their ethnicities, languages and/or geographical area. Their main goal is to create a separate identity for themselves by creating a new nation in which they will be the overwhelming majority.

Palestinian Liberation Organization based in Jordan at first, then Lebanon, carried out attacks against Israel. PLO’s aim is to liberate Palestine from Israeli occupation, keeping in line with resolutions of Security Council. Al-Qaeda is another terrorist organization that attacked World trade Center by ramming hijacked passenger airplanes into the building. The Islamic Jihad Organization attacked a US embassy in Lebanon with the demand that all Americans leave Lebanon for good.

3) Data collection was difficult because there was no uniform and credible organization that was recognized by most countries; this made the issue of terrorism and its associated data highly controversial. The data by US would not be accepted by some other countries, making consensus difficult.

The Global Terrorism Database is a database that is open source and contains information of more than 180,000 terrorist attacks. It assigns points for the amount of damage as well as the lives lost or injuries sustained.

4) The birth of Palestinian resistance movement can be traced back to the Balfour Declaration in which the British ensured that a Jewish state would be created in Palestine. This worried the Palestinians as they feared that they would be driven from their own lands if influx of Jews starts from Europe. Their fears turned to reality as 750,000 Palestinians were forced to flee when Israel was officially created in 1948. East Timor learned from the Palestinian tactics and started mass protests and used media to portray their anguish to the world.

The Palestinian resistance movement is especially pertinent in world history as it is the longest ongoing freedom struggle in the world. They have been forced out of their own homes and their lands have been taken away by Israelis – all of which has been repeatedly condemned by United Nations General Assembly.

5) Religious terrorism is inspired by misplaced religious emotions and perceived obligations that are divine. The element of providence in religious terrorism makes it the most dangerous type of terrorism as terrorists are perceived as heroes in some circles.

Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) is the main Islamic terrorist organization working in the South Asian country. They carried out the most inhumane act of terrorism in 2014 when they attacked a school, leaving more than 150 people dead. The Bosnian genocide of 8000 Serbian Muslim men was motivated in part by religious hatred by Christians towards members of the Islamic faith. Jewish right-wing attacks on Churches are an example of Jewish terrorism as they continue to grow in number.

6) Democracy began as a result of oppression and its guiding principle was the right of liberty of every individual, regardless of race, sex, caste or creed. In the 21st century, democracy is more popular than ever in the world but America is facing increasing threats to its own democracy. This is primarily because of right-wing white nationalist rhetoric fueled by a surge in political victories, such as that of Donald Trump, who refused to condemn white nationalists when their protest resulted in the death of a young girl in Charlottesville.

The idea of democracy in America is changing as more people now believe that it is a concept that is limited to a certain group only. They call for a ‘white only’ America despite the fact that democracy is supposed to provide equal treatment and opportunity to every citizen, regardless of race or religion. The government should set precedents by hiring a diverse set of people in the administration and crack down on hate speech.

7) Charles Montesquieu was a French philosopher, judge and political scientist whose ideas led to the creation of the modern political system in the world. He was against the influence and power of church in matters of statehood. He proposed the theory of separation of powers in which he called for the complete detachment of religion from affairs of the state.

Montesquieu viewed religion’s use in politics as a tool to oppress people and subjugate them into obedience through the false notion of providence. He was also against the use of judicial powers by the government as it was essentially a death sentence for anyone who opposed the state. Separation of Powers calls for three pillars of a state: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.

8) Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher and famous writer whose works inspired the French Revolution and guided it even after his death. Rousseau posited that in a social contract, all citizens give up an equal number of rights and therefore are subject to the same laws. This brings equality in society and is a cornerstone of democracy.

Rousseau opposed Hobbes’ view of ‘state of nature’ and opined that humans are not inherently evil rather they go through stages of development which are natural and should not tampered with. According to Rousseau, a direct democracy in a small state is the best type of government.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Any Constitutional Issue

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Immigration, a Constitutional issue

As the world globalizes, people have become more independent with their movements around the world, which can also be termed as immigration. Immigration in recent years seems to be making more headlines in America, and one can observe the changes it is making to the constitution. According to Article 1, Section 8, of the constitution, immigrants are allowed to become the permanent neutralized citizens who are supposed to be treated equally in the country ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"161QgTwG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}The U.S. Constitution and Immigration\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“The U.S. Constitution and Immigration”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":65,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/CK2KE3G3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/CK2KE3G3"],"itemData":{"id":65,"type":"webpage","title":"The U.S. Constitution and Immigration","container-title":"Boundless Immigration","abstract":"The U.S. Constitution gives very few specifics about the way U.S. immigration policy should look, but it provides broad guidelines as to who has authority to make such policy, as well as the legal means for challenges to elements of that policy.","URL":"https://www.boundless.com/blog/u-s-constitution-immigration/","language":"en-US","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",6,3]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,16]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The U.S. Constitution and Immigration”). Immigrants in America comprise 14 percent of the population, holding a specific position in the constitution. This constitutional right has now been challenged by the U.S. President Donald Trump, who has now deported millions of undocumented immigrants and has put a temporary ban on Muslims ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Y8ojJioz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}The U.S. Immigration Debate\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“The U.S. Immigration Debate”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":64,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/8Y2HTWBB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/8Y2HTWBB"],"itemData":{"id":64,"type":"webpage","title":"The U.S. Immigration Debate","container-title":"Council on Foreign Relations","abstract":"Comprehensive immigration reform has eluded Congress for years, moving controversial policy decisions into the executive and judicial branches.","URL":"https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-immigration-debate-0","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,16]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The U.S. Immigration Debate”)

Apart from this, he has been working on building the border wall with Mexico because 25 percent of the immigrants belong to Mexico. This whole deporting system has given rise to protests around the country. Parents and children are being separated on a daily basis because of undocumented immigration. The president is worried about immigrants taking away all the country’s resources and is indirectly attacking the rights of permanent citizens. The deportation of immigrants would have its own consequences. According to research, the workforce of U.S. will decline 173 million to 165 million in the coming years, which economically is not a good point for America ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Q3nJ7hFt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}The U.S. Immigration Debate\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“The U.S. Immigration Debate”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":64,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/8Y2HTWBB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/8Y2HTWBB"],"itemData":{"id":64,"type":"webpage","title":"The U.S. Immigration Debate","container-title":"Council on Foreign Relations","abstract":"Comprehensive immigration reform has eluded Congress for years, moving controversial policy decisions into the executive and judicial branches.","URL":"https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-immigration-debate-0","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,16]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The U.S. Immigration Debate”). Recent polls show that more70 percent of the citizens are fine with the immigrants and show support to them. However, the president is assuring not provide any kind of relief to the immigrants and focusing on the border security of the country by deploying National Guards contingents to the southern border to which five of the state governors said they will refuse.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY “The U.S. Constitution and Immigration.” Boundless Immigration, 3 June 2017, https://www.boundless.com/blog/u-s-constitution-immigration/.

“The U.S. Immigration Debate.” Council on Foreign Relations, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-immigration-debate-0. Accessed 16 Oct. 2019.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Article Report

Article Report

[Name]

[Institute]

Author Note

Article Report

Part 1

Which article did you read?

The article prepared for the purpose of this report was called the “Intuitive Ethics and Political Orientations: Testing Moral Foundations as a Theory of Political Ideology” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Nda7EMaK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Smith, Alford, Hibbing, Martin, & Hatemi, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Smith, Alford, Hibbing, Martin, & Hatemi, 2017)","dontUpdate":true,"noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"517SztTJ/jNCSL7NH","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/0omESN17/items/MJEW6ZBN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/0omESN17/items/MJEW6ZBN"],"itemData":{"id":1083,"type":"article-journal","title":"Intuitive ethics and political orientations: Testing moral foundations as a theory of political ideology","container-title":"American Journal of Political Science","page":"424-437","volume":"61","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Smith","given":"Kevin B."},{"family":"Alford","given":"John R."},{"family":"Hibbing","given":"John R."},{"family":"Martin","given":"Nicholas G."},{"family":"Hatemi","given":"Peter K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} by Smith, Alford, Hibbing, Martin, & Hatemi (2017).

What was the central question the researchers were trying to answer?

The purpose of this paper was to establish the substantial variability in almost all individual-level moral foundations across a specific period of time and how these changes account for changes that take place within the political attitudes of a system. This was analyzed on the basis of the instinctual evaluations to solve social dilemmas on the basis of innate psychological modules.

How did the paper try to answer that question?

The paper used original surveys from Australian twins and their family members that were collected in two separate waves, which was then compared with U.S. replication samples. In the first wave, the participant response was collected from 586 participants with a successful 70% response rate between 2007 and 2009. 250 among the participants were twin pairs and 86 were singletons. The two waves were carried out 18 to 24 months apart, meaning that the second wave was held between 2009 and 2011. This wave included 402 two siblings from the original sample of siblings from the first wave, with 186 new sets of twins. It also includes 124 non-siblings from both waves, 365 fathers, and 583 mothers. The collection of data in two separate waves had the added benefit of carrying out a longitudinal study of both the political attitudes as well as political attitudes and moral foundations held by them. Furthermore, the existing variance between both the genetic and environmental components with moral foundations. This will help relay the information regarding the heritability of moral foundation. The data was then subjected to a wide variety of factor analyses on each of the waves to obtain comparable results where each of the hypothesis was tested separately in order to draw conclusive and well-rounded results.

What did they find?

The first hypothesis suggests that there is considerable variation between moral foundation scores as well as individuals in terms of test-retest correlation in terms of political ideology. However, according to the results obtained, moral foundations are exclusively nit stable among individuals over the designated period of time. With regard to how moral foundations can predict changes in political attitudes, the results show that there is really no influence on a moral foundation. Despite the low level of significance, the hypothesis has the potential for meaningful changes in the ideology. The third hypothesis discusses if moral foundations are heritable. According to the study, moral foundations are not heritable among family members, even among twins, on the basis of the results. This fact remained true throughout the testing of this hypothesis despite breaking it down into dimensions.

Part 2

The article does a fairly convincing job of how the moral foundation can be impacted in terms of political ideologies among the population. However, there are a number of issues with the way the problems in the ideas that are being discussed. The study design was brilliantly created, however, the way the design has been laid out and the conclusions that were drawn were not enough to draw conclusive results. Most of the results obtained were too insignificant to provide any real conclusions, which makes the article a little hard to believe. However, the present does present an excellent study design which could be added on and even replicated for other studies. This research article also played a key role in setting the foundation for the book by ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VLIh6UWT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lockyer, Hatemi, & Hopcroft, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Lockyer, Hatemi, & Hopcroft, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1010,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/XQ6CDLRK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/XQ6CDLRK"],"itemData":{"id":1010,"type":"book","title":"Genetics and politics: a review for the social scientist","publisher":"Oxford University Press","author":[{"family":"Lockyer","given":"Adam"},{"family":"Hatemi","given":"Peter K."},{"family":"Hopcroft","given":"R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Lockyer, Hatemi, & Hopcroft (2018) where the concept of genetics and its influence on political ideology is further explored.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Lockyer, A., Hatemi, P. K., & Hopcroft, R. (2018). Genetics and politics: A review for the social scientist. Oxford University Press.

Smith, K. B., Alford, J. R., Hibbing, J. R., Martin, N. G., & Hatemi, P. K. (2017). Intuitive ethics and political orientations: Testing moral foundations as a theory of political ideology. American Journal of Political Science, 61(2), 424–437.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Article Report

Article report

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Assignment

Date

Article summary

In Mutz & Rao’s article , “The Real Reason Liberals Drink Lattes. PS: Political Science & Politics” provided the concept of “latte liberal”. Assuming there is pragmatic support for a positive association among latte drinking and liberal ideology, but to find out why was the challenge. There are three hypotheses used in this study including; first says that the relationship arises because latte drinking is common at coffee shops. Secondly, there is relation of liberal ideology and drinking coffee from the financial point of view. The third thesis states that there is an effect of gender as well because it is established in US politics that females drink more latte than men.

For this study, national survey self-report method utilized to find out drinking coffee habits, and ideology. For this study more than 1500 individuals were surveyed in 2014.According to the result of this study , an essential reinterpretation meant by “latte liberal.” (Mutz & Rao, 2018). The expression does not advocate fiscal hypocrisy, if income were the key cause liberals were more probable to drink lattes. Nothing worthy find out from this study however it is observed that behavior grounded on the basis of any product my work either positive or negative or both.

Criticism

In data collection demographics are not mentioned . It may affect the behavior and attitude of respondents. Another thing that is not mentioned is regarding sample is how many females and females surveyed. May be the number of males were more than females so it can also affect the result of study. one of the most important assessments of the validity of a sample procedure is representativeness, as a property that ensures the reliability and reliability of information about an object obtained during the study. Meanwhile, an analysis of the special works of domestic and foreign researchers shows us the presence of serious disagreements regarding the content of the term “sample representativeness” as the initial category of the theory of the selective method.

In turn, various interpretations of this term make us think about the limits of applicability of the selective method. Moreover, the questions are not so much in what studies apply this method, but how the sampling procedure should be built, what types of sampling are most effective in specific research conditions, what is the relationship between the nature of social objects and the organization of the sampling procedure, and finally, what the same is “representativeness”. Of the three types of studies of universal, local and selective, the latter is used most often. Since pragmatic research is continually meant at gaining precise and impartial, quantitative social evidence, it is significant to confirm, when directing it, that the information customary is mainly illustrative. Consequently, the accuracy of the selection is very important.

The goal of this study is to see why latte drinking associated with liberal ideology. Is there connection in these two concepts or is it merely a misconception. Affinities among routine and ideology promote stereotyping and social disintegration initiate in this study. Arguments are well presented to support every thesis and many examples as well provided to clarify the purpose of this study. “Michael Dukakis proposed that planters in the breadbasket of USA remedy their economic illness by producing Belgian endive”(Mutz & Rao, 2018, p.766). Overall the purpose of this research fulfilled because the only reason of this study was to find out association among latte and liberal ideology as well to predict behavior. Overall good argumentation method used in this study.

References

Mutz, D. C., & Rao, J. S. (2018). The Real Reason Liberals Drink Lattes. PS: Political Science &

Politics, 51(4), 762-767.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Article Review

Marguerita Katta

Enter the name of Instructor

Political Science

October 4, 2019.

Article Review

The article titled ‘Pelosi announces impeachment inquiry, says Trump’s courting of foreign political help is a betrayal of national security’ was published in the Washington Post on September 24, 2019 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"drIaQQXf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bade et al.)","plainCitation":"(Bade et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":546,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/VJWRDHBT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/VJWRDHBT"],"itemData":{"id":546,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"Pelosi announces impeachment inquiry, says Trump’s courting of foreign political help is a ‘betrayal of national security’","container-title":"Washington Post","section":"Politics","source":"www.washingtonpost.com","abstract":"The House speaker’s move came after the president acknowledged urging Ukraine’s leader to investigate Joe Biden, a contender for the Democratic presidential nomination who holds a wide lead over Trump, polls show, in a potential general election matchup.","URL":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/powerpost/pelosi-top-democrats-privately-discuss-creation-of-select-committee-for-impeachment/2019/09/24/af6f735a-dedf-11e9-b199-f638bf2c340f_story.html","ISSN":"0190-8286","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Bade","given":"Rachael"},{"family":"DeBonis","given":"Mike"},{"family":"Demirjian","given":"Karoun"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,24]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bade et al.). The article was authored by Rachael Bade, Mike DeBonis, and Karoun Demirjian, who are the congressional reporters working for the House of Representatives. Demirjian also writes on the issues of national security. This assignment is aimed at analyzing the article in from different lenses, while mainly referring it to the constitutional savoir-faire.

Article summary

The article is about the constitutional proceedings about procedure the Congress will work for the impeachment of President Donald J. Trump. The article starts with a brief account of what actually led to starting the impeachment proceedings against President Trump. In the first few paragraphs, the authors give a brief account of how President Trump acknowledged that he urged Ukrainian President to investigate his democrat contender. The article refer to statements made by House Speaker Nancy Pelosi where she accused President Trump of violating the oath of office and committing an act of betraying national security. The article then points toward how this impeachment campaign will further create a rift among the democratic and republicans before the 2020 elections. The authors then go on to cover the congressional proceedings, which might follow a 24-hour long, intense period. They have referred to the responses of some old republicans like John Lewis, who believes that the time of impeaching President Trump has arrived. In the later paragraphs of the article, the authors discuss the incidences which stimulated the impeachment campaign. The article talk about possible manners the differences between the Democrats and the GOPs can come to an end. As for them, this historic move will have sewer repercussions for the upcoming elections of 2020.

Analysis of constitutional issues

The authors have, although refrained from referring to any clause or articles of the constitution of the US. However, some video reports included in the article mentions the article of impeachment, which has already been enacted by House speakers. The article of impeachment is the legal set of charges, which results in creating a draft against the public official (President Trump in this case) who is charged with any action against the constitution or his oath. The article of impeachments does not immediately remove the official, rather initiates a congressional proceeding, which later decided the fate of that public official. Article II, Section IV of the American constitution, provides sole rights to the House speakers for impeaching public officials. It also makes the Senate, a court for the trial of impeachment. The authors have refrained from referring to articles of Constitution which talk about impeachment; as the formal proceeding in the house of the representative is not formally started.

Analysis of non- governmental linkage institutions

Throughout the article, the authors have refrained from mentioning what they believe the future of the impeachment campaign might be. Interesting to note is the manner, the aspirations of both Republicans and Democrats are mentioned. The authors believe that both political parties are tightly holding their cards, which they plan to put forth in the strategic foreplay. The authors talk more about Republicans who cite political interests as motive behind the impeachment campaign. Whereas, the authors have given a prominent space in the initial paragraphs to the Democrats, citing the statements of House Speaker Nancy Pelosi. In the later paragraphs, it has been referred by authors as to how the Presidents seeking a legal opinion from the lawmakers, as it is widely believed that democrats hold the requisite number to make the impeachment campaign successful.

Analysis of government issues

The article talks about probable impeachment initiative planned against the President, therefore, the authors have resorted to referring to the White House and the US Congress. The White House, who is being currently run by the Republican President Trump, therefore, the GOP’s senators are expected to voice against the impeachment campaign. Unlike Senator John Lewis, who is vociferous against this impeachment campaign. The authors have referred to the telephonic communication between the Ukrainian President and President Trump. Although the White House has not directly referred to in the article, the authors have cited various events that have come from the Presidential staff. As the Presidency will be playing a major role in the complete scenario, similarly, United States Congress is other governmental institution which is referred by the authors. They have cited various statements of Nancy Pelosi, who is the incumbent house speakers. In short, the article chiefly mentions about a row between the White House and the United States Congress.

Impact on the President’s legacy

It is not the first time that an American President is impeached. With the official proclamation of the impeachment procedure in Congress, President Donald J. Trump will be the third President who will face the impeachment campaign. Despite acing the impeachment charges, the first two Presidents were not removed from the office; however, the future of President Trump is still indecisive. As the previous impeachment campaigns remained to fail in removing the President from office, therefore, the authors have refrained from writing about what will be the future of President Trump. Since the President of the United States holds a great legacy, therefore an impeachment campaign always leaves a negative repercussion over the political attire of the personalities. Therefore, the 2020 election will receive a significant impact of the most recent impeachment campaign.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bade, Rachael, et al. “Pelosi Announces Impeachment Inquiry, Says Trump’s Courting of Foreign Political Help Is a ‘Betrayal of National Security.’” Washington Post, 24 Sept. 2019. www.washingtonpost.com, https://www.washingtonpost.com/powerpost/pelosi-top-democrats-privately-discuss-creation-of-select-committee-for-impeachment/2019/09/24/af6f735a-dedf-11e9-b199-f638bf2c340f_story.html.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Assignment

Wonsehlea Teah

Instructor Name

Course Number

23 July 2019

Assignment: Latino Transnationalism

Part 1: Summary of Articles

In the article Puerto Rican Exceptionalism, DeSipio and Pantoja examine the variation of transnational political and civic ties among migrants from Puerto Rico, and whether the same patterns vary between other Latin American immigrants and migrants from Puerto Rico. It is based on the theory that immigrants belonging to Latin American have a greater tendency to develop transnational ties, among which Puerto Ricans have a greater opportunity to do so. The authors use survey data from 2002, acquired by the TRPI institute, to obtain comparative data on 5 largest Latino population groups from five Latin-American countries. Four hundred respondents from each group were randomly selected to participate and fill a questionnaire. For the first part, the involvement of the migrants in home country associations and politics were measured by self-reported involvement in political meetings, cultural events, memberships in organizations, alongside their participation in elections, fund contribution, and rally attendances. The second part of the research involved collecting their immigration characteristics, and demographic information, alongside measures of efficacy and incorporation. The results demonstrated that Puerto Rican migrants with lower times spent in the U.S. were more likely to be politically active, while demographic characteristics did not play a role. Other Latin American’s participation in transnational activities increased with high reported discrimination and education levels, while it subsided with long term immigration plans. The study indicates that there is little evidence for Puerto Rican exceptionalism compared to other Latino populations, and the difference could be a result of the unique relationship between Puerto Rico and the U.S. The study is limited as it relies only upon whether transnational political participation exists or not, as opposed to studying the extent of that involvement.

In Jones-Correa’s article Under two flags, he investigates how the practice of dual nationality affects rates of naturalization among immigrants to the U.S. He also investigates whether the practice of dual nationality is detrimental to the receiving state. For this purpose, statistics from the Census Bureau and the INS are obtained between the years 1965 to 1997, while naturalization is measured by comparing naturalized immigrants from a particular country to the total number of immigrants arriving from that country seven years later. The findings indicate that those countries that accept dual nationality for the immigrants they send to the U.S. have higher naturalization rates compared to others. It implies that certain concerns about dual national immigrants in the U.S. are founded and American citizenship is generally not threatened by the practice. In contrast, the study finds that dual nationality promotes greater participation in the American polity and that policies in the receiving countries affect immigrant participation more than the policies of the sending countries. A key limitation in the study is the way it measured naturalization rates, since it can lead to inaccurate estimations of actual rates of immigrant naturalizations.

In the article, Pessimists, optimists, and skeptics, Gershon and Pantoja aim to research whether political incorporation of immigrants in the U.S. is affected by transnational ties among Latino-Americans. It is based on the theory that the acquisition of U.S. citizenship is a measure of political incorporation, as naturalization is a vital step in that process. The study tests the hypothesis that incorporation can be hindered by transnational ties and also tests the opposite case. For this purpose, the LNS Survey in 2006 is analyzed through logistic regression to measure variables such as homeownership, higher incomes, knowledge of English language, and education besides other demographic information. Respondents are selected from 5 Latin American countries, whose years of stay in the U.S. are measured along with their civic participation and political interests. The findings suggest that immigrant inclinations towards naturalization and citizenship increase with transnational ties, which proves that it is not necessary for immigrants to disengage with the domestic politics of their origin countries to increase their engagement in the U.S. Hence transnational connections are a conduit to the political incorporation process. The findings are limited by a lack of other psychological and socioeconomic variables that can potentially impact immigrant choices to become citizens.

Part 2: Political Implications of Latino Transnationalism

For immigrants to participate in the U.S. political process, a key step is becoming naturalized. The three studies measure how transnational connections of immigrants to their sending countries impact their participation in political and civic life in the U.S. All three studies rely on a different set of methodologies, which naturally lead to different findings. However, the eventual outcomes of the studies are very familiar. Gershon and Pantoja measured political participation using the immigrant's choice to acquire U.S. citizenship. A large sample was obtained through LNS data, which included 8,634 Latinos in total who were stratified according to their location in the U.S. The chosen sample is, therefore, more closely represents the Latino population. Moreover, many transnational measures, such as the place of birth, provide a more accurate measure than conventional U.S. surveys such as the USCIS. Thus, the conclusions are more far-reaching and generalizable across the U.S. It can, therefore, be concluded with greater confidence that encouraging transnational ties among Latino immigrants improves their engagement with politics and society in the U.S CITATION Ger14 \l 1033 (Gershon and Pantoja). Similarly, the study by Jones-Cornea also found that dual nationality, which is also a measure of transnational engagement, encourages the political incorporation of immigrants. The INS data is relied on for the purpose, however, it contains limited cohort data. The study calculated naturalization rates by dividing the total immigrants arriving seven years earlier with the actual number of naturalized immigrants. It, therefore, fails to consider whether any change in naturalization rates is a result of other domestic policy factors and reforms instead of just dual nationality CITATION Jon01 \l 1033 (Jones-Correa). However, the method still allows one to measure whether dual nationality correlates with increased or decreased naturalization.

A more comprehensive study was undertaken by DeSipio and Pantoja, who used the 2002 TRPI data to test political participation among Puerto Rican and other Latino immigrants. It included more factors such as the settlement status, their demographic information, perception of discrimination, alongside their political engagement with the home country as well as in the U.S. It showed that discrimination also led to increased political involvement alongside education, but the later did not affect civic involvement. On the other hand, naturalized citizens showed increased civic involvement. This showed that transnational engagement and immigration status are both closely linked to political and civic engagement CITATION DeS07 \l 1033 (DeSipio and Pantoja). Yet, the method used did not indicate naturalization to be linked to home country political involvement.

Part 3: Career Connection

An understanding of the limitations and strengths of various sampling methods can help develop an accurate measure of public support for a new market opening, on a particular day. A smaller sample size, in this case, may lead to an inaccurate extrapolation because the presence of a few outliers can lead to misleading statistics. To decrease the margin of error, a larger sample size that considers the variability among the local population will lead to more accurate results. Although certain time and financial constraints may occur, larger samples will provide a more unbiased and fair estimate of the market’s success, especially when random people are asked to participate in a telephone survey. Stratification, according to age, will help provide more accurate age-distributed results. It will also remove the need for an extremely large sample size without sacrificing accuracy, as random samples could be obtained in each stratum.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY DeSipio, Louis and Adrian D. Pantoja. "Puerto Rican Exceptionalism? A Comparative Analysis of Puerto Rican, Mexican, Salvadoran, and Dominican Transnational Civic and Political Ties." Latino politics: Identity, mobilization, and representation. Ed. Rodolfo Espino, David L Leal and Kenneth J Meier. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2007. 104-120.

Gershon, Sarah Allen and Adrian D. Pantoja. "Pessimists, optimists, and skeptics: the consequences of transnational ties for Latino immigrant naturalization." Social Science Quarterly 95.2 (2014): 328-342.

Jones-Correa, Michael. "Under two flags: Dual nationality in Latin America and its consequences for naturalization in the United States." International migration review 35.4 (2001): 997-1029.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Assignment

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Assignment

Puerto Rican Exceptionalism? A Comparative Analysis of Puerto Rican, Mexican, Salvadoran, and Dominican Transnational Civic and Political Ties.

In the article, the authors examined the transnational political variations and civic ties between immigrants from Puerto Rico. For research, the authors used data from the survey of 2002 and collected comparative data on the five groups of the Latino population from five different Latin-American countries. The survey was acquired from TRPI institute, and also 400 participants were randomly selected for the questionnaire. The article was based on two-part in which first part discussed the migrants' involvement in politics and native land associations while the second part contains information about immigrants' demography, characteristics, with measures of incorporation and efficacy. The results indicate that the demographic characteristics had no role, but people who lived in America are more politically active. Participation in transnational activities increased by Latin Americans with a rise in discrimination and education level. Due to the special relationship between America and Puerto Rico, the least evidence for exceptionalism was found as compared to Latin Americans. The study only focused on political participation, which is the flaw of the study where acquired information can be used to study other mediums like socio-economic activities.

Pessimists, optimists, and skeptics: the consequences of transnational ties for Latino immigrant naturalization.

The article focused on the correlation between the political incorporation of immigrants with the transitional ties between Latin Americans. Authors examined the hypothesis of whether the incorporation of the Latin American is effected by transitional ties or not. The research was based on LNS survey in 2006, which was analyzed by logistic regression to measure different variable, including higher income, education, English language knowledge, and homeownership. People from five Latin-American countries who spent time in America were the respondents. The results indicate that it is not possible for people to disconnect from the political situation of their native country. Therefore, the transnational connection definitely impacts the political incorporation process of immigrants. The flaw of research is that it lacks a socioeconomic variable which has a great impact on the political or general decision making of the people.

Under two flags: Dual nationality in Latin America and its consequences for naturalization in the United States.

The article researched the impact of the dual nationality over the rates of naturalization between immigrants to America. The data used to determine the results was collected from the statistics from the Census Bureau, and the INS was acquired from the years 1965-97. To demonstrate the naturalization ratio was taken from the comparison between naturalized immigrants and the total number of people who arrived from their country seven years later. The result shows that people with dual nationality living in America have higher naturalization rates than other citizens. It also highlighted the fact that dual nationality encourages people to participate in political activities, especially for the policies which affect the immigrants directly. The research has the flaw that it used a small group of population to get naturalization ratio, which can lead to inaccurate estimation by applying on the whole population.

Section 2: Transnational Ties among Latino Immigrants

Naturalization is the main factor that can encourage immigrants to participate in the political process of America. All the studies focused on the correlation between the transitional ties and political participation and civic life of immigrants living in America. The studies were based on different research methodology and variables which resulted in different findings. Gershon and Pantoja used variables like birthplace and analyzed LNS data which indicate that transnational ties help immigrants to acquire more knowledge and information regarding the political condition in America and hence their participation increase CITATION Ger14 \l 1033 (Gershon and Pantoja). The study made by Jones-Cornea also finds the same correlation but with the help of dual nationality variable. INS data and naturalization ratio were used to determine the result. The findings indicate that people with dual nationality are more active in political activities in America than other citizens. However, the role of reforms and domestic policies for immigrants were not taken into account while estimating the naturalization ratio CITATION Jon01 \l 1033 (Jones-Correa). Though the study highlights the fact that dual nationality is a factor that impacts the role of the immigrants in America.

The most efficient research and findings were determined by DeSipio and Pantoja. They used numbers of variables including demography, education, settlement status, political engagement, and discrimination perception of immigrants along with the 2002 TRPI data to figure out participation among Puerto Rican and other Latino immigrants. The method does not show the link between naturalization and political involvement in the native country. Though findings indicate that increase in discrimination promotes immigrants to participate in the political activities but it does not impact civic involvement. However, immigration status and transnational ties impact both political and civic involvement CITATION DeS07 \l 1033 (DeSipio and Pantoja). The results of all three different pieces of research are useful to understand the political behavior of the immigrants and factors that impact this behavior. It can be used to understand the role of the immigrants for the political condition of America.

Section 3: Career Connections

Limitations, assumptions, strength, and flaws in different sampling methods are helpful to determine the efficient measure of public support at a particular time for a new market opening. Sample size matters for an accurate result. Small sample size may lead to inaccurate estimation, which can mislead the findings. Besides, some unknown variables can also impact the estimation like time lap and financial limitations. Therefore, large sample size is significant to increase the efficiency and credibility of the research and its results. For instance, during the telephone survey, a large number of population will be easy to divide into different age groups, and with the help of these groups based on ages, an accurate estimation can be obtained. Randomization is another factor that is important for accurate estimation because it prevents the issue of biasedness. Through the random selection of participant, small data can also provide some accurate information.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY DeSipio, Louis and Adrian D. Pantoja. "Puerto Rican Exceptionalism? A Comparative Analysis of Puerto Rican, Mexican, Salvadoran, and Dominican Transnational Civic and Political Ties." Latino politics: Identity, mobilization, and representation. Ed. Rodolfo Espino, David L Leal and Kenneth J Meier. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2007. 104-120.

Gershon, Sarah Allen and Adrian D. Pantoja. "Pessimists, optimists, and skeptics: the consequences of transnational ties for Latino immigrant naturalization." Social Science Quarterly 95.2 (2014): 328-342.

Jones-Correa, Michael. "Under two flags: Dual nationality in Latin America and its consequences for naturalization in the United States." International migration review 35.4 (2001): 997-1029.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Assignment

An Alternative Conceptualization of Political Tolerance: Illusory Increases 1950s-1970s

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An Alternative Conceptualization of Political Tolerance: Illusory Increases 1950s-1970s

The article has conceptualized of tolerance in politics. It presents tolerance as a concept based on evolving social phenomena. The authors have attempted to introduce this concept in a kind of systematic manner. They argue that tolerance is a kind of political objection and both of these variables are linked to each other. Tolerance is subjected to the emergence of political objections. The article is based on the hypothesis that previous societal efforts to quantify tolerance have failed. In order to test the hypothesis, the article has employed some quantitative data analysis skills and have limited the research findings to just two decades I. e from the 1950s to 1970. Another important literary aspect of this article is its detachment from some pressing political concepts. For example, throughout the article, the authors have managed to keep the debate intact and limited to tolerance as a concept in politics and have avoided its clash with some political norms. In contradiction to this, there are many scholarly articles related to this subject which talks about politics in relation to the established political concepts.

Other than some research questions designed for the data collection and analysis, the article has sought the answer related to how political objection is linked to changing notions of tolerance in society. The authors have used the content controlled strategy in order to seek the answers. The primary question that led the research throughout is how tolerance is related to political objections? The theoretical approach followed in the article is related to the classical view of democracy, which has earlier been used in some empirical study relating to the similar concept. Since the article has implied the empirical analysis strategy, the participants were therefore provided with some content controlled questions. For example, the participants were not allowed to opt for the options outside of the drafted area or from a time period not mentioned in the questionnaire. Throughout the article, there have been no distractions related to the conceptualization of variables, but it has followed a too narrow approach for the empirical analysis. For example, as argued by P Mayring that content control strategy must not conform to the desired results always. Therefore in order to be more elaborative, the article could have expanded the time duration from more than two decades and the participants could have been provided with some more choices in the questionnaire.

Conceptualization and operationalization in social sciences help in narrowing down the research area. In addition to providing help in being critical and specific, such techniques provide help in creating specific responses. Lincoln and Guba argue that conceptualization helps in managing variables in qualitative research, further they also help in developing the relationship between the research question and the hypothesis being tested. Similarly, this approach helps the researchers in substantiating variables in order to find some valid measures during the research. Since the article is the continuation of research on a topic searched before, therefore, such measures of conceptualizing are evident throughout the article. Guba has also argued that the scholarly work which implies such measures have more concrete arguments and normally ends with strong recommendations. Lastly, the use of restricted measures such as the constrained time duration in history along with the specifically designed questionnaire suggests that people in America lack sense regarding political obligations.

The research technique used in the article can help in sorting out other problems of social importance. For example, since social sciences is a vast area of research, therefore such techniques help in being specific in research. The evolving research field of social sciences could be more deliverable if such systematic approaches are followed. Defining and accurately measuring the attitudes in Social Sciences is important in order to gauge the opinion of selected public regarding any social issue.

Bibliography:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Guba, Egon G., and Yvonna S. Lincoln. “Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research.” Handbook of Qualitative Research 2, no. 163–194 (1994): 105.

Mayring, Philipp. “Qualitative Content Analysis.” A Companion to Qualitative Research 1 (2004): 159–76.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Assignment



An Alternative Conceptualization of Political Tolerance: Illusory Increases 1950s-1970- Review

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Summary of the Article

The Alternative Conceptualization of Political Tolerance argues that tolerance as a political objective has not served in many areas of political history. There might be some chances that tolerance could have been practiced in any other form- but not specifically to an extent which might satisfy the political narratives. The authors have argued that political tolerance as a concept could be attributed to any form of political idea. For example, there are chances that any specific idea might be acceptable to a particular group of people but at the very same time, it doesn’t conform to the political ideals of any other group. In such cases, if tolerance is exercised as a political duty, this could make way for upbringing a common or national narrative. The article has examined the level of political tolerance present during the 1950s and 1960s. The empirical studies of those eras suggest that civil liberties were not discharged willingly during those times. Such arguments are suggestive of the fact that a national level political clout remained majorly absent from the politics of that time.

The research question focused over in the article is about how the fluctuating level of tolerance in the politics of 1960s and 1970s in the United States influenced the political trends in those times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kTt87D3j","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sullivan, Piereson, and Marcus 1979, 786)","plainCitation":"(Sullivan, Piereson, and Marcus 1979, 786)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1041,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/RC262L8T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/RC262L8T"],"itemData":{"id":1041,"type":"article-journal","title":"An alternative conceptualization of political tolerance: Illusory increases 1950s–1970s","container-title":"American Political Science Review","page":"781–794","volume":"73","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"An alternative conceptualization of political tolerance","author":[{"family":"Sullivan","given":"John L."},{"family":"Piereson","given":"James"},{"family":"Marcus","given":"George E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1979"]]}},"locator":"786","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sullivan, Piereson, and Marcus 1979, 786). The major research question of this article is supported by some tailored questions which are specific for finding the communal response to the concept of political tolerance. The theoretical support in this article is inclined toward the Marxist school of thought and toward the political conceptions of leftist politics. Although authors have refrained from specifying any specific theoretical paradigm, the Marxist view about the leftist politics remains apparent from many arguments presented in the article.

‘Political Tolerance’ remained the primary variable that has been tested throughout the article. In exacting the findings, the major variable has been supported by different variables in some research questions. Such variables do not conform to the exact definition of Variable in Social Sciences research but have acted and helped in narrowing down the scope of this article. Similarly, the hypothesis apparent in the article is how the level of tolerance in American politics during the 1950s and 1970s contradicts the present politics. The authors have implied the techniques of distributive study and quantitative findings- by already narrowing the scope of the article by presenting some already designed questions with some choices for the respondents. The analysis of results being the last part is based on the pretext of qualitative design- which is also a widely used research methodology in Social Sciences research.

The results of these research findings suggest that there is a little difference in the level of political tolerance and the way it is being exercised. This difference is related to the fact that American society has experienced massive changes in terms of civil liberties, political leadership and in the manner of how political narratives have been presented in front of the masses. Such a phenomenon is the causes of changes in the level of political tolerance in America politics. This study is, therefore, a scholarly addition to the existing political science literature in the U.S and will help in providing the students a better understanding of how politics is an ever-changing phenomenon. However, these research findings could have been broader, if the authors have attempted to include the periods of the World Wars. This could have helped in sorting out how nationalism played its part in influencing political tolerance in the times of crisis.

Class Connection

The article is relevant in analyzing the concepts of reliable and valid measures. The facts presented in the article are reliable and have helped in validating the historical and contemporary measures of political progression in terms of tolerance. In the complete article, it appears that authors have implied the technique of narrowing down. Such research technique has helped in more conceptualizing and operationalizing some concepts of social sciences ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VB0gLN56","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(L BERG 2001, 194)","plainCitation":"(L BERG 2001, 194)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1044,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6RX9E7HH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6RX9E7HH"],"itemData":{"id":1044,"type":"article-journal","title":"Qualitative research methods for the social sciences","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"L BERG","given":"BRUCE"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}},"locator":"194","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (L BERG 2001, 194). For example, the authors have narrowed down a time frame I. e of the 1950s to 1970s and have also narrowed the choices by presenting some specific options to respondents. There are not many different scholarly measures used in this article, however, the authors have deviated from the primary research position for time being and have resorted back to the main course of their research. If the respondents have been presented with some specific choices, this will for sure impact on the way of how we think about tolerance in American politics. A sort of independence for researchers (if provided) would have changed the results majorly.

Career Connection

Since the complete article illustrates the importance of a defined variable in political science research, therefore the importance of a mannerly study is self-reflected. This self- reflection is an example of how accurately defining the constructs before research can support the hypothesis of the research study ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"iKYo3nTu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(L BERG 2001, 175)","plainCitation":"(L BERG 2001, 175)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1044,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6RX9E7HH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6RX9E7HH"],"itemData":{"id":1044,"type":"article-journal","title":"Qualitative research methods for the social sciences","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"L BERG","given":"BRUCE"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}},"locator":"175","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (L BERG 2001, 175). Such a research design and a duo of quantitative and qualitative research findings help in measuring the tools in social sciences research. This is what I would suggest to the employer.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY L BERG, BRUCE. 2001. “Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences.”

Sullivan, John L., James Piereson, and George E. Marcus. 1979. “An Alternative Conceptualization of Political Tolerance: Illusory Increases 1950s–1970s.” American Political Science Review 73(3): 781–794.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Assignment

Name

Professor name

Subject

Date

Christianity

According to Deane early Christians adopted non-revolutionary stance towards Roman Empire and roman culture because the Roman ignored christens until their posed a threat to the imperial authority. Christians who deviated from the general beliefs were also persecuted and punished. This created a fear among the people to adopt non-revolutionary stance. The existence of the state and strict regulations made it essential for the citizens to obey rules and fulfill their duty towards political authorities. A sound political system and influence of state restrained Christians from starting revolution. The testament also encouraged people to follow the laws of state. They believed that “Jesus never encouraged or permitted His followers to ignore or resist the commands of the established political authorities” (Deane, 6). This indicates that the desire of Christians was to follow the teachings of Old Testament by accepting the commands of government.

Roman officials were also critical about Christianity because they focused on maintaining Roman rule and eliminate all possible threats that could bring instability. Deane mentions, “Christianity was radically hostile to the political and economic institutions as well as the cultural and religious life of the Roman Empire” (Deane, 5). This confirms that the Roman officials had influenced the Christians to adopt social order and act according to the laws. Violation of rules caused individuals to face punishments and created fear of accepting laws. Political instruments were also maintained by Roman rule that restricted citizens from engaging in challenging activities.

Augustine claims that original sin is the defect in human nature that is inherited as a spiritual disease. He explains that the nature of man is sinful and he is tempted towards evil. It means that humans are born with the urge of disobeying God. The doctrine of Roman Catholic Church is used as a basis for supporting his argument. Augustine states that anyone who commits a sin is the result of his inability to control himself from doing wrong. The sinful nature is associated with fault of humans that they can avoid by controlling desires. Augustine states, “since evil is not a substance or a nature, but merely a privation, God is not its author or creator” (Deane, 16). This reflects that the nature of man is to commit sin but God does not create the sin. The emphasis of Augustine is to explain the role of responsibility. Although nature might provoke man towards sin, but it does not make him innocent for the evil. Every human who does wrong has a responsibility of doing it for which God would punish him or her. Augustine has used this concept for explaining the most people are ‘fallen sinners’ because it is their inborn nature. He has related this ideology with the event when Adam committed a sin by disobeying God. Humans are thus fallen sinners because they act more or less in the same manner.

Augustine has also explained that the role of state is to create laws that will restrict people from doing wrong. He argues that state has a power to implement laws and adopt strict measures such as punishing the wrongdoers. This will create fear among the citizens and prevent them from doing evil. Governments have a responsibility to promote good and allow people to live good lives by protecting their lives and properties. Without laws or regulations people cannot live happily because more are inclined to choose the wrong path.

Augustine has differentiated between the Earthly city and the city of God. The Early City is the city that is existing on the basis of worldly desires and where sin is more likely to occur. While city of God emphasize on spirituality and piety. Augustine has thus drawn parallel comparison between the two cities for proving how they differ entirely. His philosophical worldview has attempted to explain that the world in which human beings are living is imperfect because humans are more likely to be attracted by sin. While in the city of God spirituality s a dominant force that eliminate social evils like injustices, inequality and corruption.

Although war is evil but some wars are just. Augustine has claimed that war for a noble cause is not wrong. This include protecting every citizen and promote justice. To attain the purpose of protecting Citizens the state can enter into war against the enemies that could harm humans. Just war philosophy is used by Augustine to emphasize on how state must act in conflicting situations and by promoting greater good. Augustine has justified the coercion of heretics especially in Donatist Schism. Donatism movement had attempted to challenge the church activities in North Africa. Augustine claims that it is justified for the Africans to stand for their religious rights and engage in coercive practices. The argument of Augustine claims that Christianity was not foreign for North Africans and they have significantly contributed to the western Christianity.

Augustine believes that City of God is created in political realm because state can play the role of maintaining peace and promoting good by implementing laws. Augustine has defended Christianity against the charge that adoption of this religion as official religion resulted in the demise of Rome in 410 AD. New faith eroded the traditional values and culture of Rome. This had brought great instability in the region and popes also interfered in political activities that resulted in its downfall.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Deane, Herbert A. The Politieal and Social Ideas of St. Augustine . Columbia University Press, 1963.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Assignment

Writing Assignment #2

Wonsehlea Teah

July 3 2019

Part 1

Article: News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations

The study aims to explore the cognitive mediators that influence news media priming, whether covering an issue on the media increases its perceived national importance, and whether media trust, and political knowledge influence priming. The researchers rely on the theory of media priming which suggests that when media attention activates people’s memory towards an issue, they tend to automatically and unconsciously make political judgments based upon it. For this purpose, the study first tests measures associated with presidential performance, presidential approval against media trust, political knowledge and accessibility. Other variables such as party identification, agenda setting, and judgment about issues of national importance are further tested against media stories related to immigration, drugs, and pollution to measure the moderating effects of knowledge and trust on priming.

The study involved participants, tested for political knowledge, media trust, and party identification, being exposed to 5 different nonpolitical stories and being randomly assigned to view media reports on immigration and drugs, and another set of participants to crime and pollution in two different experiments. They were asked to fill a questionnaire assessing presidential performance and their overall knowledge of the issue at hand. The findings indicated that media trust, alongside plays a significant role in influencing the effects of media, but priming may not be a result of media manipulation.

The research contributes to existing knowledge on media coverage by emphasizing the importance of newsworthiness for news selection in order to protect citizen interests and help them make sound political judgment. However, the study relied on young adults’ political opinions based on recently acquired knowledge about an issue, instead of testing for effects after a prolonged exposure to the same issue.

Article: Explaining Presidential Approval

The study aims to assess presidential approval studies in terms of their nuance towards highlighting factors that contribute to individual evaluations. It rests on the theory that presidential evaluations are significantly influenced by issues that are salient to the people. The researchers hypothesize that public salience may vary over time which can fluctuate presidential performance evaluations and, in turn, impact presidential approval.

The study involved a cross-sectional regression analysis of 23 public opinion polls, and a content analysis of media content to determine public salience. A time-series based regression analysis was performed to observe the relationship between salience and public opinion, and then on presidential approval evaluations. The findings confirm the hypothesis that public salience regarding issues varies over time and can directly impacts the public’s assessment of the presidents performance as well as their overall approval.

The study contributes by highlighting the various factors which complicate presidential approval measurement and suggests adding salience as a critical factor in developing public evaluation models. However, the study does not take into account the possibility that different issues may vary in salience to different groups of people at a time.

Part 2

The study by Edwards III, Mitchell and Welch (1995) takes into account the role of salience in mediating public opinion and thus highlighting the complexity involved in understanding the public’s approval of a president. Moreover, issues can vary in salience over time and thus require a time-series and cross-sectional study to analyze public opinion changes over time. In this respect, Edwards III, Mitchell and Welch (1995) point out a critical limitation in other research that study presidential approval. On the other hand, Miller and Krosnick (2000), test media priming resulting from media manipulation of public minds. In this regard, they attempt to identify important mediators that potentially effect presidential approval alongside their inter-relationships. The methods involved responders exposed to various media issues and filling out a questionnaire that measured their evaluation of a president’s performance while testing them for party identification, media trust, and political knowledge. However, the study’s results are limited in terms of scope as only tests the immediate impact of one particular dose of media issue coverage, without testing for attitudes that can develop over time from exposure. Moreover, people tend to be more thoughtful in experiments and be consciously aware of priming tendencies. Conversely, the Edwards III, Mitchell and Welch (1995) take into consideration the presence of public salience with regards to a particular issue and any variation over time that can affect that salience, and thus presents a more accurate picture of the effects of media in influencing presidential approval.

Part 3

In analyzing whether working from home can affect the productivity of employees, I would design a large cohort study comprising of over 500 participants, divided into a control group and experimental group. I would also take into account the availability of resources, internet access, and time with the organization, while assessing their performance in terms of working hours, call rate, attrition and other factors over a prolonged period of time. Furthermore, I would measure the organizations to assess potential cost savings against employee productivity.

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY Edwards III, George C., William Mitchell, and Reed Welch. 1995. "Explaining Presidential Approval: The Significance of Issue Salience." American Journal of Political Science 39 (1): 108-134. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2111760?origin=JSTOR-pdf.

Miller, Joanne M., and Jon A. Krosnick. 2000. "News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Politically Knowledgeable." American Journal of Political Science 44 (2): 301-315. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2669312?origin=JSTOR-pdf.

Subject: Political Science

Pages: 2 Words: 600

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