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Aspects of Development

Answer 1

Economics is one of the major aspects of development, which is usually measured in terms of GDP/GNP. According to Beneria and Lourdes, crisis in development are deep-rooted in the discipline of economics, which have a strong impact on the path of development. Economic development and development are often used as synonymous. The economic development of society is concerned with income, consumption, savings and investment.

Human Development

Beneria, Lourdes et al, emphasize more on human development rather than economic development. Despite the fact that economic development is important for alleviating poverty and maintaining acceptable living standards. Author explains the perspective of human development by Amartya Sen. According to her, development is a process to create an encouraging environment for individuals and groups of people. This process helps them to grow at their full potential and lead productive and creative lives to meet their interests and needs.

Gender Economics

Gender Economics is another emerging concept in development studies. It is based on the theories of diversity and endorses the value of gender equality, predominantly in the field of creativity and innovation. The subject highlights the influence of gender on the economic decisions and consequently, how these decisions impact genders.

The three aspects of development i.e. human development, economics and gender economics are different from each other in their components but are interrelated concepts. Economic development is only possible if human capital grows, and for human capital development, gender economics plays a vital role. Both genders should be given equal opportunities, in order to achieve human and economic development.

Answer 2

Modernization theory assesses the path of development in the world and investigates the relationship between developing and developed countries as possibly equal countries at a different stage of development. The stance of modernization theory is that western countries are sophisticated and well-developed countries. There is practically no substitute to this way of development.

The supporters of development theory therefore insist the developing countries to collaborate with developed countries in order to reduce the gap between the two. Modernization theory put emphasis on developing countries to borrow the experience from developed countries. Fundamentally, the developing countries must follow blindly the way of developed western countries. It will bring their social, cultural, political and economic indicators towards prosperity.

In contrast to Modernization theory, Dependency theory highlights that relationships of developing with developed countries are based on dependence rather than cooperation. More precisely, the followers of Dependency theory present their stance that Western countries are no doubt more progressive and innovative than developing countries. The fact is that developing countries follow the Western developed countries not only because they believe that they are successfully developed, but also because they are forced to choose that path of development, just to avoid isolation from the developed world. Even the developing countries are bound by western intervention in their policy and politics.

After assessing the difference between the two theories, it is clear that modernization theory is more focused towards narrowing global equality because modernization theorists focus both on cooperation and competition. Modernization theory introduced a new terminology i.e. “Coopetition” which means the nations should compete for their advantages with cooperation. This will help in reducing global income inequalities. Dependency theory puts pressure on the countries which are already underdeveloped and do not allow them to compete with international market.

Answer 3

What is a commodity? explain through difference between use value and exchange value found in Marx. How does labor power turn into commodity under capitalism? How labor power is similar and different from other commodities.

Karl Marx’s definition of commodity defines that, a commodity is an object or a thing that satisfy the human wants. According to Marx, there are two aspects from which a commodity can be defined. One is Use-value and the other is Exchange-value. Use value is defined as the utility of a commodity a person gets by using that particular commodity.

The Use-value is constrained by the physical properties of the particular product, with no existence apart from that product. In the concept of Use-value, a commodity is independent of the amount of labor power essential to appropriate its potentials. Use-value is strictly attached with the consumption of the commodity.

The Exchange value exchange-value seems to be rather unintended and purely relative, and therefore an intrinsic value, i.e., an Exchange-value that is inseparably associated with and inherent in commodities. the Exchange of commodities is an act characterized as good as the use-value, provided that it is present in adequate quantity.

According to Marx, market is a combination of commodification and capitalism. Commodification refers to the commodities of the material world which are expressed in terms of money. Marx theory suggests that even a human (labor power) can be commodified. An example of labor power commodification is a villager who lost his livelihood and forced to work for monetary income. Similarly land and currency came in the marketplace to be traded for a price. When these possessions are traded as commodities, their labor and entrepreneurship experience an uncertain competition by the market beyond their control. According to Marx, under capitalism labor-power converts into a commodity which is bought and sold in the market. A worker sells his or her labor-power in the market of factors of production, in exchange for a salary or wage.

Answer 4

There are two key assumptions embodied in industrial development projects. Firstly, they assume that industrial development involves the displacement of agricultural society by an industrial civilization. In reference to development policy, this displacement is the shrinking of agrarian civilization with the development of industrial and service sector. It also refers to the transfer of agricultural labor and other raw material towards industrial sector, to lead the agriculture sector towards technical innovation. Both these important sectors, together will lead the country towards growth.

The second assumption behind industrialization is that there is a linear direction for development. For examples, the developing countries are catching up with the western developed countries. Because developing countries are more than fifty years behind the western countries. Joseph Stalin articulated that developing countries must cover up this distance otherwise they will be crushed by the west.

Decentralization process

Decentralization elaborates a universal national expansion of western world, assuming different patterns of development in different countries depending upon the social narratives built in their political system. Third world countries are keen to establish development states as centralized, corporatist or decentralized.

The national economic growth of development states depends up on circulation of money and the mobility of labor. The above two assumptions best support this phenomenon because displacement of agrarian civilization will help in labor mobility and money circulation. The second assumption of linear direction will help in choosing a path for economic development. Government revenues and individual and corporate taxes will be used for developmental projects like transport, buildings, and energy exploration. In this way development becomes a tool for states legitimacy.

Decolonization

Decolonization is a process of recovery from colonialism. Decolonization evolves across the two regions, the independence of Latin America (from Portugal and Spain) to the devise of South Africa. Despite of worldwide anti-colonial struggle, the decolonization process did not overcome the negative impacts of colonization. It just gives independence to several states but these states are still colonized in context of their culture and mentality.

Answer 5

War capitalism in the history is considered as a precondition for industrial revolution. It proved very helpful in creating international markets for cotton industry. War capitalism results in excessive supply of bounded labor and essential raw materials and accumulated much capital which helps in funding the newly established cotton industries. There was a great role played by slave trade. Slavery was considered as a capital-intensive business at the time of industrial revolution and the expansion of western Europe cotton agriculture largely depended on credit sources mostly by the money market of London, where credits were commonly secured on slaves as mortgages.

Cotton industry started flourishing in India in the times of modernization when Sir Francis Baring, became a director of the East India Company in 1779 at a time of excessive demand for Indian cotton cloth to be traded for slaves in Africa. The new markets for the trade of cotton emerges in India when European capitalists showed their interest to replace their own products with Indian manufactured cloths. Both the theories of modernization and dependence are incorporated in emergence of cotton industry in India. India in one way followed the trade development path of western Europe to establish international market for their cotton cloth and on the other hand they were forced to give importance to the cotton industry because Sir Francis Baring was the director of the East India Company.

An example from the reading “Empire of Cotton” is, the industrial revolution of north America and western Europe occurred because of peculiar relationships of most powerful states with the capital owners of dominated world economy. Most of the cotton for world market was exclusively grown by the slaves. Slavery, war-capitalism, have a strong relationship with economic expansion and empire. The capital expansion is mostly dependent up on slavery.

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Impact of Enlightenment on America and Europe

Introduction

The great influence of historical events in the history of countries can never be ignored as these domains eventually shaped the development of societies. Moreover, these events are established as a learning lesson for the future to never repeat past mistakes as great nations. It is noteworthy to indicate that a comprehensive assessment of different historical prospects is one significant form of action to make better inferences about their impact on the social and political set-up of countries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bESGDquU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bulliet et al.)","plainCitation":"(Bulliet et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":322,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/LBEUTS6P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/LBEUTS6P"],"itemData":{"id":322,"type":"book","ISBN":"978-0-495-91313-9","publisher":"Cengage Learning","title":"The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition","URL":"https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=0_UywLyJZ1sC","author":[{"family":"Bulliet","given":"R."},{"family":"Crossley","given":"P."},{"family":"Headrick","given":"D."},{"family":"Hirsch","given":"S."},{"family":"Johnson","given":"L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bulliet et al.). The enlightenment period has a strong influence when it comes to considering the perspective of America and Europe as two different geographical regions. This particular time-period differently impacted both the regions that eventually played an important role in the overall development of America and Europe. Undoubtedly, the broad grounds of the era of enlightenment dramatically changed the concepts of development and social stability specifically for the areas of America and Europe. It was the time of knowledge advancement and experiment of many new ideas to provide better living conditions to the citizens. In other words, this historical phase is defined as the awakening time for the society to find new and advanced solutions to the existing problems. It is vital to indicate that the regions of America and Europe are recognized as the areas, greatly influenced by the social and technological development appeared as the enlightenment era. This paper focuses to identify and critically analyze the real impact of the enlightenment on America and Europe. 

Discussion

The era of enlightenment specifically comprised on time-period of the late 17th and 18th centuries. It was the time that societies greatly experienced the facet of transition in a strong manner. It is important to attain a brief overview of the concept of the enlightenment era before establishing its influence on American and European societies. This form of assessment is imperative to determine the real grounds of the historical concept of the enlightenment. 

Overview of the Enlightenment

The time of enlightenment during the 17th and 18th centuries is recognized as the time of great social transformation. It was the time when societies are changed due to increasing forms of knowledge and developments. It was an unforgettable time for America and Europe because, during the enlightenment period, America attained massive development in the form of the American revolution whereas this facet also established in France. The positive implications of enlightenment can also be observed in the case of the immense progress of science in societies. The enhancement of scientific features made it essential for America and European countries to set new targets of economic and overall industrial developments. 

 The importance of this historical phase is also appeared due to the growing scenario of slavery for millions of people. This specific approach can be established as the negative aspect of this phase when a wide range of people forcefully transported from Africa to the region of the Western Hemisphere. Without any doubt, it can be said that the time-period of enlightenment was the time of immense changes in the societies of America and Europe as it was the era of social experimentation. There are diverse themes actively linked with the overall spectrum of the historical phase of enlightenment. It established its strong position in the form of the intellectual movement in American and European societies that ultimately helped to create new ideas and domains according to the changing requirements of the world. The broad ideas of reason, individualism, and skepticism got a great level of attention that eventually helped societies to obtained better outcomes of development in an appropriate manner. The age of enlightenment significantly based on the intellectual movement of that time period that provides news ways of social development to the countries. Furthermore, it is also crucial to establish that the conventional religious ideas were strongly challenged by the development of enlightenment by considering three main factors of argument, individualism, and the facet of skepticism. 

The conceptual elements of logic, individual’s uniqueness, and skepticism are utilized as the primary factors to defined the reality of any concept. It is important to indicate this form of development in society is entirely different from the conventional prospect of belief set by religious ideologies. This form of transition impacted societies in many different political, social, and economic domains. All the thinkers under the prospect of enlightenment established their social position as liberal in American and European societies. They were the ones who actively and strongly encouraged the ideas of equality and human dignity in society and rejected the conventional forms of social development ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"reenEIrE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Conrad)","plainCitation":"(Conrad)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":318,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/QAR8VMZ5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/QAR8VMZ5"],"itemData":{"id":318,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The American Historical Review","issue":"4","page":"999-1027","title":"Enlightenment in global history: A historiographical critique","volume":"117","author":[{"family":"Conrad","given":"Sebastian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Conrad). The traditional ideas of prejudice, intolerance, superstition, and social position were influentially denied by defenders of enlightenment. The Scientific Revolution during the 17th century is categorized as one of the major developments under the changing scenario of enlightenment time-period. 

The field of science was greatly acknowledged during the developmental phase of American and European societies. This form of development only appeared due to strong construction and acceptance of the idea of enlightenment or enhancement of knowledge in the form of social settings. Various scientific methods were embraced by researchers of that time to propose better solutions to the existing political, social, and economic tribulations of that period. The growing enhancement of knowledge is utilized by countries to solve their problems and provided better living conditions to all the citizens. It is critical to establish that there was no date from when the enlightenment phase started because it established its position as the wide-ranging transitional movement appeared in American and European societies. It is important to mention that Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Isaac Newton are characterized as the major names when it comes to finding initiators of the enlightenment movement as they played an important role to develop many new concepts in the form of social and scientific developments. The great idea of enlightenment started in Europe that ultimately placed its strong position in American society due to the prominent narrative of this form of social development. The American intellectuals, Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson greatly influenced by the idea of enlightenment. This specific idea is utilized by these experts as the direction to explore new developmental prospects of the idea of enlightenment. It is interesting to critically and closely monitor the strong influence of the enlightenment separately for the regions of America and Europe. This form of consideration is imperative to make better inferences about the fact that how differently and successfully the approach of enhanced knowledge welcomed by American and European societies. 

The Impact of Enlightenment on America

           American society is greatly influenced by the progressive idea of the 17th century that appeared in the form of enlightenment. It was the great approach of knowledge awareness for American people that encouraged them to think differently and bravely to find solutions to different issues. America Revolution is one prominent example of the great influence of the changing domain of enlightenment. It was the time of transition for the country that can be witnessed in the case of different spectrums of social, political, and economic developments for Americans. The acceptance of new ideas in the form of enlightenment turned as the aspect of motivation for Americans to proposed and established new domains of development according to the nation’s requirements. 

           The idea of intellectual upheaval in American history got great attention due to the existence of the age of enlightenment. Experts of history explicitly established this argument that many core ideas of the American Revolution originally derived from the practical spectrum of the enlightenment. The specific social and political movement of the enlightenment period characterized as the one for the American society that encouraged the main factors of freedom of speech, equality in society, freedom of the press, religious tolerance, and more importantly enhancement of scientific ideas ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WzzzlObU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Outram)","plainCitation":"(Outram)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":319,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/65BYJG4E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/65BYJG4E"],"itemData":{"id":319,"type":"book","ISBN":"1-108-42466-X","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","title":"The enlightenment","volume":"58","author":[{"family":"Outram","given":"Dorinda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Outram). The active establishment of all these factors also influenced the movement of revolution for Americans. It was the time when people of America tried to achieve their ultimate objective of independence from England that eventually formulated as the facet of the American Revolution. The connection between the enlightenment and American Revolution is one prominent example of the crucial role of the age of knowledge in the overall development of America as a progressive society over the years. 

           The philosophical concepts of knowledge enhancement shared by many different philosophers and intellectuals played a critical role in the development of American society. The basic motivation for American colonies to obtain their own lands is recognized as the concept of the enlightenment that greatly prevailed in the Americana society during that time period. There are examples of many significant American leaders who used the idea of enlightenment as the facet to actively stimulate the approach of the America Revolution. Various concepts of the age of enlightenment such as, the freedom of press, equality, freedom of speech, and improved form of tolerance were the main factors that provided foundations to the American Revolution. It is necessary to indicate that American colonists did not have these fundamental rights and they started an influential movement to make their position strong by claiming these basic human rights. The absence of these rights for American colonists in the society eventually upheaval the idea of liberty movement against England that eventually turned as the American Revolution for the country. 

           The idea of knowledge enhancement under the domain of enlightenment embraced by the political prospect of America. This specific argument was established by Thomas Jefferson that there is a need for giving importance to basic human rights in the case of every citizen of America. These basic rights are characterized as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness for every American citizen without any discrimination. Acceptance and establishment of these basic rights in American society is one central influence of the enlightenment on America. The influence of the enlightenment on America can also be prominently witnessed in the case of the legal spectrum established in the country. The separation of power and control of the government-regulated under the theoretical domain established by the movement of enlightenment. The concept of balanced power as the form of enlightenment movement greatly encouraged and embraced by American colonists as they were interested in the right of necessary liberty. The freedom of government was greatly maligned by the main idea of enlightenment that ensured proper rights of freedom and equality for all the citizens of the country without any biasedness. The development of this idea of enlightenment greatly influenced the political and social development of American society as it encouraged the domains of equality and necessary form of liberty for everyone ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Q4QtAyWN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Israel)","plainCitation":"(Israel)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":320,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/LAVVFGYM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/LAVVFGYM"],"itemData":{"id":320,"type":"book","ISBN":"0-19-966809-4","publisher":"Oxford University Press","title":"Democratic enlightenment: philosophy, revolution, and human rights 1750-1790","author":[{"family":"Israel","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Israel). The extensive form of government power is successfully regulated by American society by considering the main idea of political development established through the domain of the movement of enlightenment. It can be rightly said that the age of enlightenment played an important role in the country of America because it provides the necessary foundation of power and government development in society.  

The Impact of Enlightenment on Europe

           The region of Europe was greatly impacted by the growing role of Enlightenment in the form of movement. This particular ideological development greatly reflected in the case of European society because primarily this idea is originated from this region. The age of reason in the form of enlightenment was greatly acknowledged and accepted by Europe to enhance the idea of development in the case of many forms. The traditional ordering of European society was greatly challenged by Isaac Newton and John Locke, who are recognized as great representatives of the age of enlightenment. The laws of gravity developed by Newton dramatically changed the traditional pattern of thinking for the region of American history. This form of research development ultimately encouraged people to think rationally and beyond traditional religious beliefs. The traditional concepts of superstition and false faith were completely rejected after the establishment of knowledge enhancement mainly in the form of scientific development. 

           The development of the political disorder in the region of England also encouraged experts to find solutions through the new spectrum of knowledge that appeared as the movement of enlightenment. The political expert, Locke developed the idea of the basic right of a people under the country’s constitution. It is strongly established through extensive research on the political field that the government of the Europe region failed to provide necessary protection to the citizens by considering their fundamental rights of life, liberty, and property. This form of knowledge enhancement assisted people to start realizing their basic rights and find practical ways to protect their rights. 

           The great impact of the enlightenment in the case of Europe can also be observed in the case of changing spectrums of religious ideologies. The enhancing form of reasoning and arguments dramatically motivated European people to start questioning the existence of God. The domain of scientific development made it essential for people to analyze every aspect of life on some analytical foundations. It can be rightly said that the extensive development of the enlightenment in Europe ultimately changed the overall social spectrum of this region. The popular idea of knowledge enhancement appeared as the new Europe which was entirely different from the traditional form of social development. It is observed that due to the accelerating domain of enlightenment, European people were more interested to find the solution to every problem considering the platform of rational thinking and scientific development. The overall political attitudes in Europe were also greatly influenced by the developing spectrum of the enlightenment ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aXjtyiox","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barnett)","plainCitation":"(Barnett)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":321,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/U7M6GGPK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qLzeF6Hj/items/U7M6GGPK"],"itemData":{"id":321,"type":"book","ISBN":"1-5261-3772-0","publisher":"Manchester University Press","title":"The Enlightenment and religion: The myths of modernity","author":[{"family":"Barnett","given":"Stephen J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Barnett). It turned as the direction for the people to evaluated their basic rights considering the standard set by the phenomenon of the enlightenment. The concept of displacement of the monarch greatly acknowledged and embraced under the spectrum of the rational facet of the enlightenment. Different law experts who belonged to the European region were more interested to find realistic solutions in the form of equal distribution of power and protection of the basic rights of all the citizens. 

Conclusion

           To conclude the discussion on the influential impact of the enlightenment on the region of America and Europe, it is vital to mention that this form of development immensely changed the traditional prospects of these societies. This form of social development greatly influenced these societies in many different disciplines such as the areas of political, economic, and social developments in America and Europe. The impact of the age of the enlightenment greatly appeared in the case of America as it was the facet of the foundation for the approach of the American Revolution and got independence from England. The positive significance of enlightenment for Europe established as actively embracing the approach of scientific development.  

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnett, Stephen J. The Enlightenment and Religion: The Myths of Modernity. Manchester University Press, 2018.

Bulliet, R., et al. The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition. Cengage Learning, 2012, https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=0_UywLyJZ1sC.

Conrad, Sebastian. “Enlightenment in Global History: A Historiographical Critique.” The American Historical Review, vol. 117, no. 4, 2012, pp. 999–1027.

Israel, Jonathan. Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750-1790. Oxford University Press, 2013.

Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2019.

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Introduction

Western civilization consists of the regions of Europe and the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire and the Medieval Western Christendom also come under the umbrella of Western Civilization. The Western Civilization was very much influenced by the teachings of Christianity and Judaism and the practices being followed were of mixed nature. The Fall of Rome proved to be very important even after which, the Catholic Church took charge of the society and religion. There was great hold of the Church on power and politics as well (Perry, 2015).

The civilizations of Ancient Rome and Classical Greece are considered the most influential societies in the history of the West. The period starting from 500 AD till date is considered very important as the West went through many moderations and developments during this time period, in terms of cultural, industrial and economic aspects. These changes were titled as the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, scientific revolution and the introduction of liberal democracy. Among all of these, the Renaissance was the most critical event that completely transformed Western Civilization and brought many positive changes in the arts, cultural, intellectual and scientific spheres of society. The following piece of writing will discuss the significance of the Renaissance for the Western Societies and how it left a powerful impact on the Western Civilization.

Discussion

Renaissance means Rebirth or the complete transformation of any event or thing. As Western Civilization went through many changes during the medieval time periods, many areas underwent changes including, science, arts, culture, commerce, and industry. Renaissance is considered as the period of a political, cultural, economic, scientific and intellectual explosion in Europe. After the Fall of Rome, it is regarded as the most profound period in human development. Although the flowering of art and culture had informally started in the 12th century, the region of Europe experienced it formally from the 14th century. The Renaissance took place majorly in Italy from the 14th century to the 17th century.

The Renaissance impacted almost every area of human life, starting from daily living to patterns to the big long-term decision; it even affected the thinking patterns or techniques of war. The techniques of war were mainly inspired by Ancient Rome and Medieval Greek civilizations. The Renaissance had almost a kind of snowball effect; every new development paved the way for further advancement. Filippo Brunelleschi, one of the prominent architects of Italy is considered as the founder of the Renaissance. Some of the other notable names that contributed exceptionally during the era of Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Donatello and Raphael who showed extraordinary creativity in their pieces of arts like paintings, tales, architectural figures, statues, poems, and theories, etc. about Gods, heroes, and ideas.

The 14th century is considered as the most critical era in for the Renaissance as it provided a rich ground for cultural development. The region of Europe had recently come out of the curse of Cholera, also known as the Black Death, and was steadily recovering from it's after effects. Cholera became the cause of death of millions of people, killing almost one in three people during 1346and 1353. It resulted in the concentration of wealth and resources in limited hands and arousal in the wages. This gave birth to a new form of rulers who had a great interest in showing off their wealth, such as Medici of Florence.

The aspect of intellect was significantly enriched during the Renaissance, during which the philosophers, scientists and other intellectuals developed multiple theories and presented many ideas regarding various subjects. For example, the topic of human anatomy was revisited, and many new dimensions were presented. On another note, the area of light and shadow were also studied under the discipline of Physics. The intellects encouraged the people to think more and more and research deeply about vague ideas. The era of renaissance urged the people to push their boundaries and look forward to achieving beyond their comfort zone.

The famous painting of Leonardo Da Vinci, Mona Lisa, also came into existence during the Renaissance (Panofsky, 2018). It also happened during the period of Renaissance that the long-acknowledged fact that the Sun revolved around the Earth was shunned and it was discovered that actually, Earth revolved around the Sun. This shocking discovery was made by Copernicus and Galileo who worked on the solar system and studied the position of different planets in the cosmos.

One of the most significant advancements of the Renaissance era was the development of the printing press. The printing press was invented by Gutenberg in 1440, which assisted greatly in the mass-production of the literature, including books, newspapers, and scripts. A single printing press churned out approximately 3600 pages per day, which resulted in the explosion of information, literature, and ideas unprecedented in history. The printing press had given out more those 20 million copies by 1500 in Western Europe which rose to a whopping 200 million by 1600.

The area of music also saw a surge during the era of Renaissance as the musicians and composers started getting much fame and acclamation as compared to their medieval predecessors. All this was a result of an instant surge of individualism during the Renaissance (Martin, 2016). The printing technology facilitated the musicians to distribute their work widely and eased the study of music for the people. The genre of secular music started getting popularity as compared the previous times and, even in the dominance of spiritual music, more and more musicians began working on it. Many musical instruments were revamped and improved in order to produce a better quality of music. The genre of instrumental music also gained much popularity and musicians worked on many new dimensions of instrumental music.

During the 15th century, the late period of Renaissance started when Rome was sacked, and the artists had the leave their original places to relocate to various other places like Spain, Italy, and France. This era is also known as Mannerism. During the age of Mannerism, the artist reverted towards odd themes of art, and rough display of emotions and feelings was displayed. Painters preferred to paint people, mostly nudes, in awkward positions and poses that were sometimes grotesque. Only Michelangelo remained alive to experience this era of the Renaissance.

The period of the Renaissance was closely followed by Reformation. The Reformation was a movement that affected the religious aspects of society and changed the concepts of people about spiritual prospects. The Reformation period resulted in the termination of the religious unity of the West and the hold of Catholic Church over the spheres of the economic and cultural sectors of the society, especially politics.

Conclusions

Shortly, it can be seen that undoubtedly, the era of the Renaissance was the most significant and impacting period of Western Civilization. Not only it contributed to transforming the arts and culture of the society, but it also helped greatly in reforming the religious views, improving the intellectual level of the people and bringing economic prosperity in their lives. The period of Renaissance impacted each and every area of life and society, one could think of, and the world witnessed great changes taking place in Europe during this era. It can be said that the Renaissance laid the foundations for the modern world.

References

Martin, J. (2016). Myths of Renaissance individualism. Springer.

Panofsky, E. (2018). Renaissance and renascences in western art. Routledge.

Perry, M. (2015). Western civilization, a brief history. Cengage Learning.

The American Dream

The American Dream

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The American dream is synonymous with the idea of hope and being justifiably compensated for one’s labor. Immigrants from all over the world have historically flocked to America in search of this dream. In the current political scenario when immigration to the USA is a polarized rallying cry, the themes and characters in Upton Sinclair’s ‘The Jungle’ are increasingly relevant. It is ironic to note that the novel failed to rile up public emotions about the reality of the fragile illusion of an American dream for the people who hope to be a part of it after leaving their home countries. Instead of creating concern about problems faced by the American working class especially immigrants, the book only created buzz in society about unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking business and led to the US Pure Food and Drug Act. It also led to stricter conditions for meatpacking in America. The only thing it did not achieve was its real objective.

Sinclair has used incidents from the real lives of immigrant workers in Chicago to be presented in the form of a fictional character’s story. The fact that the working and living conditions for immigrants as described in ‘the Jungle’ are real, turns the novel’s theme into one that is inherently socialist in nature. The harrowing tale of a Lithuanian family of immigrants tackles the various facades of capitalism in a rapidly industrializing America. There are several passages and quotes in the book that explicitly relate to inhumane conditions in factories that generally employ people who have immigrated to the United States. There is a specific text that significantly captures the extent to which immigrants will go to have a better life. It is a quote from Chapter Nine of the book. It describes the working conditions in excruciating detail by comparing the hunching of workers to ‘walking like Chimpanzees’ and that scarcely anyone did not have ‘a horror on their person’. This is then painfully reinforced by the fact that this quote begins with describing the workplace as where Jurgis’ son had died. CITATION Sin06 \l 1033 (Sinclair) Working and living conditions are further illustrated with Ona’s rape at work and her eventual death while birthing the baby that resulted from the rape.

Other than working conditions, the book discusses various other socialist perspectives in discussing that the American dream was simply a fantasy. One of the basic necessities that can uproot families from their home countries and make them travel to America is safe and feasible housing. In this book, the author repeatedly shatters this dream. He starts this tale with how Jurgis’ family always ends up in debt with their rent despite calculations and careful spending. This segment of the story climaxes with a quote in chapter eighteen where the author claims there is no imagination for the ‘heartbreaking, crushing reality of’ Jurgis losing his home. CITATION Sin06 \l 1033 (Sinclair) This works as a metaphor for the American dream that brought Jurgis to America. It has unfortunately turned into a heartbreaking, crushing reality.

It is therefore quite evident that the book uses metaphors and directly descriptive passages to discredit and expose the idea of American dream in capitalist context. Sinclair effectively unmasks the misleading hope that drove people to immigrate to America. In reality, unfair labor practices, a racially and economically biased legal justice system and a growing disregard for the working class completely eliminates any expectations of a fair and equal chance at success. The system is tilted even further against immigrants. Therefore, the book creates a stark contrast between the expectations and the realities of the American Dream. Since it was initially published bearing the stamp of a socialist political party and also provides an ending with a socialist protest; the intended aim of the book was clearly to provide public awareness about the unbelievable conditions faced by the working class and socialism as a solution for it.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. Chicago: Doubleday, 1906. Print.

The Americans Peril

The Americans Peril

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Americans Peril

The podcast under discussion is of Dan Carlin named “The American Peril”. It starts with a memorable quote of Winston Churchill; “Never let a good crisis go to waste”. This historical quote underpins the entire podcast. During the podcast, Carlin shed a light on the wars and significant political events that occurred during the 1800s and the consequences, repercussions, and the impact they had. There is a wide range of events on which Carlin talked. Be it the Civil War, the Spanish-American War or any other significant event, Carlin talked about all. All these mentioned events are tied to a single theme; never let a crisis go to waste. The question that crops up is that who benefitted from all this?

Although the Civil War spanned for just 4 years from 1861 to 1865, the subsequent conflicts continued until years later. Racism was still a big issue that concerned the general population. However, the world seemed to progress following the war. Apart from the change in the shape of the globe, telegraphs underwent a change as well. The agriculture era that once dominated the US changed into the Industrial revolution. The time after the Civil War saw the influx of immigrants that resulted in Americans getting frustrated. Due to efficient transportations, people made their ways to the US in search of better opportunities. As a result, Americans started to feel unsafe due to the growing number of immigrants.

With the immigrants finding their feet in the US, the Americans started to feel that immigrants are stripping them off of their jobs. Americans resorted to the notion of Social Darwinism and started to label races based on their superiority. To put it simply, a white man was considered superior to African Americans and any other immigrants. The purpose underlying the Civil War was to emancipate the slaves; African Americans were treated as second-degree citizens by the Americans. Although the Civil War was successful in breaking the fetters of slavery, once and for all, Racism remained a scourge.

After explaining this, Dan Carlin introduced the listeners to the fact that in order to compete with other major powers, the US had to dive in the business of Colonies. This was not an easy task to accomplish unless a crisis raises its head and offer them an opportunity. All the New World colonies of Spain slipped from their finger by the late 1800s. The only remaining colonies of Spain were Puerto Rico and Cuba. It was February 1895 when the Cubans decided to rebel against their Spanish masters. Cuba sought independence from its master, Spain. Different Unions got together and supported the Cuban demand of right to self-determination. To emancipate Cuba, the US helped the rebellions by supplying arms to them.

The US believed that whoever controlled Cuba, essentially, wielded power throughout the Caribbean. The US in return of control over Cuba agreed to help to achieve independence. The fundamental of Manifest Destiny was in line with the national ideals which promoted enlarging or expanding to the lands where people had freedom. As a result, the US founded the No Transfer Clause. According to the clause, the Cuban land was to come under the US control if Spain loses it. As a result, Spaniards residing in Cuba started to burn plantations sowed using American investment and damage the railroad system.

During the unrest caused due to the rebellion, Spain sent their military commander, General Arsenio Martinez Campos, tasked with assessing the situation. General Campos in his report said the situation to be critical. The methods that were employed in the Cuban rebellion were the benchmark of counterinsurgency during the 19th Century. Spaniards burned down important infrastructure. Moreover, the Cubans were incarcerated into reconcentration camps to teach a lesson to those who put up resistance against the Spanish rule. The reconcentration camps and policy were headed by a well-known Spanish liberal, Lieutenant General Valeriano Weyler. Due to the large number of Cuban deaths, Lt. General Weyler earned the title of “The Butcher”.

Spain employed brutish tactics to strike fear deep into the hearts of Cubans under its rule. These tactics shocked the US. As a result, the US started to deploy ships as a warning which calmed the situation to a certain extent. The USS Maine was exploded near the coastal line of Havana on 18th February 1898. Media pointed a torpedo behind the event and suggested it as the beginning of an end for the Spanish. The United States was adamant that Spain is behind the attack on their ship and termed it as an act of war. Ultimately, this reason paved the way for the US to start a war with Spain.

William McKinley had been sworn in after the elections of 1896. McKinley never kept diaries which earned him the title of ‘Ultimate Blank Slate'. Prior to this ascend to the Presidency, the US had little information regarding him. However, what everyone was certain was that McKinley will never wage war and rather opt for peace, given his religious and business stature as a Republican leader. Dan Carlin presented a quote of McKinley during the podcast that; “We want no wars of conquest. We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression. War should never be entered upon until every agency of peace has failed. Peace is preferable to war in almost any contingency”. Everyone was confused because McKinley had gathered people around him that held views in complete opposition to him. Henry Cabot Lodge and Theodore Roosevelt were two hyper-nationalist and jingoistic characters that remained in McKinley’s administration despite him assuring that they will be sent home.

In 1989, the Spanish American war came to its conclusion. Following the war, the world witnessed Spain ceding its rest of the colonies to the US as obliged in the Treaty of Paris. Philippines came under US rule after that. The country once helped by the US was now treated badly and deemed incapable to self-govern. The US sent troops to the Philippines to educate the Filipinos and develop infrastructure of all sorts. However, the natives started to attack American troops.

As Filipinos wanted independence, Guerilla warfare started all over the Philippines. It is one of the most vicious attacks known till day as women and children participated in them. The residents of Philippines compelled the US to withdraw from their land and acknowledge their right to self-determination. At last, the US signed a treaty and the Philippines a part of its land. However, the bad decisions of Filipinos earned them independence from the US.

Furthermore, the podcast of Dan Carlin elaborated the events of Civil, Spanish-American, and the Philippine-American war and their connection to the theme. The Civil War saw the opening of new beginnings of not only Americans but the African Americans as well. The shift towards industrialization allowed people to find newer job opportunities. The Spanish-American war emancipated colonies suffering repressive Spain rule. Moreover, the freed colonies were captured by the US and increased its global power. No matter how gruesome the nature of American-Philippine war was, it ultimately resulted in the Philippines getting emancipated.

The results and impacts of every crisis were different and unfavorable but somehow worked for everyone. The world today is significantly impacted by these events. The events were not wasted because every time the US got their hands onto something. While the colonies were emancipated, the US was on its way to becoming the superpower.

End Notes

Archer, John. "The resilience of myth: the politics of the American Dream." Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review (2014): 7-21.

The Argument Of The Federalist (Hamilton) Vs AntiFederalist (Jefferson) During The Establishment Of The American Government

[Name of Student]

[Name of Professor]

[Name of Class]

[Day Month Year]

The Argument of the Federalist and Anti-Federalist

Introduction

In late 1787, a spirited debate over the establishment of government between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists which continued through the following years ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dga9m9zZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Eze)","plainCitation":"(Eze)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":27,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/NHJS9W7R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/NHJS9W7R"],"itemData":{"id":27,"type":"webpage","title":"The Anti-Federalists and their important role during the Ratification fight - National Constitution Center","container-title":"National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org","abstract":"On this day in 1787, the debate over the newly written Constitution began in the press after an anonymous writer in the New York Journal warned citizens that the document was not all that it seemed.","URL":"https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-anti-federalists-and-their-important-role-during-the-ratification-fight","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Eze","given":"Ugonna"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Eze). The debate, however, has its genesis in the American Revolution for the ratification of the government. The revolution the ended six years earlier had started against taxation. While the Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781 was failed to increase the authority of Congress over collecting taxes and regulating trade ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ffHit174","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bailey)","plainCitation":"(Bailey)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":25,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/INJECN76"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/INJECN76"],"itemData":{"id":25,"type":"webpage","title":"The United States Constitution: Federalists v. Anti-Federalists | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History","URL":"https://www.gilderlehrman.org/content/united-states-constitution-federalists-v-anti-federalists","author":[{"family":"Bailey","given":"Tim"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bailey). The tussle, in fact, clamored for stronger government and helped to spawn several pressure groups. Following are the most important arguments on which the battle started.

Adoption of the Constitutions

The Federalists favored for a strong union and constitution while Anti-federalists opposed the establishment of government and wanted to quite the Article of Confederation. The Federalists were the owners of big property in the North, wealthy merchants, lawyers and judges, clergyman, businessmen and small farmers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Trz9fTjD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ramos)","plainCitation":"(Ramos)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":15,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/GIQNDGYG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/GIQNDGYG"],"itemData":{"id":15,"type":"webpage","title":"Federalists","abstract":"Federalists supported the ratification of the Constitution and compromised by adding a Bill of Rights, including the First Amendment, to the Constitution.","URL":"http://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1184/federalists","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Ramos","given":"Mitzi"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ramos). Moreover, they wanted to have a stronger centralized government, weaker state government, longer term limits for officeholders, indirect election of government and representative democracy.

The Anti-Federalists strongly opposed the ratification of the constitution as they feared that a strong centralized government might be too powerful that their individual liberty would be threatened. However, for the adoption of the Bill of Rights, the opposition was a significant aspect. In this regard, a ratified constitution was needed to be ratified at least in the nine or more state conventions. While the constitution was drafted at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. For the ratification of the constitution, Federalists published a series of articles that are known as ‘Federalist Papers’.

Anti-Federalist Concerns Over Excessive Power of National Government

The Anti-Federalists include small landowners and farmers, laborers and shopkeepers from the South. They favored a weak central government, short term limits for the officeholders, the direct election of government officials, strengthened individual liberty and accountability by official holders to the popular majority ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HCXoEm5V","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Herbert J. Storing)","plainCitation":"(Herbert J. Storing)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":21,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/6GT5CZWY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/6GT5CZWY"],"itemData":{"id":21,"type":"webpage","title":"The Complete Anti-Federalist - Google Books","URL":"https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8MO_vGOmQOIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Federalist+vs.+Anti-Federalist:+The+Great+Debate+(Complete+Articles+%26+Essays+in+One+Volume):+Words+that+Traced+the+Path+of+the+Nation+-+Founding+Fathers%27+...+and+Arguments+about+the+Constitution&ots=scuy4sMCl9&sig=DDcWH-422h51fqoGy-eR6lHU6Y8#v=onepage&q&f=false","author":[{"family":"Herbert J. Storing","given":""}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Herbert J. Storing). To counter Federalist’s campaign, they started publishing articles and delivered a number of speeches against the constitutional ratification. These published articles and speeches are known as ‘the Anti-Federalist Papers’ to distinguish them. Eventually, Melancton Smith, Patrick Henry publicly proclaimed the ratification of the constitution while most of them advocated their stance under pseudonyms.

The Federalist Papers were published in the New York City newspapers with a robust critique of the strong national government. There were a series of eighty-five articles and most of them were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in 1788. They have effectively pronounced their stance for the adoption of the Constitutions.

Federalist Argument for Counterbalancing

The adoption of a strong centralized government and adoption of the constitution has required the separation of powers among the three branches of government for protecting the rights and liberty of the people. As the three branches are equal and do not have control over each other. The lack of individual rights and liberties were, however, challenges, but the Federalists responded that the constitution has not included the Bill of Rights as the new government would not suppress individual rights and liberties. Moreover, the supported their argument by justifying that it is not possible to all the individual rights and liberties. Therefore, it would be better if none of the rights is listed. However, in the end, the Federalist promised to add the specific amendments that protect individual rights and liberties.

Position of Fiscal and Agrarian Policy

The Federalists viewed that fiscal and monetary policies would lead to national weakness and economic struggles. Therefore, they supported central financial policies and central banking. On the other hand, the Anti-Federalists viewed the state as free agents and they need to manage their own state revenue by spending money on policies of their choice ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3QorNA6c","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Herbert J. Storing)","plainCitation":"(Herbert J. Storing)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":21,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/6GT5CZWY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/6GT5CZWY"],"itemData":{"id":21,"type":"webpage","title":"The Complete Anti-Federalist - Google Books","URL":"https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8MO_vGOmQOIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Federalist+vs.+Anti-Federalist:+The+Great+Debate+(Complete+Articles+%26+Essays+in+One+Volume):+Words+that+Traced+the+Path+of+the+Nation+-+Founding+Fathers%27+...+and+Arguments+about+the+Constitution&ots=scuy4sMCl9&sig=DDcWH-422h51fqoGy-eR6lHU6Y8#v=onepage&q&f=false","author":[{"family":"Herbert J. Storing","given":""}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Herbert J. Storing). Hamilton pointed out that the US needs to have credit for the operations of governments, commercial activity, and other industrial development. Moreover, there needs to have the support and faith of the people. While many viewed that the national debts need to be repudiated. However, Hamilton put his pressure for payment of the debts and the debts that the states incurred previously during the revolution.

Jefferson, however, encouraged a decentralized agrarian republic and identify the importance of a strong centralized government in terms of foreign relations. But he did not favor the strong government in other areas. Hamilton believed in terms of order and feared anarchy while Jefferson believed in terms of freedom and feared tyranny. However, both the influences were needed to the US, fortunately, both the men were available for the country and successfully reconcile their policies.

The Anti-Federalists modified Hamilton's plan and criticized that it would only benefit the wealthy class and affect the small farmers. However, there were three changes to the plan in debt, tariffs and excise taxes, and the national bank. The debts and would be paid by the national government and the capital of the nation will be established in the South. Moreover, Congress imposed tariffs on the imported goods and pass excise tax. In addition, Hamilton criticized that the permission of elastic clause in the constitution while new laws were put on the National Bank ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Uct89Qbu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wilson)","plainCitation":"(Wilson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":23,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/NSE9F36M"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/NSE9F36M"],"itemData":{"id":23,"type":"webpage","title":"The Battle over the Bank: Hamilton v. Jefferson | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History","URL":"https://www.gilderlehrman.org/content/battle-over-bank-hamilton-v-jefferson","author":[{"family":"Wilson","given":"Elise Stevens"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wilson). The retinal for the agreement was, however, agreed by George Washington.

Pressure for Adoption of Bill Of Rights

To adopt the Bill of rights, Anti-Federalists were pressurized and eventually, Federalists successfully ratified the adoption of Constitutions. But the efforts they put were not complete in vain. Initially, to ensure the passage of the constitution, many Federalists were argued against the necessity of the Bill of Rights and promises were made for the constitutional amendments particular for protecting the individual rights and liberties. During its ratification, Madison brought twelve amendments in 1789, during the First Congress. Out of those amendments, ten were ratified by the states. Though both the Anti-Federalist and Federalist came to compromise which eventually lead to the adoption of the Constitution.

The newly established government emerged in 1792 with the political division within the cabinet. Those who favored Jefferson’s new contradictory deficit spending formed the Jefferson party, while those who favored Hamilton’s aggressive policies formed Federalist Party. The party which was led by James Madison and Jefferson is known to be Democratic-Republican Party or the Republican. Though the Bill of Rights enabled both the party's to reach an agreement for the adoption of the constitution, but this agreement failed to spread into the presidency of George Washington. Their emerged political division within the cabinet in 1792 over the national fiscal policy.

Conclusion

The arguments between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists shaped the history of the US. Both the viewpoints have greatly influenced the contemporary challenges in the politics of the US. However, the adoption of Bill of rights is a vital part of the American constitution. The debates are more frequently debated in the Supreme Court than ever. Above all, it has significantly protected the free speech and protected the citizens from surveillance, and above all a strong political and economic foundation that vitally needed to any government and state. The efforts made by both the Federalist and Anti-Federalist have shaped the meaning of American federalism. Lastly, the rigidity of the constitutional amendments, in fact, made America unique in political spheres.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bailey, Tim. The United States Constitution: Federalists v. Anti-Federalists | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/content/united-states-constitution-federalists-v-anti-federalists. Accessed 26 Apr. 2019.

Eze, Ugonna. “The Anti-Federalists and Their Important Role during the Ratification Fight - National Constitution Center.” National Constitution Center – Constitutioncenter.Org, https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-anti-federalists-and-their-important-role-during-the-ratification-fight. Accessed 26 Apr. 2019.

Herbert J. Storing. The Complete Anti-Federalist - Google Books. https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8MO_vGOmQOIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Federalist+vs.+Anti-Federalist:+The+Great+Debate+(Complete+Articles+%26+Essays+in+One+Volume):+Words+that+Traced+the+Path+of+the+Nation+-+Founding+Fathers%27+...+and+Arguments+about+the+Constitution&ots=scuy4sMCl9&sig=DDcWH-422h51fqoGy-eR6lHU6Y8#v=onepage&q&f=false. Accessed 26 Apr. 2019.

Ramos, Mitzi. Federalists. http://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1184/federalists. Accessed 26 Apr. 2019.

Wilson, Elise Stevens. The Battle over the Bank: Hamilton v. Jefferson | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/content/battle-over-bank-hamilton-v-jefferson. Accessed 26 Apr. 2019.

The Autobiography Of Benjamin Franklin

Name

Professor name

Subject

June 16, 2019

Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin presented the idea of developing a public library in 1731. The initial step taken by Franklin was to drew "Articles of Agreement". There has been no public library before that so he worked on the agenda of providing free books to the people with the aim of enhancing knowledge of the people. The mission focused on offering a wide range of ideas related to different aspects of life including economics, society, politics and nature. He considered the library as a significant source for improving knowledge of people regarding the world.

The public library was established to assure that it was accessible to all members of the society. Franklin donated many of his books to the library including Merchant Mappe of Commerce. Franklin mentioned, “printing-house is always called a chapel by the workmen, the origin of which appears to have been that printing was first carried on in England in an ancient chapel converted into a printing-house, and the title has been preserved by tradition” (Elliot 47). Many other renowned people like proprietor William Penn also contributed by donating his work to the library. The library had positive impacts on society because it allowed them to access books freely related to any subject. This was an effective step for encouraging people to gain knowledge and acquire education. A large and impressive collection of the books was created including the work of famous people. The library promoted the concept of studying and collecting knowledge. It paved ways of learning for people of society. This was an important step for familiarizing society about science and other fields.

Franklin's quest of moral perfection claims that thirteen virtue leads to moral perfection. The first virtue recognized by Franklin includes ‘temperance' that means eating adequate but not to the point of elevation. The second virtue that leads to moral perfection includes order. He states, "I found myself incorrigible with respect to Order, and now I am grown old, and my memory bad, I feel very sensibly the want of it” (Elliot 90). Order means that the things are at its place in an orderly manner. A society lacking order cannot be virtuous because people are more inclined to do wrong. the third virtue required for moral perfection is a resolution that means the ability to solving the problem. One has a responsibility of solving a problem without the fear of falling. This suggests resolving a conflicting situation that involves a moral issue. Frugality is the next virtue that is needed for achieving moral perfection. This suggests doing good to others by minimizing the possibilities of harming. One must not waste things by excessive or wrong use. Another virtue identified by Franklin is an industry that means choosing employment and keeping oneself engaged with work. Sincerity is the seventh virtue that stresses on staying just and honest with the people. This also means that one must avoid harming or hurting others. Moderation is the next virtue indicating that people must be able to avoid extremes. They must forebear resenting injuries or limiting them from going good to others. The emphasis is on the recognition of one's duty towards society.

It was challenging for Franklin to prove the role of virtues in reaching moral perfection. The tenth virtue according to Franklin is challenging that leads to moral perfection includes cleanliness. This indicates taking care of hygiene and becoming intolerant to uncleanliness. Tranquillity is another virtue that suggests calmness because it decreases the likelihood of entrapping in accidental situations. Chastity is another challenging virtue that focuses on using venery only for the health of offspring. Although it is possible to attain moral perfection it is a complex task that involves challenges. Franklin "found the difficulty of obtaining good and breaking bad habits in other points of vice and virtue, have given up the struggle and concluded that a speckled axe was best” (Elliot 89). It is crucial for an individual to identify good and bad habits because it allows them to differentiate between two extremes. Their familiarity with the possible outcomes convinces them to choose anyone.

Franklin believed that God never intervenes in human lives and the creation of humans. He was a religious man although he didn't perform religious practices such as prayer. His ideology was that the world is created on reasoning and God. Most of his ideas and philosophy are based on self-description and logic. He mentioned, “it may be well my posterity should be informed that to this little artifice, with the blessing of God, their ancestor ow'd the constant felicity of his life” (Elliot 90). He attempted to find the reasoning behind everything but believed in the creation of this universe. However, his moral concerns present him as a religious man such as he believed on the immortality of the soul. The emphasis on moral duty and virtues depicts that he cared about religion. His philosophy was aimed at educating people about their moral responsibility and choosing well. He familiarized society with reasoning for choosing between two extremes. Moral perfection also reveals that Franklin had Faith in God. His belief in virtues exhibits his religious side. The discussion of Franklin on virtue reveals his connection with religion.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Elliot, Charles. THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. The Harvard Classics, 1995.

The Battle Of The Bulge

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Title: The Battle of the Bulge

The Battle of the Bulge is an event that vividly demonstrated that if one spreads their forces too thin along a ‘front’ they are vulnerable to a concentrated, focused thrust by a well-armed enemy. It also demonstrated that if you create a bulge or salient in your enemy's front, then you are exposing your flanks and are susceptible especially to a ‘pinscher’ type counterattack. Also, the deeper your penetration, the more difficult it will be to supply the vanguard and flank defenders. The vanguard will not only need ammo and rations but also fuel to continue to penetrate further. All of those drawbacks to a deep penetration worked together to bring the Germans to a halt and an extremely expensive withdrawal. As it turned out, when the skies finally cleared, Allie's air supremacy guaranteed a German defeat. This paper seeks to highlight the events of the Battle of Bulge following my take on this significant event of history.

The Battle of the Bulge was the last major German offensive on the western front during World War 2. Germany launched a coordinated armoured attack against allied forces in the Ardennes region of Belgium in December 1944. The German goal was to push to and hold the port city of Antwerp in order to cut off allied supplies and split allied forces. It was called the Battle of the Bulge because the German attack created a bulge in the allied line pushing the allies back across a massive front. The Battle of the Bulge is also considered the largest battle the US participated in, in the war and was Germany's last major offensive of the war. As the weather improved in late December 1944, allied air power was able to play a role in attacking advancing German units and destroying their much-needed supplies which essentially sealed the fate of the German forces and forced them to retreat.

Any summary of the Battle of the Bulge is incomplete without at least a mention of the 101st airborne division's bravery in holding the town of Bastogne against the German onslaught. Furthermore, General Patton's speedy relief of the encircled allied forces in Bastogne is one of the preeminent achievements of the Second World War. Hitler losing on the Easter Front sought to replicate his victory over France in the west by launching a surprise offensive against the Allied armies in France and Belgium. He thought that if he could attack where the British and American Armies joined in Belgium, he could split the two forces much as he did in France in 1940, driving the Brits to the North, and seize the port of Antwerp one of the primary supply ports for the Allies. This would split the Allied armies and cause them to surrender or at least seek terms for an armistice, allowing him to turn his remaining force against the Russians keeping them from entering Germany.

Hitler’s army groups made up in large part of newly raised troops and new armored formations, were secreted into the Ardennes Mountains of Belgium. It was an area fraught with difficulties which aided in the element of surprise; as no Allied general except Patton thought that the Germans would be crazy enough to attack there during the coldest winter on record. Hitler gambled that the bad weather would keep allied airpower from hindering his attack, and his anticoation was right. However, his timetable, necessary for success, was far too optimistic and was never achieved ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oXCyPLIu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}What You Need To Know About The Battle Of The Bulge\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“What You Need To Know About The Battle Of The Bulge”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":790,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WL5TUESB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WL5TUESB"],"itemData":{"id":790,"type":"webpage","title":"What You Need To Know About The Battle Of The Bulge","container-title":"Imperial War Museums","URL":"http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-battle-of-the-bulge","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“What You Need To Know About The Battle Of The Bulge”). The attack was successful where the surprise was achieved but failed to breakthrough in other areas. It inflicted large casualties on some American formations, especially the Green units that were in the "quiet zone" that the attack was launched against. Marshaling all available forces Eisenhower ordered certain transportation centers, small-town critical road junctions, be held at all costs slowing the Germans and upsetting their finely balanced time table. The offensive really never had a chance. It was called Wacht am Rhine, or Watch on the Rhine.

The Battle of the Bulge got its name because of the huge bulge it made in the allied lines, line a big elongated wedge the point toward the west, the base was the initial breakthrough ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9dAelTi3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}The Battle of the Bulge})","plainCitation":"(The Battle of the Bulge)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":792,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NZS2XEDU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NZS2XEDU"],"itemData":{"id":792,"type":"webpage","title":"The Battle of the Bulge","URL":"https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-battle-of-the-bulge","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (The Battle of the Bulge). It took a month of heavy fighting to push the Germans back to where they started along with major Allied casualties.Instead of attacking and pinching off the base of the bulge and pocketing all the German forces, Eisenhower insisted on pushing the whole of the bulge backward, which went against most mobile warfare doctrine at the time. Patton and Montgomery both wanted to attack the base and cut off all the German forces in the bulge, but it did not happen. Instead, there were weeks of ground combat in winter conditions. This led to manpower shortages and Eisenhower had to disband army formations that were not critical at this point in the war and turn them into the infantry. Anti Aircraft and even some armored formations were cannibalized in his way, which lowered the survival chances of the transferred soldiers since they had not received advanced infantry training. They were essentially cannon fodder.

In my opinion, even if there was no "Battle of the Bulge", Germany would have still been defeated, there was no way the depleted Wehrmacht was holding back the Allies on the Western Front into a stalemate. The "Battle of the Bulge" was a waste of resources and Hitler's Generals fiercely opposed it. The men, vehicles and aircraft would be irreplaceable and were better off defending Germany instead of being used for a last-ditch offensive, they argued. The German forces that were squandered in “The Bulge” represented the last mobile strike force on the Western Front. Had it been used in a purely defensive role that mass of armour and seasoned troops would have held up the Allies drive to the East, thus allowing Russia to advance well past Berlin into western Europe ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4zCOLXRx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Passmore and Harrison)","plainCitation":"(Passmore and Harrison)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":788,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7ZUFR4RP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7ZUFR4RP"],"itemData":{"id":788,"type":"chapter","title":"Landscapes of the Battle of the Bulge: WW2 field fortifications in the Ardennes forests of Belgium","container-title":"Bastions and Barbed Wire","publisher":"BRILL","page":"87-107","author":[{"family":"Passmore","given":"David G."},{"family":"Harrison","given":"Stephan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Passmore and Harrison). For that reason, both Westerns and the Germans should be happy that Hitler kicked the west door open with this ill-fated attack.

It was a failure for Germany because Germany was done long before they launched Operation Nordwind. It was just the last frantic thrashings of a dying regime. By that stage, they simply didn’t have enough tanks, troops, artillery, and most importantly, fuel, to sustain that sort of attack ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"j2QhYkHb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cole)","plainCitation":"(Cole)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":789,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FFJF2V74"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FFJF2V74"],"itemData":{"id":789,"type":"book","title":"The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge","publisher":"Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army","volume":"3","author":[{"family":"Cole","given":"Hugh Marshall"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1965"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cole). They only reason they got as far as they did is that they caught the Allies by surprise (they thought the Germans were done and couldn't believe they would attack) and because the weather was bad, which prevented the Allies from using their air supremacy to pound the advancing columns to dust. It was rolling the dice and expecting them to come up 13.

As with most things at that time, with the remaining resources tied down at the Eastern front and the Western Allied forces quantitively far superior in men and material, it was “too little, too late”.Even if the offensive would have succeeded in its primary goal with the help of the weather (a rather unreliable ally as the German soldiers learned),the Allies had many other venues to move against the Wehrmacht. With clear air superiority, which allowed them to bomb at will, there was virtually no place for the Germans to take a stand. It was simply a question of time when the resources of men and material would be exhausted. In this case, it was for the best. As the German proverb goes "Better an end with horror than a horror without end".

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cole, Hugh Marshall. The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge. Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1965.

Passmore, David G., and Stephan Harrison. “Landscapes of the Battle of the Bulge: WW2 Field Fortifications in the Ardennes Forests of Belgium.” Bastions and Barbed Wire, BRILL, 2009, pp. 87–107.

The Battle of the Bulge. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-battle-of-the-bulge. Accessed 4 Nov. 2019.

“What You Need To Know About The Battle Of The Bulge.” Imperial War Museums, http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-battle-of-the-bulge. Accessed 4 Nov. 2019.

THE BATTLE OF THE BULGE

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Title: The Battle of Bulge

World War II or the Second World War is one of the deadliest events of history. It lasted from 1938 to 1945 and as fought between two groups named as Allies and Axis powers. Axis included Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria while the second group called Allies comprised France, Britain, US, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Australia, China, Denmark, Greece, Poland a few others. These were the world's major powers that formed military alliances and several factors that broke out the war between the two nations. The Battle of the Bulge referred to “the greatest American battle of the war” according to Winston Churchill. “The aim of this was to isolate the British and Canadian 21st Army Group and the American 9th Army from the remainder of the Allied front, thereby prompting large-scale surrender and depriving the Allies of their most crucial port” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4bXaGa8X","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Passmore and Harrison)","plainCitation":"(Passmore and Harrison)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":32,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/Q6B2EMPM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/Q6B2EMPM"],"itemData":{"id":32,"type":"chapter","title":"Landscapes of the Battle of the Bulge: WW2 field fortifications in the Ardennes forests of Belgium","container-title":"Bastions and Barbed Wire","publisher":"BRILL","page":"87-107","author":[{"family":"Passmore","given":"David G."},{"family":"Harrison","given":"Stephan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Passmore and Harrison, 90). It was the last major attack by Hitler at the end of World War II and in this attack, Hitler aimed to tear apart the Allies in their effort towards Germany. However, he drastically failed in his mission and paved the way to victory for his opponents. This paper will sum up the event of the Battle of the Bulge, its participants, landscape, and a conclusion based on opinion.

Battle of the Bulge lasted for about six brutal weeks, it began in December 1944 and end in January 1945, just a few months before the WWII was over. Another name of Battle of the Bulge is the Battle of the Ardennes. One of the distinguished aspects of this war is, it was fought in the frigid weather conditions. Across 85 miles of the Ardennes Forest., the battle-fatigued American corps was attacked by some 30 German divisions. This battle is also considered as the largest battle in which the US participated. The battle took its name as Battle of the Bulge from the fact that when the Germans moved into the forest to split the British and American forces, a bulge was created that was about 70 miles wide and 50 miles deep ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rfalZt1m","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}The Battle of the Bulge})","plainCitation":"(The Battle of the Bulge)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":34,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/56L657GX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/56L657GX"],"itemData":{"id":34,"type":"webpage","title":"The Battle of the Bulge","URL":"https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-battle-of-the-bulge","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (The Battle of the Bulge). The serene and wooded region of the forest was hacked into chaos by the events of the war.

To sum up the events in the Battle of the Bulge, the Germans enjoyed some success in the beginning. As the Germans invaded the corps with a force of about 250,000 soldiers, they found the American soldiers unprepared and battle exhausted. As a result, they captured tow-third of the men from the 106th Division, however, they were stopped by the US general Omar Bradley. The American troops or Allies were able to stop the German attack when Marshal Montgomery’s forces rushed in from north and Bradley’s forces from the south as well. The server weather conditions stopped the Allies to utilized their air power against the Germans. As the sky got clear, the airpower was used by the Allies to destroy the attacking forces by bombers. Meanwhile, both the forces were fighting to acquire the town of Bastogne. Germans were able to surround the town before the Allies and demanded the Allies to surrender, Allies had very few people to defend the town. In response to the surrender Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe, the American commander said just one word, "Nuts!" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vGdVA4MB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cole)","plainCitation":"(Cole)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":33,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/W8K95IFZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/W8K95IFZ"],"itemData":{"id":33,"type":"book","title":"The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge","publisher":"Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army","volume":"3","author":[{"family":"Cole","given":"Hugh Marshall"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1965"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cole, 468). It was interpreted as a more negative response to their demand by the German forces. Owing to the better weather conditions, allied aircraft dropped supplies into the town and just a day after Christmas, units of Patton's approached the Third army and released the American troops breaking the German lines ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"d3LcOKbV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}The Battle of the Bulge})","plainCitation":"(The Battle of the Bulge)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":34,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/56L657GX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/56L657GX"],"itemData":{"id":34,"type":"webpage","title":"The Battle of the Bulge","URL":"https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-battle-of-the-bulge","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (The Battle of the Bulge). The battle continued for one more week but the Germans had already failed. Allied after announcing their victory on January 25, 1945, they headed towards Berlin. Eisenhower allowed a high number of troops to escape and the surrender of Germany's forced declared the end of the war on May 7, 1945 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"d3LcOKbV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}The Battle of the Bulge})","plainCitation":"(The Battle of the Bulge)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":34,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/56L657GX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/56L657GX"],"itemData":{"id":34,"type":"webpage","title":"The Battle of the Bulge","URL":"https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-battle-of-the-bulge","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (The Battle of the Bulge).

The timing of the war was another major characteristic of this war. Hitler's timing of the attack was very strategic, it was mid of December and in the freezing rain, deep snowdrifts, thick fog, and the fatal low temperatures made the war tougher for the American corps. During this season, about more than 15000 cold injuries were reported that include frostbite, pneumonia, and trench foot. The weather condition of the war was reported by a WWII veteran Warren Spahn and in his book The Love of Baseball, “I was from Buffalo, I thought I knew cold, but I didn’t know cold until the Battle of the Bulge” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bwFnT5cp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ressler)","plainCitation":"(Ressler)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":31,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/C965BC5A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/C965BC5A"],"itemData":{"id":31,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Love of Baseball: Essays by Lifelong Fans ed. by Chris Arvidson and Diana Nelson Jones","container-title":"NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture","page":"233-234","volume":"25","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Ressler","given":"William Harris"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ressler).

Adolf Hitler was the ruler of Germany, during the Battle of the Bulge. He was the person who played a key role in this event of war; he assured his people that he will make Germany strong again and he would help them to become powerful again. He used people’s fear to take their advantage and lost about 500,000 soldiers in the west due to war. Another key person was General George S. Patton Jr.; he belonged to the US army and ordered to invade the German forces to protect the allied forces and the US. During World War II, he was one of the most combative US commanders, best known for his expertise for the seventh US army. He was murdered in less than a year after the German defeat. One more prominent person was Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, the supreme Allied commander who led the American defense ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KnOLle2b","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Editors)","plainCitation":"(Editors)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":36,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/KPY8VLV7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/KPY8VLV7"],"itemData":{"id":36,"type":"webpage","title":"Battle of the Bulge","container-title":"HISTORY","abstract":"Called “the greatest American battle of the war” by Winston Churchill, the Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes region of Belgium was Adolf Hitler’s last major","URL":"https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-the-bulge","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Editors","given":"History","dropping-particle":"com"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Editors). He provided Patton with the Third Army and directed him to head to the Ardennes.

Many things that make the Battle of the Bulge, a significant event of history. First of all, the weather in which the battle was fought makes it the most significant event of US history. The cold weather resulted in the death of many soldiers. This war is also remembered from its name taken from the bulge created in the Allied lines with the purpose of split British and American forces. The surrender in the event of the battle was the largest in the history of the US, declaring surrender of Bataan as the first. In only four weeks of the battle, almost 19000 causalities suffered and almost more than 15000 were imprisoned according to the US department of defense. Also, it is an example of false optimism in the event of war and unearths the outcomes of such unreal optimism. Hitler failed to comprehend the US army and its commitment to the nation. Furthermore, this war declared it would be the last battle Germans have been able to fight since they lost about 100000 men and a major number of tanks and aircraft from already fatigued supplies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WSdbY9wI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Editors)","plainCitation":"(Editors)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":36,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/KPY8VLV7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/KPY8VLV7"],"itemData":{"id":36,"type":"webpage","title":"Battle of the Bulge","container-title":"HISTORY","abstract":"Called “the greatest American battle of the war” by Winston Churchill, the Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes region of Belgium was Adolf Hitler’s last major","URL":"https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-the-bulge","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Editors","given":"History","dropping-particle":"com"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Editors). In my opinion, Germans would have lost the battle otherwise because Americans were still able to pour tens of thousands of men into the battlefield.

According to the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, it was undeniably the bloodiest war of American history. The Allied could have compensated these losses but the Germans had drained all their material resources and human resources as well. The Allies continued their advance and were able to cross into the heart of Germany. Germans had already lost the war as declared by their military supplies, the only reason they felt victory in the start was the inability of the Allies to use their air supremacy. As soon as they were able to show their airpower, they did not allow Germans to take a stand.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cole, Hugh Marshall. The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge. Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1965.

Editors, History com. “Battle of the Bulge.” HISTORY, https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-the-bulge. Accessed 27 Nov. 2019.

Passmore, David G., and Stephan Harrison. “Landscapes of the Battle of the Bulge: WW2 Field Fortifications in the Ardennes Forests of Belgium.” Bastions and Barbed Wire, BRILL, 2009, pp. 87–107.

Ressler, William Harris. “The Love of Baseball: Essays by Lifelong Fans Ed. by Chris Arvidson and Diana Nelson Jones.” NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture, vol. 25, no. 1, 2016, pp. 233–34.

The Battle of the Bulge. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-battle-of-the-bulge. Accessed 27 Nov. 2019.

The Battle Of The Scheldt

The Battle of the Scheldt

Misty Trinidad

University of Central Missouri

The Battle of the Scheldt

Respectable spectators let it roll on filled overflow, unstoppable, tempting, and benignant, to wider lands and healthier days. Yes, I am talking about the Battle of the Scheldt. It was an armed forces operation in north Belgium and the southwestern Netherlands that occurred in the Second World War (McGowan, 2019). The First Canadian Military force was given the mission of clearance of the Scheldt of German tenants on September 12, 1944. The initial attacks started on September 13, with a little victory. To slow down the Allied advance, the firm Wehrmacht protectors played an effective suspending action, in which the Germans swamped land regions in the Scheldt Estuary. Subsequent five weeks of tough fighting, the Canadian Army successfully cleared the Scheldt at the cost of 12,873 Allied fatalities (Frey & Frey, 2018).

It was not easy to clear to the grounds; it took hitches and costly attacks. After the German protectors were no longer a danger, it was an additional three weeks on November 29, 1944, beforehand the first group carrying Allied deliveries was able to unpack in Antwerp due to the requirement of de-mining the ports. The First Canadian force was the largest army that was under control of the Canadian general. At the end of the five-week offensive, the Canadian Original Military had occupied 41,043 German prisoners. The battle of Scheldt was a perplexing campaign and Canadians suffered great and significant losses.

Certainly, the risk they faced was enormous; the challenge was even daunting for the Canadian armed forces as the area’s geography was very unique. South Beveland in the North, the Island of Walcheren beyond Beveland and the South row was flood lands and it was underneath sea level, however, quite appropriate for the defense. The opening plan comprises four operations including the access to the South Beveland, the first plan, clearing the path of Breskens pocket was the second plan of the battle. To capture the South Beveland and Walcheren Island was the third and the last plan of the battle respectively. In October 1944, with fierce fighting, the 2nd and the 3rd Canadian Infantry division with each other's support started the attack over Leopold Canal and it made it difficult for the Allied Army to progress (McGowan, 2019). The 2nd Canadian Armed force made perfect development against opponent paratroopers trying to exclude the way of the Eastern end. Canadians crowds confronted over open area soaked in floods suffered heavy losses in the form of causalities. However, the Army detained the city of Woensdrecht.

Respected audience, in this intense and precious hour, it is a time to remember and to reside upon their recurrent struggles for peace. All of the Canadian Armed militaries were faithful and sincere. The Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, on October 16 ordered the safeguarding of the Scheldt and prepared the military's topmost priority. Combat alongside the Scheldt's southern coast was correspondingly ferocious. Here the 3rd Canadian Division faced persistent German obstruction to cross the Canal and to clear the Breskens pocket. Lastly, on October 9, an amphibious attack overdrew the opponent's footing on the canal, and the bridgehead was expanded (Akermark, Heinikoski & Kleemola, 2018). It is the time to recognize that war brings no solution but terror, fear, casualties, and losses. And the crowds and boilers go across the canal and the Germans removed into existing shelters beside the shore (McGowan, 2019). Additional fighting trailed, but the south coast of the Scheldt was protected by November 3 (Frey & Frey, 2018).

The island was confronted from three ways: from the west by the ocean, through the walkway from the east, and through the Scheldt from the south and after an expensive fight. This was no war of power or imposing puffery or substantial gain but it was the time to recognize the efforts of the militaries and to pay regard to them.

References

McGowan, V. (2019, April). The Development of the 7th Canadian Reconnaissance Regiment in Normandy and the Scheldt. Arts.

Frey, L., & Frey, M. (2018). The Culture of French Revolutionary Diplomacy: In the Face of Europe. Springer.

Åkermark, S. S., Heinikoski, S., &Kleemola-Juntunen, P. (2018). Demilitarization and International Law in Context: The Åland Islands. Routledge.

The Boston Massacre

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Boston Massacre

The author highlights the history of Boston Massacre and the events, which occurred 1770s. He provides a background about the massacre by explaining escalation between the British troops and Bostonian crowd. The author of the book is Eric Foner who is an American historian and extensively involved in analyzing the history of American revolution. He is a member of faculty in Columbia University and working in Department of History since 1982. He has a significant experience of providing deeper insights about the American history and presented many publications. He has won nobel prize for some of his books like “The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American History” (2010) and Lincoln Prize. The author has produced the document for providing clear details about this historical event and the factors, which provoked it. The reasons for author to generate this document are to analyze the situations, which led to Boston Massacre. The answer is visible in the document as the author starts with the dispute between the troops and the Bostonian during the eighteenth century as mentioned, “Royal troops had been stationed in the city in 1768” (Foner 146). This confirms that British troops agitated the local people of the community.

The document is targeting the potential audience including students and historians because it provides a brief overview on the situation of massacre. The document is developed for the private consumption as it is not available openly. The users needs to purchase the document in hard or soft version which as WW Norton & Company Inc. have the rights of selling. It can be seen from the source that the document is not openly available because it can be accessed only after purchase. The writer has tailored the ideas and language for explaining the history in appropriate manner. The author has managed to choose the traditional narrative style in which chronological order is followed. The author has managed to express the events as they occurred in the past in a systematic order. This reflects that the assumed audience are students and historians because they have most wider interest in understanding the information of the Boston Massacre. My search of American revolution history resulted in my encounter with this document. I had to do a study on American revolution and history of the eighteenth century which, allowed me to find this document.

The historical context depicts that the document was originally written in 1770 but recreated by Foner in his book for analyzing history. The original document of massacre was presented by John Bufford which evaluates all aspects of the event including the factors that agitated the Bostonians. American revolution was happening in the 1770s which can be seen as the root cause of Boston Masscre because prior to this event the British government had imposed taxes on American colonies, who was displeased with the unfair role of the British government. British state’s failure of addressing the concerns of the Bostonians resulted in the dispute.

The production of this document reflects Foner’s efforts of convincing the readers about the seriousness of Boston Massacre. The author has included facts which proves that the massacre caused monetary loses. He has used the document for building a critical insight by claiming that the exploitive role of the elite and British government remains the dominant reason of this dispute. He mentions, “by 1770 as merchants’ shriveled and many members of the colonial elite found they could not do without British goods, the non-importation movement was collapsing” (Foner 146). This confirms that the colonial rule was the dominant reasons behind massacre because people of Boston didn’t accepted British domination.

The author has not directly communicated his objectives to the audience. It can be revealed from the document that the facts are mentioned in a chronological order which reflects Foner’s purpose of educating the readers about the history of American Revolution and how it led to Boston Massacre. The author has also attempted to refuse the arguments presented by the supporters of Boston Massacre because it stresses on the negative role of elites. He mentions, “John Adams, who viewed lower-class crowd actions as dangerous” (Foner 146). The author has thus assumed that the strict actions were taken by the British army for controlling the poor class.

The source is credible because Foner is a historian who studied American history and his professional experience is adequate for providing his reliability. Foner has wrote many books and articles on American history which reflects his practical knowledge. The achievements such as Nobel Prize and Lincoln Award also portray credibility of Foner. The document is generated by a credible published which, again confirms the credibility. The approach of author depicts he has a particular-axe to grind by focusing on the unfair circumstances that agitated the Bostonians. I am convinced that the source is credible so I can use it in my work.

There is a jarring passage in the document which mentions “lower-class crowd actions as dangerous” (Foner 146). I find it different from my own assumptions. Before reading the document I believed that the lower-class was responsible for the massacre but the second passage changed my views by understanding author’s opinion who assumes that it was the negative role of British army which, convinced the people to engage in dispute. The passage don’t speak directly but it can be understood easily because it narrates the facts of history. The most important thing highlighted by author is the anticipatory measures of British army for controlling lower-class. The themes are repeating because the role of different army leaders are highlighted that were focused on the common goal of maintaining control. The most interesting thing in the text is the soldiers action of opening fire on unarmed crowd.

Work Cited

Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition Seagull Fourth Edition. W. W. Norton & Company, 2013.

The Civil War

Author Name

Instructor Name

History and Anthropology

Date

The Civil War

Introduction

The voices against state-endorsed racial discrimination and suppression of rights of particular groups have taken centuries to bring about fruitful results. The black populace remained enslaved for over 200 years (Sundstrom). After the civil war, slavery was abolished by President Abraham Lincoln, however, the misery of the blacks was nowhere near its end. Freedom achieved after a number of campaigns was denied with subtle laws. Although the disparity between the lives of the black and white populace has significantly reduced in contemporary times, the differences of the past still haunt the racial relations of today. The economic condition of African Americans was worse as compared to that of the Whites (Sundstrom). By a retrospection of archives, an analysis of historical perspective is necessary by traversing through the events for establishing their impartiality.

Discussion

Prior to the Civil War, the majority of the African Americans were experiencing slavery. They used to work on the lands and farms of their White masters. It is notable to consider that African Americans were living in poverty before the civil war (Sundstrom). With the end of the Civil War, African Americans were finally freed. After the Civil War, African Americans gained a perfect opportunity in terms of economic advancement (Braudel). However, a number of facts hindered the progress of African Americans towards economic advancement. Regardless of getting freedom after the Civil War, African Americans were compelled to live in the Southern States that were undeniably poor. Per capita income in the South was nearly half as compared to the per capita income of the Northern States after the Civil War (Ciccone). In addition to this, African Americans had to experience oppression and violent crimes at the hands of the Whites (Braudel). They were constantly discriminated against and oppressed in every aspect of life. Whites considered themselves superior to all other nations of the world. Due to that particular reason, they always tried to control African Americans.

After the defeat of the Confederates in the American Civil war (Apr 12, 1861 – May 13, 1865), African Americans who were slaves to the Confederates, were freed. The Southern states, in an attempt to keep the freedom limited, enacted the controversial black codes. Mississippi was the first state to devise and enact the laws which precluded the black population, termed as freedmen, from attaining the same rights as their White counterparts (Sundstrom). The unemployed apprentice was held liable under the law (Rogowski). The corporal punishments by masters to the apprentice were kept intact and the apprentice was held responsible to serve the master in return for the food and clothing. Penal laws were defined too which restricted the White population from trading with the Blacks and banned firearm use for Negroes (Rogowski). Thus, freedom is cosmetic and portrayed as a triumph for the Black populace. They are exhibited dancing and singing to recognize the victory. However, analyses of the times that followed the codes show that the victory was exaggerated.

It is noteworthy to consider the fact that per capita income in the South was nearly equal to the North before the Civil War. However, after the Civil War, there was a sudden fall in the per capita income of the South. Economic Historians suggest that the Civil War is the cause of poverty in the Southern states. After the war, the majority of African Americans entered the labor market in order to get daily or monthly wages for their work. Agricultural distress in the 1890s worsened the situation for African Americans in the South. The cost of living fell in the Southern states, which resulted in further erosion of Southern wages (Sundstrom). To investigate further, the letter of Martin Luther King Jr. from Birmingham Jail is vital. The letter was written almost a century after the Black codes were implemented and shows that the population faction was still under intense suppression even after a hundred years of struggle. King responded to the huge criticism of interference and incitement to violence. He shared his legal position in working for civil rights as he presided over the Christian Leadership Conference in the city. He pledged to voice against the injustice be it anywhere in the world. On the objection of holding protests for enforcing his decisions, King rebutted with the argument that the local political leadership left no other choice for them even after grave violation of rights. He further appealed to his group to wait for the logical end of negotiations with the rival group and justified the breaking of the local laws. King has indicated the two types of Black people, based on their socioeconomic statuses, both of whom faced intense racism (Braudel). One radical type used peaceful demonstration to protest the inequality and the complacent type was too suppressed that they were unable to rise for their basic rights. King extended the message of peace and hoped to meet his people soon.

Undoubtedly, the Civil War ended slavery for African Americans, however, it caused another problem for them. Some of the freed slaves became wage laborers for their former owners and others fled from that neighborhood. The majority of African Americans were struggling in terms of financial stability soon after getting freedom. Regardless of the fact that African Americans could make their own decisions at that time, there were limited opportunities for them to start their own businesses. Due to that particular reason, they started working for their former owners to fulfill their basic needs (Braudel). A critical examination of the entire scenario of African Americans' situation after civil war indicates that they were living a below-average life. They had no other choice than to work for their White owners at minimum wage. It has been observed that African Americans were constantly underpaid by their former owners.

It is important to consider the role of African American slaves during the Civil war. During the Civil war, a substantially large number of slave populations switched loyalty in favor of Union soldiers but some remained with their previous masters (Sundstrom). Retaining slavery under Confederates may be a result of fear of the unknown community in the North (Ciccone). Another reason was the belief of slaves that serving their masters was part of their moral duties. This century-old master-slave relationship is reflected in the contemporary social relations too (Sundstrom). A large number of Americans have grown in the period when racial segregation was not only a norm but a legal obligation too. The laws restricted the housing, schooling, and employment of the Black population to confined areas and under lengthy terms (Ciccone). The legal procedure allowed White people to call Blacks ‘boys’, whereas, the Blacks were obliged to call their White counterparts ‘sir’. Even after the legislation following the Civil Rights Movement, the discrimination continued and still prevails in every state of the United States.

It is critical to understand that agriculture was a source of power for African Americans before the Civil War. Prior to the Civil War, the number of Black farmers was greater as compared to White farmers. Black agriculture was a powerhouse for African Americans as they were controlling and managing 14 million acres of land (Rogowski). However, economic Historians indicated that 90 percent of that land was lost by the turn of the 21st century. The major reason behind that large shift was the Great Migration. The migration of African Americans from South to North is one of the major reasons behind that shift. African Americans experienced systematic oppression in the South even after the Civil War (Braudel). Consequently, they fled from the South to live a better life. “Lack of access to legal resources and distrust of the legal system, African Americans lacked a will transferring the ownership of their property when they died” (Ciccone). Due to these factors, the majority of their property and land were grabbed by the white population.

It is important to consider the fact that the Union General, William Sherman, promised forty acres and a mule for freed slaves after the civil war. Various political figures made it clear for African Americans that they would be given the land in which they worked as slaves (Sundstrom). Many freed people were eager to control their own property as promised by political figures. However, the successor of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson passed a bill in which he reversed these orders. African Americans who were promised 40 acres and a mule were devastated with that decision (Ciccone). In addition to this, the statistics confirm that even today, the probability of poverty in children growing in White settlements is three times less than that of the children in Black families (West). These stats indicate that African American families are still living average-lives as compared to the Whites. The renting and purchasing of property and implementation of the law has seen considerable disparity too (Sundstrom).

Studies show that the number of Black and White criminals on death row is the same despite the fact that the Blacks make only thirteen percent of the entire US population. Thus, traces of discrimination are not rare. Although there is no slavery and Jim Crow laws anymore, yet the race is suffering in terms of lack of provision of equal justice and rights. The mentality of superiority has traveled through generations as the White population was taught that all other races are not eligible for the privileges they enjoy (Sundstrom). Fortunately, the discrimination in schools and workplaces has significantly reduced after the necessary amendments. However, relief from poverty is still a dream for African-Americans as collectively, they remain as the most impoverished race in the US.

Conclusion

The studies of primary and secondary sources have confirmed that Black lives have not mattered for centuries. They have fought for centuries in order to get their basic rights in American society. African Americans lost a major portion of their property and land due to distrust of the legal system and lack of access to legal resources. The state-endorsed discrimination is largely eliminated through legislation and amendments, but the superiority complex amongst a faction of the White population still prevails which is keeping the two races from enjoying better social relations. A critical analysis of the economic condition of African Americans indicates that they were constantly underpaid by their former owners. Regardless of various political promises, they did not get the ‘40 acres and a mule’ for their labor when they were enslaved. They had to experience oppression and discrimination at the hands of White Americans due to their color and race. White Americans considered them less civilized and less superior as compared to themselves due to which African Americans experienced violence and oppression. Even though slavery ended a long time ago, African Americans continue to suffer from its aftermath.

Works Cited:

Braudel, Fernand. A history of civilizations. New York: Penguin Books, 1995.

Ciccone, Antonio. "Economic shocks and civil conflict: A comment." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3.4 (2011): 215-27.

Rogowski, Jon C. "Reconstruction and the State: The Political and Economic Consequences of the Freedmen’s Bureau." (2018).

Sundstrom, William A. "African Americans in the US Economy Since Emancipation." SCU Leavey School of Business Research Paper 11-09 (2011).

West, Cornel. Race Matters, 25th Anniversary. Beacon Press, 2017.

The Crusades Through Arab Eyes.

History and Anthropology

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Crusades through Arab Eyes

Introduction

Western history has a number of events that played a major role in forming Western history. The first step of western history originates from the invasion of Franj who were named as Crusades from Arab, referring to the military success. The Franj invasion brought significant consequences to the lives of people as well as ideologies. In accordance with the literature, it can be asserted that an increased presence of Christians is actually a tribute to the invasion. By the second half of the twelfth century, the Turks who accepted Islam during the previous centuries occupied the land in Istanbul and some parts of the middle east including Jerusalem. During the empire of Byzantine, Alexios observed that Muslims are continuously threatening Christianity. He asked the Pope for the support to announce about the war to the followers. The aim of this war was to repel the Muslim invaders. It was the beginning of Crusades during 1096. The well-organized invasion was set backed and succeeded by Franj. It was called crusades since Jerusalem has seized the city in the year 1099 AD. The way toward the Sacred Land and taking the benefits of divisions among the Muslims, the Franj attacked Antioch. As the attack was hard and the Muslim rulers allowed the invaders to enter the city and kept the windows open to allow them to move inside with rope. In this battle, the invaders cut the throats of innocent children, old men, and women. However, Yaghi found out the way to escape. They at that point laid attack to Maarath, a city that opposed for about fourteen days in spite of not having an expert armed force. Occupants intrepidly confronted the intruders, notwithstanding tossing colonies on them from the dividers. The Franj at long last consented to save the lives of the inhabitants on the off chance that they deserted their barrier. Be that as it may, once inside the Crusaders slaughtered families and submitted horrible demonstrations of savagery.

Salah al-Din, he composed, welcomed the ruler to sit alongside him, and when Arnat entered in his turn, he situated him by his lord and helped him to remember his misdeeds: 'How often have you making a solemn vow and after that damaged it? How frequently have you consented to arrangements that you have never regarded?' Arnat replied through a mediator: 'Rulers have dependably acted in this manner. I didn't do anything more.' During this time, Guy was panting with thirst, his head dangling just as he was flushed, his face deceiving extraordinary trepidation. Salah al-Din expressed consoling words to him, had cold water brought, and offered it to him. The ruler drank, at that point gave what stayed to Arnat, who slaked his thirst thusly. The sultan at that point said to Guy: 'You didn't ask my authorization before giving him water. I am along these lines not obliged to allow him kindness.' From: The Crusades through Arab eyes by Amin Maalouf.

Grasped by dread, numerous Arabs enabled the Crusaders to go through their region as opposed to confronting grisly fights. The Franj, be that as it may, in any case, experienced solid opposition in Jerusalem, submitted demonstrations of destruction against their rivals the Muslims, invading the holy city. At that time, the Jews were also collected inside a sanctuary, and the Crusaders had closed all the entrances to the sacred city (Houghton & Peters, 2017). The people of Europeans were viewed as brutes by the vast majority of local occupants, at the time they had accomplished remarkable success in certain important fields including the field of information. Demonstrations of extraordinary remorselessness were additionally dedicated on the rival side the Muslim army, which was likewise tormented by nonstop disturbance and unfairness among their own people.

For quite a long time, new Crusades achieved the zone, while others came back to Europe. There were likewise counter-offensives that neglected to adjust the relationship of powers generously. This was continued until the arrival of some great leaders of Muslims named as Nur al-Din Zangi and his follower Salahdin, and they were the great Muslim leaders who backed Muslims and lead them from the front against Europe. During the era of these two pioneers, the person who most pulls in my consideration is Saladin, and he found out the ways to join the Muslims to expel the trespassers and take the land of Jerusalem back from Christain in 1187. Salahdin was a well trained and intelligent person, and he had a vision and strong strategy regarding warfare. What's more, he was a man with strong nerves, a grave person, who led his army how to make it possible. Saladin finally took the Holy City from a place of solidarity, yet with an appealing tone that enabled payoff to be paid by its occupants in order to keep away from the carnage. He liberated the weak and poor people from such installment and products were even circulated to the widows of Franj and vagrants before they left Jerusalem. Saladin regarded Christian sanctuaries and offered their devotees the likelihood of making a journey to the Holy Land at whatever point they wished.

New Crusades proceeded, with less critical results, until the remainder of the Franj were removed from Muslim terrains in 1291. The Crusades finished seven centuries back. However, the fights are as yet present in the brains and activities of a huge number of Muslims. They have an important impact on the culture of Muslims and improved the social and political status of their nation. We need to watch a report or read any paper to understand that the outcomes of this hereditary contempt live on right up 'til today. The noteworthy feelings of the book are critical to understanding the relationship of the Muslim people groups with the remainder of the world. It is basic to know the historical backdrop of social orders so as to comprehend the present mindsets, feeling, and acting of their occupants. It is difficult to determine struggle and accomplish harmony without placing yourself in others' shoes.

The author credits the absence of a set up method for progression among the Arab heads for quite a bit of this underlying precariousness; after a pioneer kicked the bucket, regardless of how much unification all through the Arab world was accomplished amid life, the area would without a doubt dive into turmoil as his successors got for what they could-this cyclic example of strength and unsteadiness, unification and fracture, was a weak point in the twelfth century Arab world. In the examination, in spite of their 'retrogressive courses' in science, arithmetic, medication, and pretty much everything else, the Franj had accomplished a genuinely serene successional machine inside their political association that kept kingdoms pretty much joined after the lives of individual rulers. This didn't compensate for the way that they were dwarfed, trimmed in on each side, and a long way from their countries; the campaigns were destined to fall flat from the start (Frederick, 2016).

In particular, this book puts a face on the Muslim heads amid the season of the Crusades, and the Arab world as a rule, that American history books totally neglect to cover. It subtleties the political and military virtuoso of the Arab saints, and even the not really uncommon participation accomplished between the Franj and Arab powers against shared adversaries. Of intrigue is the complete dismissal that the Crusaders appeared towards Arab Christians when they attacked the Holy Land. Regularly, these individuals were killed close to their Muslim neighbors, connoting that the war was not one of religion; however, one basic of mastery. Look at a months ago National Geographic for additional on Arab Christians being deserted. My most loved characters incorporate, obviously Salah al-Din (Saladin), who demonstrates his character over and over, and Frederik II, the King of Jerusalem (for an extremely brief time), yet in addition an agnostic and researcher, distributing the main course book on falconry, and indicating incredible knowledge (and diversion) with respect to the job of religion in molding the weird political scene (Gada, 2017).

In this arrangement of fights, the crusaders weren't sufficiently able to grab hold of Jerusalem, nor were Saladin ready to drive them out of his territory. This memorable campaign is known as the Children's Crusade, where upwards of 20,000 European kids (scarcely any beyond twelve years old) met up to walk to Jerusalem under the order of a fourteen-year-old named Stephan. The vast majority of the kids kicked the bucket of starvation and fatigue, while others were murdered in wrecks. The individuals who made it to Jerusalem were sold into subjection. Obviously, this mission fizzled. To put it plainly, the First Crusade ended up being (while fantastically horrendous) accomplishment for the Christians. The Second Crusade was a catastrophe. The Third Crusade finished in a trade-off between the Christians and the Muslims. The campaigns a while later were out and out moronic; also they were impeding to the Roman Catholic Church's notoriety. While Pope Urban II meant well to start with, the Crusades transformed into something entirely different than his underlying thoughts by the Children's Crusade. They were just worth battling up to the Third Crusade, and the ones after were silly.

References

Frederick, P. (2016). East Blues West: Global Crusaders in Amin Maalouf's L'Amour de Loin. In Intercultural Masquerade(pp. 81-95). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Gada, M. Y. (2017). Muslim Responses to the Crusades: A Brief Survey of Selected Literature. Mediterranean Quarterly, 28(1), 117-129.

Houghton, R., & Peters, D. (2017). The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives: Islamic Perspectives. Macat Library.

The Debate Over Slavery

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The Debate over Slavery

In the Colonial period, pro-slavery historians have been defending the concept of slavery by giving the justification that it is a necessity of society. They have been expounding this evil as a positive good. They believed that black people were naturally inferior to the white people and slavery, while others believed that slavery was a means of providing protection to the blacks. Some justified it by saying that slavery maintained the progress of the society. James Henry Hammond justified slavery by saying that slaves are important in society to do menial tasks for the grinding routine of daily life. He believed that in order to have a balance and lead a progressive society, there is a need for such people who can carry out such trivial chores. This is also important to maintain the order and class system in any society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FlzDqEXt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hammond)","plainCitation":"(Hammond)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":601,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/G973IH77"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/G973IH77"],"itemData":{"id":601,"type":"speech","title":"'The Mudsill' Theory","publisher-place":"U.S. Senate","event-place":"U.S. Senate","URL":"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3439t.html","author":[{"family":"Hammond","given":"James Henry"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1858",3,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hammond). Dr. Samuel Cartwright justified the slavery on a very peculiar stance that it was Deity’s will that Negros must be submissive to their white masters. He also believed that the God Almighty has declared it for them slavery should be their ultimate position. However, he also mentioned that the white masters should also be kind to their slaves but cannot give them a higher position than they are supposed to ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GOvOcBmz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Samuel)","plainCitation":"(Samuel)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":602,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/9KJGRFBH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/9KJGRFBH"],"itemData":{"id":602,"type":"manuscript","title":"Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race","URL":"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html","author":[{"family":"Samuel","given":"Cartwright"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Samuel). George Fitzhugh was a staunch supporter of slavery and justified it by his notion of white superiority over blacks. He believed that Negros are like the mistreated children who should be protected by their White masters. He also said that slavery in our white society is much better than in Africa or West Indies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BUvP4Pm2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fitzhugh)","plainCitation":"(Fitzhugh)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":605,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/VYBPQUG7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/VYBPQUG7"],"itemData":{"id":605,"type":"manuscript","title":"The Universal Law of Slavery","URL":"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3141t.html","author":[{"family":"Fitzhugh","given":"George"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fitzhugh).

According to Hammond, the place of slaves in our society is the lowest and they are supposed to serve us, as they are the inferior of all kinds. He believed that there is no way whites should become slaves. However, the blacks are our slaves and we have elevated their position by giving them the honor to serve us. Cartwright believed that according to the divine laws, the status of Blacks in our society is to serve us and this law cannot be changed. However, slaves running away from their jobs is the abomination of our social practices. The masters are also accountable for maintaining the status system as guided by the Almighty. He also mentioned that slaves running away from their masters is a disease that can be healed with certain practices. Fitzhugh believed that the place of blacks in other societies is chaotic. Nevertheless, we have the responsibility of keeping them safe and providing them with their rights as social beings by making them our domestic slaves. All these pro-slavery documents share a contemptuous tone by stereotyping African Americans by declaring the blacks as the inferior species overall. However, in America, they are provided with status and are given the opportunity to serve the superior race.

The abolitionist authors in the colonial period have argued against slavery and the outright abolition of black rights. David Walker, a black from the South, raised his voice for his fellow black men who have been serving their white masters while their rights and identities were being dismissed. He called for all the slaves to revolt against their masters. He believed that slaves need to get rid of this evil because their masters want to kill them as they have no value and it is completely alright to either save yourselves or kill the ones who want to kill them ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"V7Jp3wHg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Walker)","plainCitation":"(Walker)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":606,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/75X6JFME"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/75X6JFME"],"itemData":{"id":606,"type":"webpage","title":"David Walker's Appeal","URL":"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h2931.html","author":[{"family":"Walker","given":"David"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1829"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Walker). William Lloyd Garrison had been actively involved in the anti-slavery movement. He believed that slaves should be free of these shackles as their rights are taken away from them. He argued that they had been the subject of oppression and civil violation for a long time now. He declared the scriptures that promoted slavery for the blacks as null and void and said that these assumptions overthrow the concept of humanity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tB3GAnAI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Garrison)","plainCitation":"(Garrison)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":608,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/C5JNSKI9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/C5JNSKI9"],"itemData":{"id":608,"type":"manuscript","title":"Declaration of Sentiments of the American Anti-Slavery Society","URL":"https://wwnorton.com/college/history/archive/resources/documents/ch15_04.htm","author":[{"family":"Garrison","given":"William Lloyd"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1833"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Garrison). Frederick Douglass argued against the declaration and questioned that what is in there for the slaves to enjoy and how the 4th of July is something to be cherished about? He has raised his voice for blacks and he wanted all the whites to understand how privileged they were as they kept on progressing while the blacks kept grinding away their rights in front of them. He had no sense of contentment, for he had seen the cruelty and the oppression in the black society and the only privilege they were given was to serve their white masters ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3hvvAxoo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Douglass)","plainCitation":"(Douglass)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":609,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/LBCJIK94"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/LBCJIK94"],"itemData":{"id":609,"type":"speech","title":"What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?","event":"Rochester Ladies' Anti-Slavery Society","author":[{"family":"Douglass","given":"Frederick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1852"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Douglass).

Walker had extreme disagreements and disappointments with the American society as he questioned Jefferson several times in his speeches about the tyranny that Negros had to bear. He said that we had no worth to our White masters, that they could kill us and no one would bat an eye. He said we had been submissive to the rules made by this tyrant society. He had criticized the ‘Notes on Virginia’ by Jefferson and satirically had been asking people that did they have a soul left in their miserable bodies. He declared that White people could never be their friends until they treat them like ones. He said that they could let go of the past and could become a happy united nation. Garrison too had several conflicts with the American society and he said that it was against the right of human beings and their bodies being sold out to the American masters. He took a stand for his African counterparts that they enjoyed the same rights and laws yet they had been treated as if their existence did not matter. Douglas had raised his voice against the American slavery and pitied the worth of Declaration. He said that it seemed like a hideous and revolting effort to remind the Negros their value. He denounced every scripture, document and constitution that favored the concept of slavery.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Douglass, Frederick. What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? Rochester Ladies’ Anti-Slavery Society.

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h2927.html

Fitzhugh, George. The Universal Law of Slavery. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3141t.html.

Garrison, William Lloyd. Declaration of Sentiments of the American Anti-Slavery Society. 1833, HYPERLINK "https://wwnorton.com/college/history/archive/resources/documents/ch15_04.htm" https://wwnorton.com/college/history/archive/resources/documents/ch15_04.htm.

Hammond, James Henry. “The Mudsill” Theory. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3439t.html. U.S. Senate.

Samuel, Cartwright. Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html. Accessed 9 Nov. 2019.

Walker, David. David Walker’s Appeal. 1829, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h2931.html.

The Development Of Manners

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Date

The Development of Manners

Manners make a proper gentleman and a person is nothing without good manners. In order for a person to be well-behaved and polite, he or she should be equipped with good manners. Good manners shape the personality of a person and make him or her civilized. Good manners also give rise to a pleasant, healthy and livable society, where everyone takes care of each other and gives value to the other person’s opinion (Zhao). Good manners include many things like being respectful (to both elders and the juniors), listening to other people’s points and opinions with attention and respect, helping others, keep the home and society clean, respecting the property and privacy of others and table manners. But these manners are not acquired overnight, in fact, they are developed over a period of time.

The development of manners is not a new issue. Instead, it has been in the discussions for a very long time. Parents, sociologists, and psychologists have been trying for a long time to develop techniques so that a proper mechanism can be devised in order to give rise to a healthy society. The contributions of the Christian humanist, Erasmus, cannot be ignored in this respect. Erasmus focused on instructing the Europeans about table manners and control of bodily functions in the public. Erasmus focused on both these aspects because the physical movements, gestures and the behavior that a person exhibited on dining table, held great importance during the medieval times, especially, burping, sneezing and farting (Elias). Hence, in this way, Erasmus tried to turn his followers and the people around him into better and well-behaved citizens.

Works Cited

Elias, Norbert, and Edmund Jephcott. The civilizing process. Vol. 1. Oxford: Blackwell, 1978.

Zhao, Kun, Eamonn Ferguson, and Luke D. Smillie. "Individual differences in good manners rather than compassion predict fair allocations of wealth in the dictator game." Journal of Personality 85.2 (2017): 244-256.

The Early Republic- HIST

The Early Republic- HIST

Lo-An Lu

Course

Professor

14 July 2019

The American elections of the year 1800 were significant as a peaceful government transition was achieved, for the first time, from the Federalist Party to the Thomas Jefferson led Republican Party. The Jeffersonian era saw a return to the free agrarian society, with a weak central government, as opposed to the Federalist model favoring an industrialized economy with a strong central government. Thus, military expenditures were cut, taxes were repealed and public debt was paid off to usher an era based upon original American ideals. Simplicity, localism, and a weak central government were central to the Jeffersonian vision as authority once again began to be relegated to the states.

However, the Jeffersonian era also saw American expansion into western territories and to survey acquired regions to fortify presence and develop agriculture. One such expedition was commissioned by Thomas Jefferson in 1803 to map and explore the western half, such as states like Oregon, to establish American presence before European or British powers attempted to claim it. These expeditions brought colonists such as those with Lewis and Clark in close contact with the Native Indian populations who documented their encounters in substantial detail. The Jefferson administration’s policy was to assimilate or civilize Natives to American culture, customs, and agriculture; however, if efforts were to fail, then the next option was their removal to the west. Therefore, a forbearing and friendly spirit was demonstrated by the government towards the peaceful tribes, offering them protection from injustice and fraud. Yet, after the treaty of Greenville, purchases of Indian lands continued in some territories while they were removed in others. In 1812, as America once again fought Britain to protect its interests in the sea, the defeated Indian tribes who had allied themselves with the British were moved further west of the Mississippi River. Even as the Jefferson government wanted a spirit of cooperation, many Indian populations were relocated further west, which resulted in the acquiring newer territories such as the state of Oklahoma.

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY Clark, William, Patrick Gass, Meriwether Lewis, John Ordway, and Joseph Whitehouse. 1805. August 26, 1805. August 26. Accessed July 14, 2019. https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1805-08-26.

Digital History. 2016. The Jeffersonian Era. Accessed July 14, 2019. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/era.cfm?eraID=4&smtid=2.

Irving, Washington. 2016. "Traits of Indian Character." In The Sketch Book Of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent, edited by Nelson Nieves and David Widger. Project Gutenberg.

Kappler, Charles J., ed. 1795. "The Treaty of Greenville." Yale Law School: Lillian Goldman Law Library. August 3. Accessed July 14, 2019. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/greenvil.asp.

The First Half Of The 20th Century Affected The Women And Children The Most

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The First Half of the 20th Century affected the Women and Children the Most

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The first half of the twentieth century has been marked with the greatest changes in the history of mankind in the social structures, economic systems, and world politics. People experienced several revolutions and their effects. Almost all societies in the world were affected by the circumstances that were prevalent in those years. However, the women and children were affected more than other demographic groups of people. Several groups in America were also affected as well as their mutual interactions were also altered as a result of the global conflicts. The situation in the first half of twentieth century affected all people, but the women and children were affected the most, and interactions among many groups in America were also shaped by conflicts occurring at the global level.

The first half of the twentieth century was disastrous more than any era of the human history. Although the technological and industrial advancements were also at the peak of occurrence, yet the destruction caused by many factors was also the greatest in the human history. Two World Wars happened in this period, and these wars left no person on the earth with peace and integrity. The cause of world wars remain debatable, however, experts have given many reasons in their particular perspectives. These were the wars of theories, interests, and rebellions. These wars were fought the second and the fourth decades of the twentieth century respectively. Many countries of the world were involved, forming groups to confront each other. Millions of humans were killed in these wars. The intellectuals were forced to sit and find some sound solutions to these disasters of the human life. The United Nations Organization was established after the Second World War to control and prohibit reoccurrence of such situations again in the world. The industrial development led to a fast business world and the worker and organizations were confronted with many challenges. The rise of capitalism and communism raised two super powers in the world. Theories presented in the eighteenth and nineteenth century were realized in the twentieth century with their maximum potential. The economic and social changes occurred in many countries at drastic levels.

The women and children had to experience the worst effects in this period because they were vulnerable to most of the dangers and insecurities. They did not own properties and assets mostly at that time. The social upheavals, economic recessions, and political conflicts raised very difficult situations for women and children. They also had to bear the hardships of migration and relocation due to the unfavorable conditions in most of the territories. As a result of these severe situations faced by women and children, many reformatory movements began working in favor of them. Theorists were compelled to formulate theories in support of these victims of tyranny. Groups of people were compelled to make organizations for their relief. The American people responded to the situation by presenting several theories and launching many programs to make reforms and provide relief.

The women and children became victims of domestic violence due to the worsened situations existing in most parts of the country as well as the outer world. These victims often expired and could never return to life again. The survivors faced a number of problems in rehabilitation and coming back to community with productive attitude and skills. Efforts were made to support the survivors of domestic violence but these were very little as compared to the adversities they had experienced. The theory of feminism was one of the most popular theories at that time that emerged for advocating the rights of women. It raised awareness about the importance of womens role in developing a community. It spread information to support the cause of women and improve their social status.

The issues related to children were serious and could not be addressed during that period due to the catastrophic incidents taking place. The child labor became a serious issue, as the economic conditions were adverse, and people could not afford to support their families with only one person working in the family. People were hard to listen about anything about morality, ethical standards, and social responsibility. All people were in a state of disappointment and distress. Several movements arose in that era for preventing children to get involved in labor practices. Those efforts and movements were however not proved to be as yielding as expected.

The groups in America were affected and their interactions were reshaped by the global conflicts in that period. The white people and African Americans were the most conflicting groups of that age. This was due to the difference of race and geographic interests. The rights were not protected of the black in those circumstances. They were forced to take low-level jobs, and provide the services as laborers in all markets. They were not offered chances of growth as compared to other ethnic groups in different regions. People were looking to some solution but the conditions did not allow to take important steps in that particular direction. The African American people were forced to leave their native lands and migrate to other territories specifically dedicated to their stay. Their resources were captured by others and they were left with little opportunities to make good fortunes and support their groups. The organizations were reluctant also to consider them for important positions.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL uncited,omitted,custom CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Carpenter, R. Charli. Innocent Women and Children Gender, Norms and the Protection of Civilians. Routledge, 2016.

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The Foundation Of American History

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Factors that led to Civil War in America From 1820-1861

Introduction

Civil War was one of the most pivotal and important events in the history of USA. Its outcome shaped the very future of the country and saved several generations of people from slavery. Primarily this war was between the difference in opinion of Northern and Southern colonies of the newly formed states of America. Their difference was on the continuation or legalization of slavery in the whole country. The Civil War happened after years and years of regional and political conflict between the states on this issue which was taking the country towards a divide. This essay analyses the different factors from 1820 to 1861 that led to the civil war.

Discussion

During the time period of 1619 to 1865, slavery and its abolishment had very tough time. This institution was made prevalent by the Spanish and English colonists who imported an average of 645000 African and indentured slaves. Before this time period most of the northern states had already abolished slavery in their territories, whereas the Southern states fought to keep this administration because their whole system was dependent on it. They even tried to pass slavery as a benevolent Christian institution that was beneficial for all parties involved. This coupled with a series of other events laid the foundation for the fight of a decade that would decide the future path of the country.

The Missouri Comprise 1820

After the purchase of Louisiana in the year 1803, a policy regarding the future of slavery in the westward expansion of the states had to be publish by congress. All of the states north of Maryland had generally abolished slavery, while all the states still holding slavery as legal were in the south. A balance was present between the proportions of Free states compared to Slave states in the congress. The issue arose when Missouri applied to become a slave state. This would upset the balance of power in the congress and neither the Northern nor the Southern states could have this divide in power. So a compromise was reached between the states by admitting Maine as a Free State and Missouri as a Slave State. This was known as Missouri Compromise and was one of the primary foundations that led to the civil war.

Nate Turners Rebellion 1831

During the summer of 1831, a spread of uprisings was seen across several plantations in southern Virginia. This uprising was perpetrated by Nate Turner and his seventy accomplices killed about 60 white individuals. The uprisings were quashed after the deployment of militia infantry and artillery within two days. A group of 50 slaves and turner were indicted and found responsible for this uprising. They were then executed for playing a part in the insurrection. While mobs lynched more than two hundred more slaves in retaliation. This rebellion led to the Virginia government taking back what few rights people of color had. Following this rebellion they were not allowed any education or right to assembly.

The Wilmot Proviso 1846-1850

David Wilmot in the years from 1846-1850 proposed a legislation. This was around the time during the closing of the war between Mexico and America. According to this proviso slavery would have been outlawed in all newly occupied territories by the USA due to any war if it was passed. This area from the southwest all the way to California came under this proviso. After two years of intense struggle in getting this passed as either a rider to existing bills or attaching it to treaties, it eventually failed. The debate that emerged regarding this decision between the Northern and Southern states were very intense and heated and could be considered as the first signs of secessions.

The Compromise 1850

The debate around Wilmot Proviso kept tensions running high among all the states. To diffuse this situation two senators namely, Henry Clay and Stephen Douglas, with maximum effort formed the Compromise of 1850. This was a shaky accord at the most and was used to dim the spark of any rivalry between the states in the North and the South. This compromise allowed California’s registration as a state without slaves and fortified the Fugitive Slave Act, which forced the northerners to capture and send back any runaway slaves back to the south. This act forced the northerners to become a part of this immoral institution.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin 1852

In 1852, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published which was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. This book provided a fictional exploration of everyday lives of slaves. This book became a cultural sensation and had a profound effect on both the Southerners and the Northerners. The horrible reality of slavery was felt by the Northerners, whereas Southerners detested it and marked it as slanderous. After the Bible, this book was the most sold in America and brought the issue of slavery to the limelight and indirectly increased the differences between the Northerners and Southerners.

Kansas-Nebraska Act 1854-1859

Under the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, both Kansas and Nebraska were established as territories and by acquiring of popular sovereignty. Under this method, residents of these territories had the power to choose the fate of their state and declare by popular vote if they wanted to be either a slave or a free state. People from both the northern and the southern states were rushing into these areas to push the vote towards their side and violence erupted. John Brown, an anti-slavery enthusiast came to fight the forces of slavery. A guerilla war had started between the pro- slavery and anti-slavery armies after the sack of Lawrence and the massacre of 50 pro slavery settlers in Pottawatomie Creek by John Brown and his supporters. By 1859, a fragile peace treaty was formed between the two warring factions but this did not happen till more than fifty settlers had already been killed.

Dread Scott vs Sanford 1857

In 1857, a slave by the name of Dread Scott (a slave in Virginia), tried to fight for his freedom by lodging a case in the courts. The case got so much popularity and coverage that it eventually reached the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court in its judgment declared that as Dread Scott was not a free man but a slave and a piece of property, so he did not enjoy all the rights and legal liberties that a free man has. This decision heavily influenced the political landscape of the time making it even more volatile and labelling a slave a piece of property showed that the federal government had no idea of how to handle such a situation.

Debates between Lincoln and Douglas 1858

Abraham Lincoln and Senator Stephen Douglas were at odds with each other during the senate race in 1858. Abraham Lincoln was a relatively unknown one time former congressmen, whereas, Stephan Douglas was a senator in the US Congress. During the campaign Lincoln and Douglas butted heads over a number of topics slavery being the most controversial. Lincoln got better end of the stick and was propelled into the spotlight making him a nomination for the presidential run in 1860. Whereas, Douglas won the senate race but got alienated by the southern wing of his party and cost him any chance of presidential run.

John Brown’s Raid 1859

The major role in starting the Civil War was of John Brown due to his abolitionist anti southern views on slavery. After the events that occurred in Pottawatomie, Kansas, brown started planning an even dangerous act. He and a few fellow supporters raided the federal armory in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. They confiscated weapons and ammunition and distributed them among slaves to start an uprising. In order to suppress this uprising, a small unit of the US Marines was sent in. With heavy losses on both sides, this uprising was quashed and John Brown and some of his fellow supporters were captured, tried and executed.

Battle of Fort Sumter 1861

After Abraham Lincoln won the presidential race, several southern states started seceding from the union including South Carolina. This trend continued until more than seven states seceded from the union by December 20, 1860. This led to the different federal forts in the southern territories feeling as entities in dangerous waters. Abraham Lincoln tried to send resupplies to these beleaguered outposts but the confederate army forced the convoy headed to Fort Sumter back on April, 12, 1861. They bombarded the fort for nearly 34 hours and the fort had to surrender itself after two days.

After these acts Civil War had become a reality, with Lincoln calling for volunteers to join the northern army.

Conclusion

Hence, the events from 1820 to 1861 played an immense role in promoting and increasing animosities between the states in the north and the south. The feeling of resentment went to such an extent after the election of Lincoln into office that Civil War had to become a reality now. Lives were lost on both sides between people fighting for clashing ideologies related to slavery. This war eventually shaped the future of not just USA but also the people on whose back the country was created.

Work Cited

"Fort Sumter Documentary." YouTube. N. p., 2019. Web. 3 May 2019. Retrieved from: https://youtu.be/kB7IwL3se2w

"Kansas Bleeds." YouTube. N. p., 2019. Web. 3 May 2019. Retrieved from: https://youtu.be/mi_oUGwG4fU

"What Was The Missouri Compromise? | History." YouTube. N. p., 2019. Web. 3 May 2019. Retrieved from: https://youtu.be/68gi3C0A9Fo

The French Revolution And Why It Was Good

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History and Anthropology: The French Revolution and why it was Good

Introduction

It cannot be denied while it is a fact that the French Revolution played a huge and crucial role in the process by shaping the modern nations and communities through showing the entire world the power inherent in the people and nations’ will, it benefited its people and later institutions in different ways and aspects. It means that the French Revolution has benefited almost every person and the later institution up to a very high extent.

In addition to it, the main purpose of this essay is to elaborate and state that what is the French revolution and why it is good. While in detail, the essay covers how the French Revolution benefited its people and community and later institutions.

French Revolution

The French Revolution was a watershed event in the history of modern Europe or modern European history that started in the early days of 1789 and finished or ended in the 1790s. This event ended with the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte. During this period, the citizens of France redesigned and razed the political system and landscape of their country and regions, uprooting the old institutions of the countries like the absolute monarchy and feudal system (Hunt, N.P). The upheaval was mainly caused by the widely spread discontent with the French monarchy and the weak economic policies and approaches of King Louis XIV who meet his death by the guillotine as has done by his wife. Even though it failed to accomplish all of the objectives and goals and at the times degenerated into a chaotic bloodbath. The French revolution can be found playing a huge and crucial role in the process by shaping the modern nations and communities through showing the entire world the power inherent in the people and nations' will (Verhoeven, N.P).

How the French Revolution Benefited its People and Later Institutions

The monarchy history in Europe communicates the story of the oppression of the people and every individual and the presence of inequality between the majority and aristocrats. The authority and ability to control lives and absolutism had not allowed for the public or individuals to participate in the politics (Hunt, N.P). Additionally, this was only till Enlightenment in the 18th century where the French public and people started to realize that change is important and necessary.

With new thinking approaches and a strong increase in literacy, individual empowerment and support started an increase and started to grow to an unprecedented level that led to a strong revolution against the government that was highly oppressive. Furthermore, the French revolution could be found acted as a prime and big example of how the empowerment of the people can amend or change both formal and informal institutions of French society and community into equality and democracy (Higonnet, P.p. 99).

The monarchist of France ruled from the period the Romans withdrew in the 4th century well and in a fine way to the 18th century. Each of them had been found acting as a figurehead of the nation and country where they served the people and the public in the thought and hard situations and infrastructural developments. Many and even most of the kings ruled with the general intent for the purpose to help the people and country. But on the other side, some had been found to become obsessed with the grandiose status of monarchy. Further, most of the monarchs had authority and power over the operations of the military and even the entire state. This was with the result of sharing some of the power with the Catholic Church. In fact, no-one had the power like the Louis XIV, who started his region in the mid of 1661 and reigned/ruled as an absolute monarch who ruled and controlled the entire area or land and power in the French region (or France) after loosening ties with the Church. Louis was able by herding every powerful aristocrat to have an eye or watch on all operations of the state thereby restricting anyone else to yield the authority and power (Verhoeven, N.P).

Beyond that, the spending of the Louis Lavish on the development and improvement of infrastructure of the country and personal affairs raised and lead to high taxes on the people of France. In short, the people and even the entire community of France lived in quiescence and poverty coupled with the stagnation of the land control under the system of medieval feudal of the medieval feudal system and food shortage (Higonnet, P.p. 99).

Proceeding further, after that time, Enlightenment in Europe, France, and the U.S. in the late 17th century and early days of the 18th century started an intellectual revolution. Starting among some of the greatest thinkers and decision-makers of that time such as Lock and Voltaire etc., it got spearing to the public and every common individual throughout the area and region which further made readily and timely available by the pamphlets. The Enlightenment beliefs and rise of the France of Enlightenment beliefs have been attributed as the literacy rate got raised during that particular period. The rise of France attributed to the Enlightenment though as the pamphlets had been written in the French language almost for every individual to read and understand. Hence, as a result, the people and society engrossed themselves in the new ways and approaches of thinking and analysis regarding oneself, themselves as individuals, and about their countries that had been supported and facilitated by their capabilities and competencies to read and understanding of propaganda pamphlets (Hesse, N.P).

Furthermore, the people and institutions (later institutions) had been benefited in many other ways. It is a fact that there was the existence of an inability of people to read and that was acting as one of the major barriers or problems to the development and empowerment of people, particularly those who had been ruled and controlled by a despotic monarch. But as the French Revolution had ensured a revolution of educational attainment or the French Revolution led to enhanced educational attainment, the people had been made able to think on their own, to develop agency, and get the ability and competency to get and defend their rights. It means that the French revolution benefited its people and community in a way that it empowered them through educational attainment and strengthen them mentally. While this further led to the empowerment of later institutions as well.

In addition to the above facts and statements, at the beginning of the French Revolution, the perception of citizens about the oppression spread and increased by the Enlightenment pamphlets. As well as, the citizens of France rose to take the step or action against the aristocrats, commanded and led by Louis XVI. This was advanced and promoted by the self-determination of everyone oppressed or oppressed people and important "confidence and consciousness" in French people or individual's power (Verhoeven, N.P). This occurred and came to see at the time when people started to have a level of consciousness and high-level confidence in their revolutionary thoughts.

Furthermore, the increase and spread of Enlightenment concepts also assisted the people of France to lower the 3rd dimension of power and authority that was held by King Louis XVI. This was also an incredible way through which the French Revolution benefited its people a lot. In detail, the 3rd dimension of power shows the occasionally unknown and subjective power and authority that affect the beliefs and thoughts or views of individuals.

In terms of benefiting the later institutions by the French Revolution, there are many shreds of evidence and facts that the institutions had been benefited a lot. It means that one can have numerous details, facts, and evidence if he or she wants to know how the French Revolution had benefited its institutions. In mid of 1789, the people of Paris were hoping that their readiness to compete for their freedom (individual freedom) would be symbolized even by them (Hesse, N.P). As a result of the show of physical fight and force as well as diplomatic fight and force, King Louis XVI approved/accepted to convert the monarchy (absolute monarchy) to the constitutional monarchy, finally. As an addition to it for better understanding, the constitutional monarchy is the monarchy where the kingship and even its power works only as formality while the power parting/separation will be mainly among the power elite and aristocracy. While on the other side, democracy will come in some time as after the Terror and Revolution. Hence, this amendment in the formal institution of power (the political system, laws, and structure) in the region of France have been escorted by the privileges' lessening of the aristocracy and monarchy, mainly with the elimination of the tax exemption among the ironic community and rich or financially strong people (Higonnet, P.p. 99). Therefore, it can be stated that the French Revolution benefited both the people and institutions (especially the formal institutions) in this way.

Likewise, the declaration and announcement of Rights of Man and the Citizen in 1789 also approved and gave full and formal rights and power to every individual man, not to be invaded or overstepped on or by the government body.

The impacts of the Revolution were also felt in the daily lives of the citizens and informal institutions of France. This was due to the political and social impacts of the Revolution. The average citizen was empowered through the efficient use of public action, and the notion of nationalism. The ideals of the age of enlightenment focused on the philosophical beliefs of quality, democracy, and fraternity. With the abolishment of the monarchic system, people were given the rights to their lands that were once the property of their governing nobles. Furthermore, the circulation of ideas was done through pamphlets that helped to promote the spirit of nationalism and pride in the general public at the time.

To conclude, the French Revolution benefited its people and later institutions because it stemmed in the empowerment and improvement of the status and lives of the citizens of France. This is so because French citizens got their rights, human rights, and had been allowed to have an active role and part in political system or politics (Hunt, N.P). Very unfortunately, this came at a very high price as a lot carried away with radical concepts regarding government body, and French community and society and began The Terror where thousands of lives had been lost to refute democracy (Higonnet, P.p. 99). That is why the revolution also acts as a critical warning to some. But, this also worked as a catalyst for the democratic reform in the European region and promoted Enlightenment, its ideals, and clarified and ensured the significance of a person in community and society and key role and importance of institution (both formal and informal) for change and agency.

Work Cited

Hesse, Carla. "The other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern." Princeton University Press, 2003.

Higonnet, Patrice. "Sociability, Social Structure, and the French Revolution." Social Research 56.1 (1989): 99.

Hunt, Lynn. "Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution: with a New Preface." Vol. 1. University of California Press, 2004.

Verhoeven, Wil. "Americomania and the French Revolution Debate in Britain, 1789–1802." Cambridge University Press, 2013.

The Gnostic Gospels

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

The Gnostic Gospels

The chapter 2 "One God, One Bishop? The Politics of Monotheism" the two God belief is discussed, and the explanation regarding this theory is given. It is described that orthodox Christian attacked the beliefs Gnostics in the political sense. The difference that exists between Gnostics and ordinary Christians is based on their actions towards each other. The Gnostics shows the same level of compassion towards each other as according to the Valentinus beliefs they were trapped in the same hell (Pagels, p.p.45). According to the views of Bishop Irenaeus, Gnostics were considered agents of Satan because they were following the code of Simon Magus, a person who tried to buy the spiritual power but earned the curse instead. The chapter makes it clear that Gnostics shared most of the beliefs with orthodox Christian as they use to go to the same church. The followers of Gnostic beliefs had two sources of traditions one was open while other was closed. The Gnostics had no hierarchy in their religious belief which was the reason for their fame. The God to Gnostics was a supreme spiritual entity that who was not the almighty creator of everything.

The chapter 5 "Who's Church Is the True Church?" is discussed through their doctrine beliefs. Gnostics beliefs were considered different than both the Christian and pagans in their religious beliefs. The traditional Christians believed in the absolute certainty of the oneness of God and Jesus as their lord. Gnostics had acknowledged the belief of a dead man as the Lord "Jesus" to get the freedom of a true church. Gnostics believed that they were the representative of the true church. Baptism was not much crucial according to the beliefs of Gnostics as they considered it insufficient for people to become Christians. According to the Gnostics beliefs that the true church is not based on the understanding between church and its believers but it instead it depends upon the general relation between the believers. Gnostics believed in the friendship between the participants of the church. The most basic different could be the fact that Gnostics believed in individual spirituality. Spirituality was an essential factor for Gnostics because all the materialist world was evil to them.

The early beliefs made it clear that they wanted to exclude the people who were not of the same views as the traditional Christians. The New Testament presented a God of love, but the Old Testament represented the God of wrath who was focused more on the punishment than benevolence. The dualistic view of God leads to the orthodox view that is focused on the single ideology of God who is the maker of everything (Pagels, p.p.41). The early orthodox Christians belief were focused on the ones of God and Bishop. They viewed the Bishop as the direct representative of God. According to the earlier ideology of Christians, the rulers were directly selected by God because the church backed their faith. According to these previous beliefs the rulers were implementing the will of God. In that time most Christians were indirectly worshiping the creator who was reprehensive of God. Orthodox Christians of that time were in constant competition with each other.

Catholic Christians were considered the Christians that had fallen into the hands of wrong people. They were allowing themselves to be ruled, heretical representatives or kings. During the early Christianity, both the orthodox and Gnostic Christians considered themselves the true representative of the church. There was lots of tension between Christians even when it came to the most fundamental aspects such as Baptism. The Orthodox Christians in the late second century also established the criteria for Christianity and the membership of the church was based on this selective criteria. The qualitative criteria associated with being the member of the church was also eliminated, and it was reserved for the broader administration of the church. Later the Orthodox Christians such as Christian Ignatius made it clear that Bishop was the direct representative of God. He clarified that the authority given to the Bishop provides the bishop with the same power as Jesus Christ. There was a lot of tension between different religious groups of Christians even when their fundamental beliefs were similar. The self-proclaimed Christians who were not accepted by the church were considered worse than the pagans, and there was lots of debate over the different versions of the bible. Christians were too afraid to even question the most clashing belief out of the fear for being prosecuted. The general views of Christianity were actively being challenged throughout the earlier Christianity

The fundamental conflict that existed between the proponents of orthodox originated from the ideology surrounding the perception of God. According to the general view of Orthodox Christians, the god was almighty and was the creator of everything in this world. This idea was challenged Marcion who believed that there have to be two Gods due to the existence of disease, suffering, and pain in the world. According to Marcion the God described in the bible was benevolent and loving so there was no way that a God like that can be so opposite to how it was described in the holy book. Orthodox Christians disagreed with this ideology so they there was significant conflict between the two God and one God ideology. To shows, the actual influence of power the Bishop became the representative of God with the ability to influence everyone. According to the beliefs of Orthodox, anyone who classed with the ideology of orthodox and was not following its priests should be considered as heretics.

Orthodox Christians had established the criteria for the church members and based on this criterion the stand of a person would be decided. Orthodox Bishop Christian Ignatius claimed that bishop has been given the same status as Christ and claimed that separation from the church was like separation from God. Orthodox Christians were focused on the imaginative views of Gnostics and were more focused on the social relationships of the Gnostics (Pagels, p.p.111). Orthodox Christians did not understand the doctrine believes that the Gnostics ideology was based on they only believed what was visible. The Catholic Christians were considered heretical, and they were allowing themselves to be ruled hieratically. Any Bible that was not matching with the Bible of Orthodox Christians were heretics. According to their beliefs, anyone who considers themselves Christians without the consideration of church should be regarded as a heretic.

The intended audience of the author is all the Christian because it sheds light on the historical background of Christian beliefs. The Author is not focused on a specific religious group but is instead it focuses on the background history of every religious group associated with Christianity. The author considers general Christianity while describing the beliefs. The author has clearly expressed the Orthodox Christians believes and how they were different than other tenets of Christianity. So basically the author is trying to create harmony through the history of Christianity.

I selected these two chapters because it sheds light on the general view of Christianity and how all sects of Christianity are linked with each other. The two sections are not focused on the history of the factors that lead to the classification of Christianity into different religious groups. The chapter also shows the doctrinal beliefs of Gnostics and how they are different than other Christian groups. The two chapters also show the religious conflict that exists in Christianity.

Works Cited

Pagels, Elaine H. The gnostic gospels. Vintage, 1989.