The Vietnam War

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The Vietnam War

Introduction

Countries and nations faces many things during their lifespan. There are good and bad days in the history of every nation. These days depict the glory and enthusiasm of a nation. Good days glorify them and shows the enthusiasm and valor of the nation while the bad days show the unity and courage in the people belonging to that nation. Good days of a nation or a country refer to the times of prosperity, happiness, and progress. If a country is doing well economically, the export ratio is higher as compared to the imports, the country is earning a well-settled ratio of GDP and per capita income is much higher so that a person can afford all the necessities of life.

The United States of America has also seen many highs and lows in its history. There were good times and there were bad times but the nation stood strong and the people completely supported each other in these tough times. They showed that the people of America are united under the flag, no matter what the circumstances are. One of these tough times was the Vietnam War. Although many leaders, politicians, and political critics were not in favor of it but they still criticize the government heavily for it, still the war happened and the United States participated with full strength in it. Unites States won almost all of its battles but still the communists won at the end.

Discussion

The History of Vietnam War

Vietnam War is the name given to the war conducted by the forces of the United States of America against the resistance of the communists and thus the war is also known as the Resistance War against the United States of America. It is also known as second Indochina War. It was actually a war between Capitalism and communism (Janssen, n.d.). This war did not just start suddenly but the seeds for this war were sown long before the actual war since the initiation of the cold war of the United States. The political tensions, especially the Cold War, between the United States, the Soviet Union, and China led to many grave consequences, out of which Vietnam War was one of the major ones. The war had officially started on November 1, 1955 but the United States of America entered into it on March 8, 1965. The Vietnam War ended on 30 April 1975 with the fall of the Saigon.

Lyndon Baines Johnson: Remarks on the Gulf of Tonkin Incident

Lyndon B. Johnson was an American politician and a great critic of the political situations going on in the country. Johnson also served as the 36th president of the United States of America after the assassination of the famous leader John F. Kennedy. After resuming the office in November 1963, the newly formed president, gave a speech to the congress, just after five days of his predecessor’s assassination. Lyndon promised to carry forward and advance the domestic programs that former president John F. Kennedy had started. He also promised to strengthen the forces of the United States of America at the international fronts in every form.

President Lyndon B. Johnson presented his remarks on the most notable incident of the Vietnam War, the Gulf Tonkin Incident. Gulf Tonkin Incident was one of the major incidents on international confrontation by the United States of America that led the later to indulge more directly into the war. In his remarks regarding the incident, the newly formed president promised to stop the activities of the United States naval forces in the Gulf of Tonkin. But when he left the seat in 1968, the war was still burning and the flames of it had risen much higher than before.

John McNaughton: Plan of Action for South Vietnam

John Theodore McNaughton, was a former politician and the United States Secretary of Defence for International Security Affairs, during the period of Vietnam War. He was the biggest opponent of the war between USA and Vietnam and never wanted the superpower to indulge in the bloodshed. To avoid this fight and create peace in the region, McNaughton, presented a plan of action for South Vietnam in 1965, before the forces of the United States attacked the country in Southeast Asia. The points presented this plan clearly states that the United States of America should not indulge in the war as it would greatly affect the reputation of the superpower. Moreover, the economic and military shout focus on improving it's economy and defence instead of thinking to attack other countries.

Even after four decades of his death, he is still the least understood American officials of the history. He was greatly misunderstood as a clever hawk in the history of the United States of America and most of the people in the American politics and the office, even his own colleagues and the ones very close to him, considered that he wanted to take the advantage of the political situation of the country. It was later revealed through his personal journal and the private papers that he had written along with drafting the plan for South Vietnam that he never wanted the country to involve in a fight or the war.

My Lai Massacre Witness Statements and Testimony

The My Lai Massacre refers to one of the most horrific and cruel incidents that took place during the days of the Vietnam War. It was a huge incident of mass massacre against unarmed civilians of the My Lai village on March 16, 1968. This killing spree was carried on by a company of American Soldiers who brutally killed almost all of the people living in the village including women, children and old men.

A number of people were investigated and asked about the incident after the mass level massacre was carried on. Different statements were given by a number of people and the eyewitnesses who were present there. One of the eyewitnesses, CAM, Stated in his sworn statement that he was working in the fields when he saw three helicopter s land at some distance at different times of the day. These helicopters unloaded American soldiers, who went towards his village. CAM then heard multiple voices of shootings and screams but could not guess exactly who was shooting.

Another eye witness who had personally witnessed and suffered through this whole incident, Pham Thi TUU, states that she was in her home when she heard the voices of helicopters and crowded people. She went outside and saw a crowd of people being hurdled towards a direction. They were taken to the rice field where the soldiers started shooting people. TUU sat down and bodies started falling over her. All these statements were included in the investigation report presented by the joint committee formed in order to investigate the causes and consequences of the incident.

John Kerry: Testimony of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War

John Forbes Kerry, an American politician and a former senator, presented his views about the Vietnam War on behalf of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, in front of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. This statement or views were presented on April 22, 1971, on Capitol Hill in Washington D.C. Being a former Navy lieutenant, Kerry had deep insight on all the political situations during the war and he clearly held a point of view that how things should have been handled during that phase.

John Kerry presented his view that in his opinion, the war was not a string of isolated incidents but a series of criminal activities conducted on daily basis. And these crimes were not only committed by a single soldier or any team under some specific command but by a number of people at different positions. These people included leaders, politicians, commanders, lieutenants, colonels and individual soldiers as well. Kerry was extremely furious that he and his fellows were made to kill innocent people and they got nothing in the end. He also presented a number of testimonials that were written by the soldiers and people at high command and ranks. All these individuals had participated in the Vietnam War in one role or another. In short, John Kerry was of the view that American nation had created a monster by instigating the Vietnam War.

Conclusion

In short, it can be concluded that the Vietnam War was not a good decision by the United States government. Although the war had started a long-ago United States indulgence in it had added fuel to the fire and made the conditions go even worse. The seed for this war was sown long before the war actually started or the United States actually jumped on the battlefield. The political tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union and China proved to be a major cause of this war. The decision of involvement in this war was opposed by many leaders, politicians and even military figures. The veterans who had participated in this war still regret the decision. The speech made by John Kerry in 1971 is a clear example. Although many politicians, including the presidents like Lyndon B Johnson made promises to put an end to the war, the war only stopped with the fall of Saigon in 1975.

Works Cited

Janssen, V. (n.d.). Milestone Documents. [online] Milestonedocuments.com. Available at: https://www.milestonedocuments.com/textbook_articles/view/the-vietnam-war [Accessed 18 Nov. 2019].

The White Dawn

RUNNING HEAD: REPORT

Sarkak, the Arctic Anti-Hero

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Sarkak, the Arctic Anti-Hero

For some people, it is challenging to adjust with cultural differences in the long-term. In this regard, the novel "The White Dawn" vividly describes the conflicts that occur between different traditions. The decisions made by the leader determine their stature and heroics. In this context, the paper is based on My Thesis: Sarkak could have been a hero had he not been so selfish.

As a leader of Clan, Sarkak should have been considerate towards the three men belonging to different cultures and were allowed to live with the tribe. It is understandable that tribal leaders are expected to follow tribal rules and strictly enforce the tribal in society. Sarkak realizes that the three men are harming the overall structure, culture, tradition, and lifestyle of the clan, and they are exploiting the overall system. However, he should have realized that Daggett was following the customs, and was being respectful to the overall culture of the tribe, unlike Billy who has been nefarious considering the overall rules and regulations of the clan.

Furthermore, to a larger extent, Portagee followed the tribal norms of the societies. Therefore, all three did not deserve the same type of punishment that they received. In this respect, Sarkak should have been sympathetic. In a way, he was right that those three men were not fully obeying the rules, but the overall circumstances must have been taken into account. A leader of a tribe or any other group should be merciful. In addition, the leaders should ensure that justice should reflect in all of their decisions. Sometimes, humanity comes above all the laws and the tribal culture. Sarkak act demonstrated selfishness, and there were other ways as well to protect the tribal culture and tradition. The approach adopted by him showed that he had some prejudice with the three men who did not belong to his culture. Sarkak lacked a vision in his decision as he lacked the exposure, he did not know as to what were the traditions in the outside world, and how people act and behave who do not belong to his culture or tribe. If all the people living in the tribe do not share the same values, it does not mean that they all are culprits. In order to make decisions, one should be open-minded, and keep in mind all the facts. Whereas in Sarkak's case, his ego became a dominant factor. It appeared as if he was more concerned about leadership instead of the fair decision. Sarkak could have become a hero, had he not been selfish. All three men should not have been killed. As a result of bias, grudges, and selfishness, the decision made by Sarkak was not fair and made him controversial.

In episode 62, Jakes, Chucky, and Dean are instructed to assist the training of National Army troops. From the overall body language and the style of Chucky, it was apparent that he had doubts about the positive outcome of the mission. When the unit is trapped, and many of the recruits leave the field, Chucky is on his own, and there he encounters a fatally wounded Taliban sniper, he begs him to give him death as he seemed in great pain. In this sequence, the next event was a bit ambiguous as the firing from the gun was heard twice, but what happened is down to the thoughts of other characters. This part of the story is staged for keen viewers a fiction based version of the notable case of Capt. Robert Semrau, a main incident in the Canadian press.

In the year 2008, Semrau alongside his troops was carrying out a patrol in an unstable province "Helmand." They were also guiding a group of Afghan National Army; suddenly they found a critically injured Taliban insurgent. Although one of the ANA officers asked Semrau to leave the wounded man, Semrau took responsibility for what he was going to do, and he gave that insurgent a mercy death as he was tormenting. This particular act by Semrau was deemed as gross misconduct, and he court marshaled for committing a second level crime of killing. Resultantly, Semrau was terminated from the Canadian Forces. Later, he got sympathies from the public, and a large number people were of the view that his act was justified in a way that he could not see someone in pain and gave a mercy death which in some cases courts do. The soldiers who are in charge sometimes have to take decisions which are against the rules but according to humanity. Both in the drama and real life, the incident is a moral lesson for the people who make rules, and if people violate them for the sake of humanity, they are considered culprit.

In episode 50, it is shown that the Afghan National Army leaves or probably deceives the Canadian unit. Similarly, the tense situation between Canadian forces and the local people: mainly warlords who get hold of the position of power, women who work in the schools and interpreters in their employ. One of the interpreters was found to be disloyal and a coward, while other named Nazim is depicted as moderate, and an intelligent young individual who knows three languages and is Canadian's like-minded in many ways. The Canadian forces wanted Nazim to be safe, and that is the reason why they attempted to move him in a safe place when he was spotted by one of the prisoners, but unfortunately, Nazim's sister's school was attacked. This episode describes the efforts of the Canadian government to build a better future for Afghan people who have been in a state of war for decades. In this regard, Canadian forces were also committed, but still, they had a little success in their overall mission because the circumstances were not very favorable in the country.

Bibliography

Afghanada. Created by Jason Sherman, Andrew Moodie, Greg Nelson, and Adam Pettle. 103 episodes with special Remembrance Day 2007 broadcast. Toronto: CBC Radio, 2006-2011.

Houston, James. The White Dawn: An Eskimo Saga. San Diego: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1983.

The Woman Suffrage Movement And The Nineteenth Amendment.

The Woman Suffrage Movement and the Nineteenth Amendment

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Woman Suffrage Movement and the Nineteenth Amendment

For my analysis of a historical event, the topic chosen for this paper is about woman suffrage movement during the time of World War I and passing of the nineteen amendment to the constitution of the USA as an aftermath. American women played a vital role during World War I in taking those positions which were left vacant by men and soldiers who became part of the war. New jobs were also created during this phase, and due to the absence of men in the labor market, women were recruited and enhance their skills to perform job tasks as required.

The contribution of women in World War I lead them to recognize how significant their role is in American society (Bolt, 2014). They analyzed that despite their continuous contribution for the sake of the nation, they were not given enough representation in policy-making of the country. The American women realized that they could only get this representation if all the states within the U.S gave full suffrage to women. They were in need of a movement to obtain their fundamental right to vote. Although woman suffrage movement was already active since the late 19th century, during World War I, its popularity increased among the women of America (Bolt, 2014). The pressure was so enormous that after several failures to win the votes for the amendment bill, the 19th constitutional amendment eventually got passed from Senate after the end of World War I (Siegel, 2001).

The inclusion of the nineteenth amendment in the U.S constitution guaranteed voting rights for all American citizens regardless of their gender (Siegel, 2001). This constitutional amendment was a great success for women as now they were able to elect their candidates and make them part of the American Congress. This success was only possible due to the efforts women put in for the nation to make them progress during the critical period of World War I.

References

Bolt, C. (2014). The Women's Movements in the United States and Britain from the 1790s to the 1920s. Routledge.

Siegel, R. B. (2001). She the People: The Nineteenth Amendment, Sex Equality, Federalism, and the Family. Harv. L. Rev., 115, 947.

The Writing And Adopting Of The Constitution Resarch Paper Subjects

The Writing and adopting of the Constitution

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How did the articles and Amendments together define the functions and limits of the Constitutional Government the Convention created?

The War of Independence laid the basis for a united constitution for the thirteen states. This was the time when the thirteen states came close together to form the first ever constitution in the history of the United States. The Continental Congress, therefore, created a committee to draft the outlines for the constitution of America. The first draft was presented in front of the Continental Congress in the next year. This draft was prepared by John Dickinson. After when the continental Congress has a thorough session of debate on this draft, the draft was then forwarded to the States for Ratification. This was unlike the present day, and all the thirteen colonies had to ratify the constitution separately. This was the reason that in 1781, the constitution was finally ratified by the constitutional congress ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2M87mtCE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bancroft)","plainCitation":"(Bancroft)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":312,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LANFNNWV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LANFNNWV"],"itemData":{"id":312,"type":"book","title":"History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States of America","publisher":"D. Appleton","volume":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Bancroft","given":"George"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1885"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bancroft).

According to the Articles of Confederation, the functions and limits of the government were all centered in Congress. At that time, Congress was known as "the Congress of Confederation”. At that time the Congress was unicameral, and all state represented in the Conges had just one vote. It was mentioned in the articles that what exactly are the limits of the government. The Congress had all the authority of appointing the number of delegates, increasing or decreasing the number of delegates in the Congress appointed by the states and to also define the term of the Congress ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rc4LUpHC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jensen)","plainCitation":"(Jensen)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":309,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/KKEE8XNC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/KKEE8XNC"],"itemData":{"id":309,"type":"book","title":"The Articles of Confederation: An interpretation of the social-constitutional history of the American Revolution 1774-1781","publisher":"Univ of Wisconsin Press","volume":"12","source":"Google Scholar","shortTitle":"The Articles of Confederation","author":[{"family":"Jensen","given":"Merrill"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1970"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jensen). Congress at that time provided protection to the members from arrest and that is how it was made sure that all representatives of governments are there to work on the important matters related to the government. They were protected from arrest under the clause of speech and debate. The government of today also practice this clause. Congress also signed a provision that resulted in the creation of a committee of delegates to meet if Congress is not in the session.

At that time the Congress had the authority to debate over the boundary issues between the states. The government that was leading the thirteen colonies did not have the Say in resolving the disputes that arose between the states. Unlike the practice of today’s government that involved the creation of judiciary, at the time of the reign of the continental congress, there was no such authority with the government ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"krPYbKZ4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dougherty)","plainCitation":"(Dougherty)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":308,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/9FEJMJSW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/9FEJMJSW"],"itemData":{"id":308,"type":"book","title":"Collective action under the Articles of Confederation","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Dougherty","given":"Keith L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dougherty). The judges were appointed by the Congress, and the government was kept away majorly from all this process. After the ratification of the articles of confederation, in 1781, Congress started to appoint an individual who will then serve as the President of the Congress for a term of one year.

As like the practice of the current government, enlisted in the constitution of the United States of America, the free inhabitants were to be provided every facility from the State. This was first envisioned in the Articles of the Confirmation, which still is being practiced. The articles of the Confederation and the current constitution of the United States both enlisted that the property and each material right of the citizens of the United States will be protected by the government of the United States. One other responsibility that was provided to the government under the articles of the Confederation and also by the present constitution of the United States was the free movement of citizens ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ftUmp3Og","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bancroft)","plainCitation":"(Bancroft)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":312,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LANFNNWV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LANFNNWV"],"itemData":{"id":312,"type":"book","title":"History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States of America","publisher":"D. Appleton","volume":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Bancroft","given":"George"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1885"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bancroft). Each and every individual in the United States and the thirteen colonies were allowed to move freely, without requiring any documents. Each of the thirteen colonies and at present the government of the United States was made responsible to assure that no such thing against any such clause happens.

Also by some ways, the powers granted to the Congress and at present, to the government of the United States by the articles of Confederation and by the Constitution of the United States are similar. Both have the commonality that the Congress had the sole right to declare war if it considers that the sovereignty of the country or the thirteen colonies are at stake. Both also provided the national government to look after to the matters of the foreign policymaking, matters related to the defense of the country and to look for the new business ventures where new economic relations can be made.

The interesting aspects in both the Articles of Confederations and also in the constitution of the United States of America is that both made stand the government of the United States to pay the national debts but not enlisted the ways how the debts be met by the government or how the states will contribute in managing the external debts of the United States. The clause for revenue generation was also left to the states and also the Government in the United State. One other interesting aspect is that in line with the structure of the articles of confederation it was thought that the national government is weak and it would be difficult for the government to sustain itself ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"S3dF4KuU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bancroft)","plainCitation":"(Bancroft)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":312,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LANFNNWV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/LANFNNWV"],"itemData":{"id":312,"type":"book","title":"History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States of America","publisher":"D. Appleton","volume":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Bancroft","given":"George"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1885"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bancroft). It was for this reason that the government felt weak and it was also depicted in its conduct diplomatically when it remained failed in pulling out the French forces out of the territory of the United States.

Just to mention that despite such weakness and definite definitions of the phenomena’s by the articles of confederation, the government formed had a very lasting impact in the formation of the United States as a country. The Congress along with the government was able to set all the boundary disputes between the states. This is also for this reason that the supremacy of the Constitution is considered supreme, as it sets the basis for the government of the US to conduct its affairs.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bancroft, George. History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States of America. Vol. 1, D. Appleton, 1885.

Dougherty, Keith L. Collective Action under the Articles of Confederation. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Jensen, Merrill. The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution 1774-1781. Vol. 12, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1970.

THinking Back

Brendon Michel

Name of the Instructor

History and Anthropology

12 December 2019

Thinking Back

The river Nile flows throughout most part of the Egypt alongside with a narrow belt of greenery in most of its course, a huge marshy delta at the Mediterranean end, and a regular cycle of flooding. According to Guo, three factors encouraged cyclical return in Egypt ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8VI3Q0Ok","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Guo)","plainCitation":"(Guo)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":37,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/7FHE98U8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/7FHE98U8"],"itemData":{"id":37,"type":"chapter","container-title":"Human-Earth System Dynamics","page":"125–147","publisher":"Springer","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Civilization as Responses to Cyclical Challenges","author":[{"family":"Guo","given":"Rongxing"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Guo). The human society that preceded civilization was hunter-gatherer. Hunting animals had never been effectual for a growing population along the Nile as a threat to run out of easily accessible animals existed. Compared to being a hunter, putting effort in work and settle down as farmer was easy. This was hard work compared to hunter-gatherer in Egypt. These factors made farming sensible. It was then followed by the annual floods, which were controlled through channel-building which lead to large-scale irrigation; and it is quite natural that civilizations develop where farming takes place ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"AVlU2kqf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Guo)","plainCitation":"(Guo)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":37,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/7FHE98U8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/7FHE98U8"],"itemData":{"id":37,"type":"chapter","container-title":"Human-Earth System Dynamics","page":"125–147","publisher":"Springer","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Civilization as Responses to Cyclical Challenges","author":[{"family":"Guo","given":"Rongxing"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Guo). Lastly, farming societies were tied to their farms which stored goods and traded them for other goods. This lead to money, credit, writing, etc., which all lead to the development of civilization in Egypt.

The Mycenaean inherited parts of their civilization from the Minoans. Much of the Mycenaean art and architecture was acquired from contacts with Minoan civilization ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eV3Aqms7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barber)","plainCitation":"(Barber)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":39,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/B75ESRZQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/B75ESRZQ"],"itemData":{"id":39,"type":"book","publisher":"Duckworth","source":"Google Scholar","title":"The Cyclades in the Bronze age","author":[{"family":"Barber","given":"Robin LN"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1987"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Barber). There were also apparent definite differences between these civilizations. Minoan women seem to have had more social status and liberty than Mycenaean women, and same is true for Cycladic culture. They may also have acquired some religious ideas from the Minoans and Cycladic ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MDQCGyl6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Alexiou and Ridley)","plainCitation":"(Alexiou and Ridley)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":41,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/L2K27L33"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/L2K27L33"],"itemData":{"id":41,"type":"book","publisher":"Spyros Alexiou","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Minoan civilization","author":[{"family":"Alexiou","given":"Stylianos"},{"family":"Ridley","given":"Cressida"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1969"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Alexiou and Ridley). The double-axe, sometimes called a labrys seems to be associated with both Minoan Crete and with various Indo-European gods of sky and thunder, like Zeus. Mount Ida on Crete was related to Zeus as well. The Mycenaean also acquired writing (Linear B) from the Minoans (Linear A), but spoke a different language. Mycenaean and Cycladic spoke ancestral Greek language, whereas there are little traces about the language Minoans spoke ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jdkl97Xk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hooker)","plainCitation":"(Hooker)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":43,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/HZIHN42L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/HZIHN42L"],"itemData":{"id":43,"type":"book","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Mycenaean Greece (Routledge Revivals)","author":[{"family":"Hooker","given":"John T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hooker). The transition seems to be tied to the catastrophic eruption of Thera (Santorini), the ensuing tsunami which devastated many areas of the eastern Mediterranean coast.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexiou, Stylianos, and Cressida Ridley. Minoan Civilization. Spyros Alexiou, 1969.

Barber, Robin LN. The Cyclades in the Bronze Age. Duckworth, 1987.

Guo, Rongxing. “Civilization as Responses to Cyclical Challenges.” Human-Earth System Dynamics, Springer, 2019, pp. 125–147.

Hooker, John T. Mycenaean Greece (Routledge Revivals). Routledge, 2014.

Thirty Years' War

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Title: Thirty Years’ War

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) started as a bitter conflict between the Protestant and Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire, grew into a struggle among the princes for political dominance, and eventually led to the creation of the Nation-State System. The religious conflict between the two rival faiths in Europe began with the Protestant Reformation (1517), challenging the religious and political authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Church’s forceful response triggered wars, leading to the Peace of Augsburg concluded in 1555 between the people of two faiths: Lutheranism and Catholicism. The exclusion of other Protestant sects turned out to be a source of future conflicts such as the War of Cologne (1583-1588) and the Julich Succession War (1609). France remained mired in the war of religion from 1562 to 1598. Religious tensions were exacerbated by an economic decline as trade shifted away from the Hanseatic League CITATION Wil08 \l 1033 (Wilson).

When Ferdinand II became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, religious tensions were further ignited as he forced his subjects to adhere to Catholicism, in contravention to the Peace of Augsburg’s tenet cuius regio, cuius religio (whose realm his religion) CITATION Wil08 \l 1033 (Wilson). The Protestant northern Bohemian states launched the Bohemian Revolt in response to the Emperor’s decree. The Defenestration of Prague in 1618 is considered as the event that commenced the Thirty Years’ War. Religious tensions were exploited for political maneuvering in the war, and eventually, Europe became a theatre of geopolitical power struggle CITATION Mic92 \l 1033 (Hughes).

The Peace Treaty of Westphalia concluded in 1648 marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War. The treaty ushered in a new era in the European politico-religious landscape. Boundaries were fixed and only states were decreed to have sovereignty over their subjects. To reduce religious tensions, state autonomy was increased, which blocked the interference of the Catholic Church in the religious matters of the states.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Hughes, Michael. Early Modern Germany, 1477 - 1806. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.

Wilson, Peter H. "The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618-48." The English Historical Review, Volume CXXIII (2008): 554-586.

Thomas Paine - Common Sense

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Thomas Paine ‘s Common Sense

The life, work and worldview of Thomas Payne, his most significant discoveries in the socio-political sphere. The pamphlet entitled "Common Sense" was published in January 1776. The pamphlet described the humiliating situation of American colonists who were, mercilessly criticized by the policy of the metropolis concerning its colonies and the "crowned villains," leading this metropolis. Payne's “Common Sense”, as it uniquely united all the main ideas that reflected the question of an early separation from England. The creation of their independent democratic republic was proposed as the only alternative to humiliation. "The debate period is over. Weapons as a last resort should resolve the dispute," the pamphlet ended.

The response was amazing. A wave of patriotism swept the colonists, who suddenly realized that they were Americans. All hesitating was swept away by an avalanche of patriotic feelings and a thirst for independence. Doubters and "loyalists," fearing widespread anger, hid their feelings deeper. The rebellious colonies declared themselves independent republics, and on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted, proclaiming the creation of the United States of America. The author of the Declaration was Thomas Jefferson, a man of the same cut as Thomas Payne.

First of all, they named two main reasons for the frenzied popularity of "Common Sense." The first is his auspicious time of publication, when the colonies, according to them, were ripe for separation. The second reason was maybe the axiomatic nature of the arguments precisely formulated by Payne.

Moreover, Payne appealed to his audience at three levels: rational, emotional, and ethical. As for the reasonable level, we can agree with Goldberg, who saw Payne's program as the basis for people's desire for profit. He wrote that "Payne invariably specifically indicates what benefits the various sectors of society derive from the plan he proposes”(Goldberg 29).

At the emotional level, the educator, from the point of view of American historians, appealed to feelings of parental love and affection (demanding that the colonists now take care of the future of the continent, without shifting this burden onto the shoulders of their children), as well as to the fears of any person (by painting pictures of them burned property and relatives killed). "Common Sense" presented the idea of "Declaration of Independence" was substantiated. Thomas Payne cited the main points of the future document, in his opinion. Absolutely in the same logical sequence, literally point by point, they are presented in the officially adopted Declaration of Independence.

However, the most important was the ethical level, for which Payne should have created an impression of himself (after all, he was not yet known to anyone in America; moreover, we already said that the first edition of his pamphlet was anonymous) as a good guy. He should have proved that the motive for writing this pamphlet was only the happiness of its readers. To do this, the enlightener, firstly, tried to create the image of a devout Christian to please the reverent Puritans (while Payne himself was a deist). Secondly, realizing what he writes for the colonists, whose Puritan ethics convinced that everyone should achieve everything with their labor, he tried once again to emphasize that the king was not doing anything. At the same time, Payne created an impression of typical philistine, as according to Wilson and Ricketson, smart, but not intellectual. Moreover, thirdly, he emphasized that his only desire was for everyone to be good friends, neighbors, and citizens of their country. As for the elite of the American colonies, although a lot of laudatory remarks by the American Democrats about pamphlets can be cited.

Work cited

Goldberg, David Joseph. Discontented America: The United States in the 1920s. JHU Press,

1999.29

Title:Tang Box Shosoin

Tang Box Shosoin

[Name of the Student:]

[Name of the Institution:]

Tang Box Shosoin

Identification of the Object

The object given for discussion belongs to the treasury of the Tang Dynasty that ruled during the eighth century (from 618 to 907). The object is an 'octagonal box covered with tortoiseshell and decorated with mother-of-pearl inlay'. The object has first time been displayed in the seventieth exhibition of Shosoin treasures, besides fifty five other historical pieces.

Origin and Background of the Object

The object is kept in the Shosoin that is a treasure house in Nara, Japan. It used to keep valuable objects and act as a repository. It possessed a natural regulating system for climate, and the technique used to keep climate regular was that they built the floor at a height of two hundred and seventy centimeters. This architectural innovation allowed the air to pass beneath the building and prevented the building from the effects of humidity. Shosoin is the oldest museum or treasure house that exists still today (Nakamura & Naruse, 2016). It has the largest collection of Silk Road and has around ten thousand artifacts existing today. Among the objects, the Shosoin preserves bowls, pitchers, and cups that originate from Persia. It has cups made of horns of Indian rhinoceros. Other objects include the musical instruments made by artists of China, inlaid items with mother-of-pearl and lapis lazuli, boxes made of mulberry wood, crowns composed of silver and gold, and many others.

The octagonal box displayed in Shosoin demonstrates the finesse and mastery of craft in the Tang dynasty (Zhi & Cui, 2010). Tang dynasty is often referred to as the 'golden age' to glorify the period and show the magnificence of the era. The splendor of the Tang dynasty is especially notable for its early years. Most of the important treasure objects were crafted during the first half of the Tang dynasty rule era, that is, from 701 to 751. Several kinds of arts flourished during this period, including music, poetry, and arts. The Shosoin treasury was also established in the same period to preserve the precious pieces of work related to arts. The Shosoin used to preserve objects that include manuscripts, banners, instruments of music, cloths’ designs, work done on metal, ceramics, and lacquerware. The pieces of art demonstrated craftsmanship of the highest level and these works also reveal the techniques used by people in that period.

The Tang dynasty of China that was considered to be a golden age of increasing political influence, distinguished music, refined art, and masterful literature had a downfall, and the Japanese art emerged based on the preserved items kept in the Shosoin. Nara was proclaimed to be the center for Buddhist preaching, and modeled after the Tang capital, Chang’an. The national art was preserved in the country by involving in the international delegations and businesses. People were urged to travel outside the country to study and develop the state-of-the-art skills (Masaaki, 2019). The travels to and fro the other countries created opportunities for exchange of art and skills. People learned new skills from the outer world, and created new art by combining their native skills with those acquired in their foreign trips. The Shosoin displays a collection of almost fifty six monumental items that reveal the multicultural backgrounds of different objects.

The exhibition displayed a borderless portrayal of capabilities and skills reflected in the artworks. Among the artworks displayed, several were traced to be fetched in through the silk roads. The silk roads were the greatest means of transport as well as exchange in those days. The exchanges made through the silk roads were cultural, educational, traditional, and religious. Many of these exchanges can be seen clearly among the items displayed in the Shosoin treasury (Hayashi & Ricketts, 1975).

Another notable thing is that the Shosoin repository is the only place that holds objects made of organic materials of that specific period which is associated with the object under discussion. The Tang box is fragile in its being, and the Shosoin has played a vital part in preserving it as well as many other similar things. Further, the Shosoin is the only repository that exists today. Emperor Shomu built a temple and a repository along with it. The historical buildings are one of the most visited Buddhist sites in Japan today. The donations made are also huge and prove to be sufficient in making the further developments.

The pieces of art showing a variety of skills, kept in the repository, demonstrate that the creative skills of using inlay techniques had been fully developed during the eighth century. People were aware of the natural resources needed for completing their artworks. They have shown exquisite finesse in creating these arts. The octagonal tang box designed with various colors shows that the relevant expertise was up to the fullest extent in the people of Tang dynasty. They held the central position in the region at that time.

Description of the Object

The Tang box under study is a piece of fine work of art that is supposed to be widely considered as a masterpiece of its type. The Tang box is octagonal, that is, it has eight edges around it, which gives the box an attractive look. The artistic design of the object creates particular reflections about it. The octagonal shape indicates some mythical clues that add to its mysterious looks. The geometrical shape given to the box combined with the design crafted on it almost personifies its impression on the mind of the viewer. The silent, sober, and static box seems to contain a whole new world of hidden treasures, myths, and novelties that could only be informed of at its opening. However, the box was primarily designed to use as a donation-money-keeper. The aesthetic sense of that era’s people is evident by the object (Karetzky, 2002). They incorporated such cultural richness in crafting an object that was not of significant value. Therefore, the octagonal box can be considered as the best representative of that era’s art. It holds a fascinating appeal to viewers of this century as well, when centuries have already passed over the creation of work. The octagonal box fascinates a person today the same way as it had been doing so at the time of its creation.

The colors and design used in its crafting are much selective, mandatory, and reflective. The cultural elements can easily be traced by looking into the print inlaid on the box. The base color of black with an upper layer of almost yellow color makes the ground solid for further designing. There are three identical octagonal boxes, which are slightly different in colors. The design consists of a pattern of flowers clung to their respective branches with small pretty birds sitting among them. The pattern is simple and organic. The cover of the box or the design has been inlaid with mother-of-pearl that is a precious and very rare stone (Feilong, 2011). The box is, therefore, a precious art-piece that is original in its every respect. It manifests colors of joy, ease, and livelihood of the nation who made it. The tortoise shell used was acquired from the rare and expensive species that enriched the object with quality and worth. It also made it resistant to the usual changes in the environment and prolonged its exquisite finish.

The Shosoin treasury is the only place where the Tang dynasty’s heirloom pieces have been held safely. The octagonal tortoise-shell box is a work of art that represents luxury to its fullest extent. It represents an outclass mastery indicating the way of the artists who existed in the eighth century in China. It affirms the superior taste in developing art among the Chinese nation. The octagonal box is an indicator of the pleasure and splendor of imperial life during the eighth century. The Tang dynasty was at its peak then.

The octagonal box designed to offer sublime experience of craftsmanship had been a point of focal discussion between the management personnel who take care of such cultural issues and legacies. The object creates a feeling of craving in the viewer regarding it. It seems that the object has other facts as well that still have not been disclosed until now. The octagonal box has been regarded as a piece of transcendent craftsmanship and it does not allow the viewer to pass by without having a fascinatingly deep look over it.

Benefits of the Object

The object, the octagonal box, was associated with the donations received at the time of its development. The donations were mostly collected from the affluent class as it is evident from the quality and design of the box. The box is a little spacious that permits it to store a certain considerable amount of money. Apart from this, the box might have been used for keeping special items such as jewelry, etc. The Tang box developed for offering a magnificent experience by using a relatively smaller object expresses the sense of creativity and honor of the people who invented it.

Works Cited

Feilong, Z. (2011). On the Mother of Pearl Inlay in China [J]. Journal of Chinese Lacquer, 1.

Hayashi, R., & Ricketts, R. (1975). The Silk Road and the Shoso-in. Weatherhill.

Karetzky, P. E. (2002). Wu Zetian and Buddhist Art of the Tang Dynasty. Tang Studies, 2002(20–21), 113–150.

Masaaki, I. (2019). 2 The Imperial Treasures of the Shōsōin and the Collections of the Tang Emperors. East Asian Art History in a Transnational Context.

Nakamura, R., & Naruse, M. (2016). Scientific analysis of Japanese ornamental adhesives found in Shosoin treasures stored since the mid-eighth century. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 18, 355–361.

Watson, W., Paris, I. M., & Shepley, J. (1981). Art of dynastic China. Thames and Hudson.

Zhi, L., & Cui, X. (2010). Analytics of Tang Dynasty Treasure Appearance Floral Lines Pattern Construction Form [J]. Packaging Journal, 2(2), 73–76.

To What Extent Did Confucianism Affect China?

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

To What Extent Did Confucianism Affect China?

“Confucianism.” Asia Society, https://asiasociety.org/education/confucianism. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

Judith, the author, highlights the influence of Confucianism on the religious, political and social norms of Chinese society. The leaders faced grave complexities to address the stark differences berween the social realities and high morals of Confucian values. In essence, it served the purpose of introducing a reform and acting as a conservative belief in the ancient times.

Adler, Joseph A., and Kenyon College. Confucianism in China Today. p. 12.

Adler discussed the manifestations of Confusianism in the context of Chinese history. After the fall of the Qing, Confucianism was severly abashed in the New Cultural Movement. A New Cultural Movement surfaced. It opposed the essential principles of Confusianism as gender-based hirearchies and resisted its influence and spread in the society. The Communist triumph was fundamentally caused by this New Cultural Movement which abrogated the teachings of Confucianism.

Confucianism: Its Introduction And Influence. https://www.chinatravel.com/facts/confucianism.htm. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

The article explains the impacts of Conufuciasm in modern China. The Han nationality is the primary outcome of this belief. The values of justice, honesty, love and shame are the fundamental rules of consciousness for the daily activities of a wide range of Chinese people. Moreover, the insights of Confucianism have established a tolerant and earnest temperament of Chinese society under the pillar of education of Confucianism.

Culture Insider: How Confucianism Shaped China[2]- Chinadaily.Com.Cn. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/culture/2014-09/29/content_18677675_2.htm. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

The paper asserts significance on the influence of Confucianism in the social and political circle of China. The ritual honors, cultural symbols and the emergence of external king and internal saint are prominently analyzed. The primary purpose of the article is to reflecet the values of Confucianism on ethical, cultural and philosophical norms of Chinese society.

“Why Is Confucius Still Relevant Today? His Sound Bites Hold Up.” National Geographic News, 25 Mar. 2015, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/150325-confucius-china-asia-philosophy-communist-party-ngbooktalk/.

Simmon borrel, in the news article, highlgights the adverse consequences of Confucianism on the women. It leads devastating impacts on the women of Esat Asia. For instance, The International Monteray Fund publisehed a study in 2012 that stipulatd only 9% of corporate positions were assumed by the women in Japan. It is one of the negative affects on the women caused by anciet inferior practices and values of Confuciamism.

Work Cited

Adler, Joseph A., and Kenyon College. Confucianism in China Today. p. 12.

“Confucianism.” Asia Society, https://asiasociety.org/education/confucianism. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

Confucianism: Its Introduction And Influence. https://www.chinatravel.com/facts/confucianism.htm. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

Culture Insider: How Confucianism Shaped China[2]- Chinadaily.Com.Cn. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/culture/2014-09/29/content_18677675_2.htm. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

“Why Is Confucius Still Relevant Today? His Sound Bites Hold Up.” National Geographic News, 25 Mar. 2015, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/150325-confucius-china-asia-philosophy-communist-party-ngbooktalk/.

Townsend Chapter 1: Native North America Before European Contact Shoemaker Chapter 1: Ancient America

Mayra Spinello

Enter the name of Instructor

History and Anthropology

September 18, 2019.

Townsend Chapter 1: Native North American before European Contact Shoemaker Chapter 1: Ancient America

Pre- European cultural patterns throughout North America have developed long ago in the Great Plains. The early Europeans had access to the complete land of America and they used to move freely throughout the complete land of America. The origin and patterns of the European culture were first traced, where they lived in the form of community or groups. Their beliefs, social structure and the way of living have greatly influenced the lifestyle of the later Americans ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dZfZslmY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Driver)","plainCitation":"(Driver)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":222,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SFZJ8TS4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SFZJ8TS4"],"itemData":{"id":222,"type":"book","title":"Indians of North America","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Driver","given":"Harold E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Driver). Some American still believe that the horrific development has curtailed for them much of the opportunities. They believe the early Europeans have left a footprint which will keep on impacting their lifestyles for many years to come.

There were many similarities and commonalities among the people living in that time American. Although they differed in many ways their social customs, religious beliefs and cultural values were much alike. Many of the tribes share similarities since they practice the same religion. They have shared a similar trend toward science, technology and observation of the natural world ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QnOZT35I","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kroeber)","plainCitation":"(Kroeber)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DKK97HMT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DKK97HMT"],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"book","title":"Cultural and natural areas of native North America","publisher":"Univ of California Press","volume":"38","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Kroeber","given":"Alfred Louis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1939"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kroeber). The variability of the native society was relevant to the manner they used to interact with each other and in the manner they use to celebrate events. In their social order, the manner they dealt with tribes living close to them also shared similar aspects.

The proliferation of cultural groups throughout America happened for the fact that they shared a heightened level of animosity toward each other. They all feared that other’s culture might be injurious to theirs. For such reasons they started distancing themselves from each other. Some also believe that for the reasons of resources and better yield of crops they migrated to other places. Such migrations resulted in mass proliferation of cultures throughout America ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"z6EWuQNY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Brown)","plainCitation":"(Brown)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/AHSRFRBE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/AHSRFRBE"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier","container-title":"Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women","volume":"30","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Brown","given":"Kathleen M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Brown). These were the primary reasons the culture proliferated much steadily.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, Kathleen M. “The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier.” Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women, vol. 30, 1995.

Driver, Harold E. Indians of North America. University of Chicago Press, 2011.

Kroeber, Alfred Louis. Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. Vol. 38, Univ of California Press, 1939.

Trace The Evolution Of The Greek Empire From 500 B.C. TO 30 A. D.

Trace the Evolution of The Greek Empire from 500 B.C. to 30 A. D.

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Trace the Evolution of The Greek Empire from 500 B.C. to 30 A. D.

Archaic Greece or term “Ancient” indicates the era between 700-480 B.C. Initially people lived in small villages and farming was the main source of livelihood. This time period is known as "Greek Dark Ages." This period started after the abolition of Mycenaean palatial civilization. However, with time, small villages began to evolve and people changed their living style. The main purpose of the essay is to trace the evolution of the Greek Empire by analyzing different occasions and circumstances. Greek empire started from small villages which turned into big state-cities. These state-cities help rich families to increase their power and make governance on citizens. The struggle for power and evolution from agriculture to big cities fall of the Greek empire came.

Small village to city-states rise and fall of oligarchs

People developed large cities and marketplace for economic interaction. Walls were made around the cities for protection while organization and government were developed to set the constitution in the cities. With time, economic activities became complex and state introduced taxes and armies for economic growth. These new cities were known as ‘Poleis’, because people believed that god and goddess were protecting these cities. People constructed large temples and put idols of god and goddess for prayers. They followed rituals and customs to select the way of life. However, the difference between poor and power people who were controlling the cities increased that resulted in fall of oligarchy in Greek cities.

Tyrants predominance of Athens

There were various enlightened leaders as well like Pheidon of Argos. He helped the state to develop a system for orderly measures and weights. In addition, Theagenes was another leader who worked for water supply within the city. These leaders helped state-cities to improve their living standard. While, Tyrants used the land for their power and wealth. In the region, two or three most powerful people had control over the people. They offered the policies and laws for the citizens. These powerful families start fighting for power and controlling in the region. Athens was trying to become the most powerful in the Greek city-state. They started increasing their control and army to the area which was under control for Sparta.

Sparta pact between Athens and Sparta vs invading Persians

Conflicts between two powerful city-states increased which resulted in war. Spartans were unable to get success and Athens increased their power. Though, Athens suffered during the Sicilian expedition. The Sicilian expedition resulted in a rearrangement of power and Sparta renewed the war. However, even after getting power from Athens, Sparta was unable to control most of the region and Athens successfully spent seven more years of power. Three treaties were made between Persia and Sparta. The first treaty was made in 412 between Spartans and Tissaphernes and Persian king. The second treaty was made between the allies and Spartans with king Darius, Tissaphernes, and son of the king during winter 412/13. While the third treaty was made in late spring 411 among Spartans and sons of Pharnaces, Hieramenes, Tissaphernes, and their allies. All three treaties were made to make the position of Spartans strong and to avoid future conflicts and war between Spartans and Persians.

Pact collapses- Peloponnesian war

After conflicts between Sparta and Athens, treaties helped to ensure the peace and safety of the state-cities. However, during this peace, Athens took some steps which were against the treaty. They ignored the treaty and made strategies for undermining the truce. They also got involved in the dispute over Corcyra and Epidamnus. Participation of Athens in conflict made Sparta angry. Sparta claimed that Athens had violated the treaty and declared war against them. The treaty was made for thirty years but due to the activities of the Athens, war started between them. Sparta and allies got the victory while Athens lost most of their land. However, the result of the war was not good for any state. This is because war divided the land into two pieces which resulted in weak economic and social growth. A number of human deaths made the condition worst and those who remained alive faced financial issues due to the large loss of farms in the cities. In addition, Sparta faced the loss of political hegemony and the demise of Athenian naval all around the Mediterranean. On the other hand, due to the poor handling of the Peloponnesian war, Athens’ democracy was overthrown.

Greek Struggles-Conquest by Macedonia

Sparta remained in power till 371 BCE and after that Thebans defeated them to acquire the hold on the region. They fought the battle of Leucta against Sparta and then permanently crippled Sparta. Later, Macedon appeared as one of the most dominant rulers. They came from a small kingdom and achieved high power and command over the region. They remained in power for twenty-five years started from 359 BCE and ended in 336 BCE. They provided numbers of efficient policies in their time which brought positive impact in the society. Macedon's main rivals were Athens' second confederacy who tried to take control of the lands of the north Aegean. Philip of Macedon was an educated and intelligent ruler. He got education from Epaminondas and worked for the expansion of Macedonians. He arranged a powerful army and fought against Illyrians and got the victory. In the third sacred war, Phillip got immense prestige which enables him to make Macedonians stronger. Their political and economic activities were influenced by Persian. With time Macedon became most powerful in the region where the kingdom was served by Philip II and Alexander the Great.

Life and career of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great ruled over the Greek empire and served as king of Macedonia. He ruled between 336 B.C and 323 B.C. He not only united the Greece land but also conquered the Persian Empire. He also became ruler of Asia, Persia, and Babylon where he started the colonization. After the death of the father, Alexander became the king at the age of 19 with the support of the Macedonian army. Alexander got the leadership but he acquired the power with his own strategies. He sent his army to the south and conquered the Thessaly region. Later, he moved towards Asia and made his empire. Next, he set the agenda to raise his power in the region of Egypt. In 331, Alexander conquered Egypt and constructed the city of Alexandria. This city later became the hub of Greek culture and economic activities. He then fought against the Persians and got the victory. He became the king of Babylon, Asia, and four quarters of the world. This is why he is known as Alexander the Great.

He was considering Rome and conquests of Carthage as his next target but due to malaria, he died at the age of 32. After his death power of Greek start decreasing and culture of Greece collapsed. The land turned into the battleground for the power. Political, economic and social life became weaker with time. After Alexander, no such leader appeared who could maintain the Greek empire as he did.

Treasure Maps Of The Past Chapter 11

[Writer’s Name]

[Instructor’s Name]

[Subject]

[Date]

David Friedel Hypothesis

David Friedel belongs to the University Of the Southern Methodist University Of Dallas. According to his suggestion, this huge Mississippian site of Cahokia was basically a founding city like other cities in other parts of the world. Cities like this have a huge historical impact on people who came after. Such cities are like monuments for another part of the world and people come here as a pilgrimage. This city of Cahokia has the same effect as that of the Mexican city of Teotihuacan which had an enormous effect on Mayan civilization.

Some odd thing about this city of Cahokia is that great stories told of this city is not being heard in eastern Woodlands. Also in the Eastern United States, oral history related to this city is somehow not known but only some origin stories vaguely remembered about the people whose origin could be found near big rivers in the east. Robert hall among other Pawnee has found some reference of Red City which he thought to be the city of Cahokia, but later it was turned down because it was later referenced to be

St. Louis. When attempts were made earlier about to explain the origination of different plains and people belong to the south, Cahokia city reference somehow is not given ample thought. As stories related to Cahokia are absent so most of the archeologist think that may be living conditions of this city were not so good. There might be the case that Cahokian authorities, taxation, and oppression might be beyond imagination.

Another thing can be said that people in the twelfth century might be making an attempt of escaping Cahokia in their desire to forget it. Maybe they want to make more communal and perfect society after escaping Cahokia and it is a part of starter mentality. Nonexistence memory of Cahokian culture will remain a puzzling case for which archeologist might have to search for a bit long.

Trial Of Galileo

Name of the Student

Name of the Instructor

Course Number

Date

Trial of Galileo

Q1

In 1633, Father Vincenzo Maculani da Firenzuola as appointed by the Pope Urban VIII began his duty as the inquisitor and started the trial of Galileo Galilei. The charges that were placed on Galileo were the fact that he believed that the revolution of the earth is around the Sun, not the other way around. It was standard practice that during the trial that the accused was to be secluded and imprisoned during the trial (Linder). Galileo refused to accept the Church's orthodoxical view that the earth lay in the centre of the universe and was an immovable object. This is because the church believed in the notion that the Sun revolved around the earth and as that was written in the scripture it could never be disputed. Even though there were a plethora of scientists even before Galileo, who had a belief that the earth was not the centre of the universe.

In order to survive the trials, Galileo said that he did not believe in the Copernican view, but on the other hand, continued his writing on this subject. This was mainly done in order to promote discussion on the topic rather than show it out to be as a belief. He showed this in his workings and people reading his books started to get swayed by his arguments (Linder). Another reason why the church puts Galileo on trial for heresy was that the people that had supported the Ptolemaic system were starting to realize that thinking was not even defendable. As they did not want to accept defeat of any sort, they started taking action to curb the influence of Galileo. Furthermore, there was a total of three charges placed on Galileo that got him in trouble. These were the belief that the sun was the middle of the universe, his ideas in the book took away God's spender and the culmination of these two things led to the charge that Galileo defied the 1616 decree set against him.

The significance of this trial is that there were even more scientist that had started working more heavily on this idea. Bradly was the one who supported Galileo's view in his book the aberration of light. His discovery led to the church accepting the Copernican view and led to them, allowing for the publication of the works of Galileo. Furthermore, the trial of Galileo was such a tumultuous time that it lingered in the mind of many intellectuals. A commission was developed in order to look into the controversy between the Copernican and the Ptolemaic view.

Q2

In essence, Galileo never had any problem with religion and used most of his scientific knowledge in pursuit of proving religious beliefs. His conflict emerged when his supporting of the Copernican science went against the Aristotelian science belief of the church. Galileo had always worked on expressing his biblical views and his scientific views that supported Copernicus. He wrote all this down in his letter to the Duchess of Tuscany (Linder). The sad part is that the same letter became the basis of his first trial. The primary problem that was found by researchers was that the Aristotle science was going out of fashion, but the church unseemly stood attached to it. This led to the delusion that both Aristotle and the Christine teachings were the same thing. Also, as there was distinguishment between philosophy and science, for the church if Aristotle was considered wrong, it can be thought that Christianity was wrong. Furthermore, reformation also played a huge part in Galileos views on the interaction between science and religion. Due to the rise of Protestantism the church had lost a considerable amount of influence and power. So a list of different books were laid out that were prohibited to Catholics, including those that challenged traditional scripture.

In fact, Galileo was a very god-fearing man and this was prevalent from his reaction to s first sighting through his telescope. Galileo saw the Milky Way, mountains and valleys of the moon, which were all relevant to his Copernican beliefs. Just as a good catholic, he offered as much as praise as he could to God and for being benevolent enough for allowing him to be the first-ever person to unravel those marvels that have been hidden for centuries (Linder). He believed that it was God’s will that allowed him to be strong and determined enough to be able to make something that opened the secrets of the universe to him. Furthermore, in his letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, he offered a strong defence against the church orthodoxy and its prevailing nature. In his words, he said that the same God who gave humanity abilities such as sense, intellect and reason, did just not give us these so we could forego their use. That same god wanted humanity to attain knowledge using those senses. Furthermore, he would not want humanity to let go of things such as sense and reason in the matter regarding the physical reality. It is that reality that is approachable by our eyes and minds through experience or demonstrations.

Q3

Galileo had some of the most immense contributions to the advancement of science. This is one of the reasons why he was called the father of modern science. His contribution ranges in various disciples of modern science. Another famous contribution was affirming the theories of Copernicus and proving to the world that the earth is not the centre of the solar system. He based this theory on certain facts such as that there were moons in orbit around Jupiter (Linder). This gave him the idea that the earth cannot be the sole centre of the solar system. Moreover, as there is no perfect immutable realm of celestial due to the surface of the moon being rough, he discredited another one of Aristotle's theories. His theories regarding solar rotation due to the presence of shifting sunspots also were another one of his discoveries. His discoveries had led to his persecution at the hands of the church.

The Galileos law of falling bodies is one of the most important contributions of Galileo to modern physics. According to the law presented by him the speed of a falling object is the same no matter the shape or the weight of an object. Using his experiments he was able to counter the view of Aristotle, who stated that heavier objects fall faster whereas lighter objects fall slower. It was also Galileo that developed the idea of inertia which in the future became the basis for one of the laws of motion of Newton.

References

Linder, Doug. "The Trial Of Galileo: An Account." Law2.umkc.edu. N.p., 2002. Web. 25 Sept. 2019.

Turner's Thesis

Student’s name

Course ID

Submitted to

Date

Discussion

Turner's concept, the main thesis of which is the statement about the connection between the frontier phenomenon and the American national character, is still the main starting point for comparative studies on the history of different states. Naturally, this topic has received particular development in the USA in the last century, since it was here that it was first conceptualized and here many scientists continue to deal with it.

In the modern world, where all the territories of the earth have long been discovered, mapped and practically mastered, however, as in times when people still believed that the earth was flat (and much later, in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries), great importance has a territorial division of all open and developed lands, and therefore does not lose its relevance and the phenomenon of the concept of the border.

The frontier is invariably present in the life of both humanity as a whole (in a global sense) and in the life of individual individuals. The boundary is physical and quite real or imaginary, even metaphorical. The concept of border permeates our entire society. Every day we outline or, conversely, cross the boundaries of social norms, our own internal barriers, draw the boundaries of relationships and perceptions. And less metaphorically, but no less symbolically we cross borders, which we can call really existing on the physical level, for example, traveling from one country to another, crossing the boundaries of regions and regions, passing mountain ranges or river flows during summer hikes.

The border is a universal phenomenon that pervades our whole life at all its levels. But the border is not only a conditional line, drawn on the map or existing in our mind. Frontier is also the conditions of life, constant changes, interaction and recognition of the new, of what lies on the other side of the border, beyond . At the borders, familiar phenomena are modified: the old mixes with the new, new essences and cultures, new traditions and customs are formed, sign archetypes are established, which are preserved for centuries and affect the new context of modernity. The influence of the border may be imperceptible at first glance, not felt in everyday life, but if we look at the borders in a historical perspective, it becomes clear what great influence they have on the development of regions, nations, and sometimes entire countries.

Twin Heroes And American Indian Royalty

Twin heroes

Chapter 7

History reveals a significant relationship between Cahokia’s Bing Bang and effigy mound culture to the north. Cahokia's used the mound that was a mortuary temple. Cahokia Big ban altered religious beliefs and legendary stories. The extraordinary practices of Cahokia's such as human sacrifices prevailed in the mound. The stories of evil and heroism are also linked to the effigy mound. The new religion emerging in the south was transmitted to the north. "the end of what they call the Effigy Mound culture" (pp. 86). The bid bang influenced the people of the Cahokia culture.

Gotschall Rockshelter represents an archaeological mystery that was a rock as used for the formation of the shrine, built by skilled artists. It has a link with the Red Hon myths. The debate reveals, "one of the characters was the son of Red Horn or him who wears human heads as earrings" (pp. 88). Rockshelter represents the old myths and beliefs of the Chahokians. Rockshelter was a word used for setting initial place closer to Red Horn. Gotschall contributes to the debate because it explains the belief of ancestors of Iowa and Ho-Chunk.

Gotschall Rockshelter is located in southwestern Wisconsin until 1050. A small sandstone Rockshelter was found at the location of Gotschall. The Red Horn Panel is the picture of the cave that transmits the old traditions and customs of Cahokian's. The picture tells the story of Red Horn confronting the giants along with his friends. It is called Red Horn because the entire body is red in the painting.

There are many common features of Gotschall Rockshelter and mortuary remains of mound 72. Both refer to the burial having relevance with the Cahokian's. these burials portray the history of the Cahokia community and their customs. Both are located in Wisconsin and reflects the skills of the artists of that time. The "painted back wall of the grotto, a shallow cave technically a Rockshelter hidden at the dead end of a small rocky stream value” (pp. 85). Both represent the culture of the Cahokian's in paintings. The sandstone conveys the myths and stories of these people. The artists have used their skills for creating human figures inappropriate manner such as the scenes where people are confronting each other. The mound 72 and Rockshelter convey themes of the historical moments when Cahokians fought with the neighbours at Wisconsin. Mound 72 contains the painted imagery of human remains.

Ho-Chunk elders tell the story of Red Horn saga including the adventures of Red Horn. Their stories focused on a superhuman hero named Red Horn. He was also known as Indian legend who fought against the giants. He encountered the water spirits and wore faced on his ears.

Red Horn is a mythical figure having connections with Mesoamerica. The cave art style and skills of Cahokian artists exhibits relevance with Mesoamerican culture. It is also revealed that they were members of the political-religious movement.

The Cahokian culture has origins in Mesoamerica. The archaeological sites portray legendary stories of Red Horn. The archaeological context conveys the power of the mid-eleventh century. Heroic characters were considered as supernatural and powerful that were capable of fighting against the spirits.

Chapter 8

Dark clay-hipped ridge tops contained the remains of humans after their deaths. Ridgetop mounds presented a unique view of entombed remains of humans. It contained skeletons. Such scenes reflect the burial rites of Cahokia. Most of the bodies conveyed the themes of sacrificial victims. The bodies were buried with their feet on the northwest and covered by thousands of marine shells. Disk beads appeared in the form of a falcon. The faces of the dead bodies were placed in a downward direction. Cahokia follows beaded burial rites. The Birdman was buried in a way that represented good graves.

The theoretical paradigms presented a shifted view of Cahokia. No pre-Mississippian precedent exists that could provide a clear interpretation of this culture. The archaeological information is utilized for interpreting the customs and traditions of Cahokia. The original interpretation of Cahokia may be different from the archaeological because they emphasized on the legendary tales. The archaeological interpretation stresses in the burial and the religious values of the Cahokia.

Sub-mound 51 contained subdivision of sixty houses that covered the part of Grand Plaza. The borrow pit was constructed alongside the Grand Plaza and was established at the lower stage of Monks Mound. The gash was dug into the earth and refilled after every few years. the pit was 195 feet long with the width of 62 feet and depth of 10 feet. The nine hundred years of waste was used for slow rotting. Religious objects and residues were also visible at mound 51.

The birth of new Cahokia can be seen as a confederation of a state of government. This involved "cult-like religious practices including rulers impersonating and making sacrifices to their Gods" (pp. 110). The government had the power of controlling labor and that undermined kinship and community ties. Labor was disposed of as the rulers find fit. The political and economic realities of the region were transformed.

The red stone craving represents the themes of Cahokia myths and culture such as rock walls woven in impersonator costume. Significant differences prevailed among male and female gender. The women were sacrificed periodically towards the south of the Gand Plaza at mound 72. Women that sacrificed themselves are considered to be of more importance.

Two Essays

Name of Student

Name of Professor

Name of Class

Day Month Year

Two Essays

Voting behavior of Americans

Voting is the fundamental right of all the individuals. In America, every individual who is over eighteen has the right to vote. In voting, main thing that is of great concern is, will of the voters must be preserved. Voting behavior of Americans has shown that most popular form of government for Americans is democracy that has been ruling for decades. There has been witnessed various types of government that got popularity in America, but while taking a look at the voting behavior of Americans, it could be said that a huge number of Americans have never voted in the presidential elections. While studying their behavior, democratic socialism claim that both the society and economy should be run democratically has become more obvious. Mostly those Americans who belong to elite class resist voting for presidents who advocate for a change in government systems, like communism, anarchism and democratic socialism. Democracy and socialism goes hand in hand which ultimately means no system that benefit only a few would be supported. It is a general perception that the kind of revolutionary shifts a president experience, the same political system he wants to practice. It won’t be wrong to say that there are different groups of Americans who cast their vote for the president by taking a look at the type of revolutionary shift that is being advocated by the president (Wittner,et,al,2018). It is generally assumed that Americans who never voted for communism, anarchism and democratic socialism are those who are in favor of democracy that is the government by the people and for the people that focuses its attention on the greater good. So, it won’t be wrong to say that voters sometimes don’t want to make choices that would cast unpredictable effects on them.

Support for mixed economy

Democracy is the most popular system of government in America. Before the twentieth century, the main purpose of voting was to choose a system of government that would be benefitting for all the voters at the same time. With the passage of time, it was seen that attitude and voting behavior of Americans got changed as they started supporting a system that would be beneficial for mixed economies. After the twentieth century, main focus of American governments was on the regulation of the U.S. economy. Government had become important stakeholder along with the consumers and producers when it is about the pricing system. Entrepreneurs are being given a free choice of developing any business that they want. Private ownership has become an important area that supports the mixed economy in United States.

Voters after realizing the importance of mixed economy were more interested in electing those governments that would be making decisions that would provide more opportunities for individual growth. It was seen that after the twentieth century, governments started taking more interest in decisions relating to infrastructure so that mixed economy could be supported by not only the government but by the voters as well who used to wait for opportunities that would help elevate their economic growth (Silvert,et,al,2018). Privately run businesses are looked upon as paving ways for those who want to make themselves economically stable. In a mixed economy, governments take part in all the economy related decisions. Governments take a notice of the services and goods that are produced. They also keep record of where these services and items are being distributed. Taxes are being imposed on the goods and private sectors so that the collected amount of money could be used for the welfare of the state. So on a whole, it could be concluded that voters support mixed economy as it gets checked by governments that ultimately take decisions that would work best in the favor of the general public.

Work Cited

Silvert, Kalman H. "The politics of social and economic change in Latin America." Promise Of Development. Routledge, 2018. 76-87.

Wittner, Lawrence. "Has democratic socialism a future in American politics?." Australian Socialist 24.2 (2018): 18.

U. S Immigration To 1877

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US Immigration to 1877

Your Name here

US Immigration to 1877

Date Here

(All double-spaced)

 The United States has always been a land of immigration. The major waves of immigration were experienced during the colonial era. People came to American to seek religious freedom and greater economic opportunity. African slaves came to America against their will. America has been a nation of immigrants who crossed the land bridge connecting North America and Asia. The first European had begun establishing settlements in the 1500s. Colonization was prominent at that time as every nation was trying to establish a massive empire. The reason behind this was the claim of their supremacy in the entire region. People immigrate to America due to many economical opportunities in order to better their life styles. Africans were captured, separated from their family, and transported to America to serve as slaves. Many first settlers came in search of freedom in order to practice their religion.

Immigration in the Colonial Era

At that time, people were facing many problems such as economic problems and religious problems, which forced them to move to the New World during colonial times. English immigrants to America began in the 1500s. English under the command of Sir Walter Raleigh came to North America in search of better lifestyle opportunities and to found new settlements. They named the place Virginia. Sir Walter sent many colonists to settle on Roanoke Island, where the first child of English parents was born in America. Again in 1607, Jamestown settlement was established in the Virginia Colony. John Smith and John Rolfe led the Anglican and Baptists immigrants there. In 1620, the Mayflower Pilgrims founded the Plymouth Colony. It was the Pilgrims who celebrated the First Thanksgiving in order to express their thankfulness for the new colonists and fresh supplies. The time period between 1620 to 1640 was known as Great Migration as thousands of English people immigrate to America. The Great Migration to America led the establishment of the first 13 colonies. These 13 colonies were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, North Carolina, South Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Georgia. Approximately 50,000 covered the distance of 3000 miles to settle in America.

The immigration of English to America was dangerous and hard for both English settlers and Native Americans. Native Americans were not in the mod to facilitate new settlers as they were trying to influence their culture and power on them. Therefore, a war for survival has started in different regions of America, known as The Indian Wars of the 1600s. New settlers became embroiled in the war with the Native Americans. The major wars included the Pequot war in Connecticut, Powhatan Wars in Virginia, and the Indians and French Wars (1688-1763).

Religious Freedom

Many of the British North American colonies were settled in the seventeenth century by men and women, who refused to compromise passionately held religious convictions. It is noteworthy to mention that New England colonies, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were established and conceived on the basis of religious aspects. These colonies were conceived so that people can perform their religious aspects without any hurdles. Majority of the European immigrate to new colonies for secular motives. They wanted a place where they can easily perform their prayers and worship God, in the way they believed to be correct. New settlers were thrilled and willingly supported the efforts of their leaders to build churches in the American wilderness. The uniformity of religion in each society was the viewpoint of Catholics and Protestants. People fled from Europe to the British North American colonies in search of free land, where they can attain religious freedom. However, Roger Williams enforced the idea of the uniformity of religion. By doing so, Protestants persecuted Catholics in some areas, while in others, Catholics persecuted Protestants. The religious persecution was bloody and implacable in the British North American colonies.

Indentured Servants

After the settlement of Europeans in Jamestown, indentured servants first arrived in America. Virginia Company was in need of cheap labor. Therefore, the idea of indentured servitude came along. It was expensive for Europeans to cross over to the American colonies. They presented the idea that if an employer purchased an indenture contract, then he/she will be brought young people over. These people would work for a fixed number of years. After the contract ended, he/she was then free to work on their own. It is notable to mention that the indentured servants were beneficial for both employers and employees. They were provided with food, accommodation, training, and clothing, instead of wages. That system was developed by Virginia Colony to attract workers as it was a vital aspect to the colonial economy. Virginia Company was lucky at that time as Europes economy was depressed which increased the ratio of unemployment. Virginia Company took advantage of those opportunities and provided the idea of indentured servitude. It provides new hope to unemployed people to immigrate to British North American colonies in order to improve their lifestyles. Approximately two-thirds of the immigrants arrived as indentured servants in the American colonies. Additionally, the contract of indentured servants could be extended if they try to break a law. Many historians argued that these indentured servants were better than the new immigrants who came freely to the country. Due to their contract, they were able to get food, accommodation, and clothing.

Slave Trade

Landowners experienced a constant shortage of labor in the American colonies. The indentured servants were able to gain their liberty after 5 to 6 years. Slave trade was established in the mid-17th century, where European traders found it easy to get young and healthy African to be sold into slavery. African intermediaries started doing business with the European traders. Africans were captured and separated from their family. They were transported to American colonies to work, without gaining their liberty.

British Transportation of 50,000 prison convicts to American colonies

British had been shipping convicts to America for decades. When the British realized that Americans are struggling for their freedom, they send thousands of convicts to the American colonies. British transported nearly 50,000 prison convicts from 1717 to the end of the American Revolution. The main reason behind this was Americas part in the war of independence. It is estimated that approximately 9 percent of immigrants to American were British convicts.

The Naturalization Act of 1790

The immigration of prison convicts caused a problem in the United States. There were too many criminals out there who were wandering in the streets to cause harm to other people. The United States was in need of taking strong actions against such criminal immigrants. Therefore, the Naturalization Act of 1790 was introduced to restrict the citizenship to those who had been in the United States for nearly 2 years. This act also states that Asian and Black immigrants were not eligible to stay in the United States. However, the Naturalization Act states nothing about non-white people who were born in the American soil. Here, the focus is to demonstrate certain events that led towards the immigrants of Europeans in the British North American colonies.

Bibliography

Cornell, Saul. The 1979 Naturalization Act and the Original Meaning of the Natural Born Citizen Clause A Short Primer on Historical Method and the Limits of Originalism.Wis. L. Rev. Forward(2016) 92.

Fogleman, Aaron S. From slaves, convicts, and servants to free passengers The transformation of immigration in the era of the American Revolution.The Journal of American History85, no. 1 (1998) 43-76.

Middleton, Richard.Colonial America a history, 1585-1776. Cambridge, MA Blackwell, 1996.

Reid, John. Immigration and the future US black population.The population today14, no. 2 (1986) 6.

Middleton, Richard.Colonial America a history, 1585-1776. Cambridge, MA Blackwell, 1996.

Middleton, Richard.Colonial America a history, 1585-1776. Cambridge, MA Blackwell, 1996.

Middleton, Richard.Colonial America a history, 1585-1776. Cambridge, MA Blackwell, 1996.

Fogleman, Aaron S. From slaves, convicts, and servants to free passengers The transformation of immigration in the era of the American Revolution.The Journal of American History85, no. 1 (1998) 43-76.

Fogleman, Aaron S. From slaves, convicts, and servants to free passengers The transformation of immigration in the era of the American Revolution.The Journal of American History85, no. 1 (1998) 43-76.

Fogleman, Aaron S. From slaves, convicts, and servants to free passengers The transformation of immigration in the era of the American Revolution.The Journal of American History85, no. 1 (1998) 43-76.

Reid, John. Immigration and the future US black population.The population today14, no. 2 (1986) 6.

Cornell, Saul. The 1979 Naturalization Act and the Original Meaning of the Natural Born Citizen Clause A Short Primer on Historical Method and the Limits of Originalism.Wis. L. Rev. Forward(2016) 92.

Your Last Name PAGE MERGEFORMAT 7

1. Middleton, Richard.Colonial America a history, 1585-1776. Cambridge, MA Blackwell, 1996.

2. Fogleman, Aaron S. From slaves, convicts, and servants to free passengers The transformation of immigration in the era of the American Revolution.The Journal of American History85, no. 1 (1998) 43-76.

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Unfinished Agenda

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

History and Anthropology

[Date]

Unfinished Agenda

Introduction

The book Unfinished Agenda is no less than a life story for the lessons to be learned throughout life. This is the story of the struggle of the people of American's facing serious issues to recognize their identity and get all those rights which were being omitted from their life. These were the Native Americans, but the only problem which as occurring in their life was of their color, cast, and creed. The ethnocentric issues which were faced by the people at that time. The issue was their dark complexion.

The black Americans were the people who faced a big hindrance in the point to reach their rights. This was the era of the 1950s to the era of the 1960s when the civil rights movement was on the verge. The author, Junius Williams was also the part of this great historical movement at that time. He was a young lad and have seen all the ups and downs and highs and lows of this movement and have seen the entire story in the broader aspect. The purpose for writing all this in the form of manuscript for the mankind was to make them aware of all the hardships and traumatizing scenarios which shattered their dreams several time but all which existed was that little ray of hope that urged them to continue their movement and struggle until or unless they are not able to get their rights in the honorable and prestigious ways similar to that of the white Americans.

Discussion

In this book, the author showed the yet still similar side of the story that occurred in the 1950s and the 1960s. These were considered as the historic moment at that time when the author himself becomes the victim, of that movement and faced several difficulties in the time when he was studying in college. It was the tenure when the author was studying in the Amherst College and Yale Law School (Hayden, Np). It was the time through which he can relate to the time when the leadership of The United States of America faced a legit period when the authority of the whole country was in the hand of the Black American. It was none other than Barrack Hussein Obama. He was the first Black American to lead the country for a quiet long tenure. The author of the book relates this entire moment to the time when there was a complete movement in the name for providing the equal and adequate rights of the black and white Americans should be adjusted in the similar way (Hayden N.p). The author also wanted to enable all the readers to realize that situation with the modern world scenario. He mentioned in his book that it was the dream which Martin |Luther King wanted to visualize with his own eyes to see that everything can become possible. The higher authorities are not confined with the white people, but equal adequacy should be provided to both the people so that they may not feel any humility or negativity about any of the aspect.

Conclusion

Going through the detailed concept of the book, this fact can be determined that the agenda of the Civil Rights movement was unfinished for an extended period and it got finished when the new president took office. For a change, this time the president was not a white American but a Black American took the seat and this as the time when the agenda got finished, and there was a point when the whole world could see an end to the racial discrimination in the world.

Work Cited

Hayden, Conversation, Smithsonian History, and Smithsonian Culture. "Conversation With Junius Williams And Tom Hayden." C-SPAN.org. N. p., 2014. Web. Retrieved from https://www.c-span.org/video/?317546-1/conversation-junius-williams-tom-haydenConversation with Junius Williams and Tom Haydenhttps://www.c-span.org

Unit 1 Discussion

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Unit 1 Discussion

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Purpose of Art

25,000 BCE

The undoubted origination of art came into existence through the Aurignacian archeological culture within Upper Paleolithic. However, the preference for the esthetic originated within Middle Paleolithic. The first ever Paleolithic artistic expression dates back to 25,000 BCE. The art that could be preserved from this period was mainly minor carvings on various stones and bones. Paintings were seen in caves as well (Kleiner, 2016). The evidence of human-made items was first seen in Southern Africa. Art paved a way to communicate, write and keep a record in the olden days. At times art helped making a significant communication with another culture.

3100 BCE

The first ever great civilization which rose was in Egypt. In this era, the artwork created was done by professional craftsmen and artists. It is evident because of the intricacy of the work. The purpose of Egyptian Art was to portray religion, and it was symbolic (Adams, 2018). The Egyptian culture was highly centralized the hierarchy indicated the presence of one authoritative figure. Most of the art was in honor of the Pharaoh. There were great monuments built as well. The Egyptian culture and art accentuated the religious concept of wickedness. Later, Byzantine and Coptic art also became part of the Egyptian art.

3300-3200 BCE

Further, came the Etruscan and Greek artists. The Etruscans were communicating with the Greek societies (Snodgrass, 2017). Greek craftsmen and their pottery influenced the Etruscan art. The Greek and Etruscan work was built on the foundation laid down by Egypt. They started off progressing in the art of architecture, painting, chinaware, pottery, and sculptures (Gunter, 2015). Greek art was simple initially the Egyptian art started influencing it which initiated in the Cycladic Islands in-between 3300-3200 BCE (Tanner, 2016). The region of Etruria which was the habitat for Etruscans was rich in metal. Copper and iron were found in abundance in their locality. This made Etruscans professional bronze smiths. They traded their art and work throughout the Mediterranean. This indicates that later art became a means of trade and earning. From being used for symbolism and Religion, further art evolved as a form of living through time.

References

Kleiner, F. S. (2016).Gardners art through the ages The western perspective(Vol. 1). Cengage Learning.

Adams, L. S. (2018).The methodologies of art An introduction. Routledge.

Snodgrass, A. M. (2017).The Dark Age of Greece An Archeological Survey of the Eleventh to the Eighth Centuries BC. Routledge.

Tanner, J. (2016). Finding the Egyptian in early Greek art. InAncient Perspectives on Egypt(pp. 131-160). Routledge.

Gunter, A. C. (2015). The Etruscans, Greek Art, and the Near East.A Companion to the Etruscans,143, 339.

PAGE

PAGE 4

HISTORY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

PAGE 1

Running head HISTORY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

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Unit 1 Paper - BULL-HEADED HARPS

Bull-Headed Harps

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Bull-Headed Harps

Introduction

Bull-headed harps is having the bull’s head forward-facing and enameled piece is of one of the ancient musical instruments on the earth. The historians claim that it is from the earliest times of Mesopotamian site of Ur. The whole panel portrays a gallant figure grasping man-headed bulls up and animals acting as persons underneath. There is also a third panel where there is an animal group in which ass is seen playing as a bull-headed lyre same as the one on the enamel ornaments. Moreover, this ancient musical tool is 14 inches tall and it was found by Leonard Woolley in 1920s, while excavating in Ur. The archeologist was looking for information regarding the old city of Mesopotamia. It is thought that this instrument was played at the funerals (Woolley & Legrain, 1934). When it was found, it was laying between ten dead bodies of women in the Royal Graveyard (Woolley, 1929). However, this piece can be used as a symbol to describe the ancient cultural practices in that city. Moreover, it also helps to understand the philosophy of that period by observing this musical instrument.

Discussion

The Harps of Ur is also known as the lyres of Ur. This is made up of wood, gold, lapis and silver. It is a musical instrument so it depicts that people of that era were font of music and all the art pieces on the instrument also support it. However, it is believed that lyre was played to complement the mantras of anthems and melodies of tribute (Barnett, 1969). There are 11 strings in the instrument which were played to awaken the godly bull. According to the historian the Bull was considered as the gate keeper of one of the gods. The eyes, head, horns and beard are made up of some expensive ornaments, which shows the significance of those expensive adornments in that era. Therefore, it depicts that the bull was a sacred icon of that culture.

The beards of the bull might show the wisdom and experience and the head which is covered with a gold demonstrates the wealth. At the same time, all the attributes of the lyre and the bull’s head links to the representation of the Sumerian Culture. The three panels under the Bull’s head have their own identification. There are animals with human figures and it portrays the ancient Mesopotamian belief that in order to gain power qualities of different species are required. People of that era thought that power is related to having attributes of different creatures.

The first panel where man is standing between two animals that depicts the heroic nature of human beings. It symbolizes that man was considered superior over the natural world. There several descriptions provided by the historian regarding the Lyre. Some of them think that as the instrument was played in the funeral ceremony of any royal personality. Therefore, the animal figures performing human activities means they were preparing for the afterlife of the person who died. Furthermore, it is from the Sumerian Culture, so it explains that the people from that culture were used to be the experts of metal work (Galpin,1929). The use of expensive jewels show that how progressed their civilization was.

Conclusions

In conclusion, Bull-headed harps having the bull’s head forward-facing and enameled piece is of one of the ancient musical instruments on the earth. It also shows that it is a religious instrument which was played on the funeral of the individuals from Royal family of that era. At the same time, animals having manly figures depict the concept of the power in that time period. Therefore, this piece is used as a symbol to describe the ancient cultural practices in that city. Moreover, it also helps to understand the philosophy of that period by observing this musical instrument.

References

Barnett, R. D. (1969). New facts about musical instruments from Ur. Iraq, 31(2), 96-103.

Galpin, F. W. (1929). The Sumerian harp of Ur, c. 3500 BC. Music & Letters, 10(2), 108-123.

Woolley, C. L. (1929). Excavations at Ur, 1928–9. The Antiquaries Journal, 9(4), 305-343.

Woolley, C. L., & Legrain, L. (1934). Ur excavations (Vol. 2, p. 145). British Museum, Museum of the University of Pennsylvania to Mesopotamia.