The Great Migration( Art Gallery)

The Great Migration (Art Gallery)

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the institution]

[Date]

The Great Migration (Art Gallery)

How is the series a testimony of its time? 

The series of paintings which was made by Jacob Lawrence in 1941 is authentic evidence of its time because Jacob was only 23 years old back then when he portrayed the significant migration movement into his hardboard. He witnessed the historical movement from his eyes and reflected them in his paintings keeping in consideration all the small details needed for clear description. He has used all the colors carefully in each of his paintings showing the audience the perfect scenario of that time that takes us back to the time of great migration. He not only managed to capture the history in his paintings but also reflected the social aspects faced by immigrants at that time.

How do you think the sequence was looked at the time of its creation? How do we look at it today?

The sequence gained enormous popularity between people at that time as the paintings talked to the immigrants on the levels only familiar to them. The paintings were a blend of reality and critical thinking which were presented in a very artistic way. These paintings are consistent even now as the same situation is happening in the world in one way or another. Lawrence challenged the difficult and bitter truths that were unable to digest by the people. He used his paintings to talk to the society about the issues they do not want to face with words.

Choose one painting in the sequence. What is being shown? What are the components of the image? Where is the viewer’s eye drawn to, and why?

Below is a painting was chosen from his famous collection of the great migration.

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The reason for choosing this painting is that the picture is very thought-provoking. The first things that capture the eyes of the viewer are the dark atmosphere along with the white man sitting right in the center of the painting. The next thing that eye catches is the skin color of the people shown in a black coat. The main sitting in a higher position is a white man white other two people who are standing in front of him are black. This represents the height of racial discrimination African Americans had to face in the southern states. This is one of the reasons why they chose to migrate because they were witnessing injustice even in courts.

In order to have a more complete understanding of migration movements to cities, what other visual and/or literary sources could be useful?

The other visual similar to great migration in understanding is, Walter Ellison's famous 1935 painting "Train station", "The foundation of Chicago" by Aaron Douglas and many more. In literary works, the two famous books that will help in understanding the great migration are The Southern Diaspora: how the great migrations of Black and White Southerners transformed America by James N. Gregory and Black Exodus: the great migration from the American South by Alferdteen Harrison.

References

Burke, P. (2008). Eyewitnessing: The uses of images as historical evidence. Cornell University Press.

Rose, G. (2016). Visual methodologies: An introduction to researching with visual materials. sage.

The Immigrant Song: The Story Of California's Mexican Immigrant Children

The Immigrant Song: The Story of California's Mexican Immigrant Children

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Immigrant Song: The Story of California's Mexican Immigrant Children

Introduction

The United States propose itself of being a nation that has endured a lot of immigration. Also, the United States presents itself as a country that has a history of successfully absorbing people from different parts of the globe rather than a single area. This assimilation and immigration also include the integration of children along with the families that can play a central role in forming and formulating future of the United States, by contributing to the economic vitality as well as the ever-changing culture values (von Glascoe, et al 2019). It is said that the United States is making signifying efforts so that the children of immigrants can assimilate within the culture and the setting of the United States and they can play a central role in incorporating progression to the country. Although it is what, that is conveyed, an in-depth analysis asserts it is not that easy for the immigrant children to adjust, also there are no evident efforts in the form of policy designed by the United States of America (Sawyer , et al 2019). As a result, it is asserted that there are a lot of issues that are faced by immigration children ranging from recognition to the survival options.

Discussion

Immigration is increasing at an unprecedented stage in the United States, taking into account that on average about one million immigrants both legal as well illegal are entering the country since the 1970s (Sawyer , et al 2019). Today there are 41 million immigrants in the United States and they present about 13.1% of the total population of the United States, making up 12% of the Americans (von Glascoe, et al 2019). In terms of the first and second generation, it is going that one out of the four members of the US population are immigrants and they are successfully integrating into the current paradigms. In the context of new immigrants, there is a different situation and a background scenario (Sawyer, et al 2019). Between 1900 and 1930, there has been massive political turmoil in Mexico and this resulted in the agribusinesses in the American Southwest adhering to the immigration of Mexicans to the United States of America (Ropp & S, 2019). Mexican immigration in the 20 century is one of the major events that added authenticity to the immigration statement of the United States. For Mexicans, immigration is not something that was temporary or for a short course of time, in fact, it is a one-time journey that refers to a permanent shift. This comprises of both documented and undocumented immigration, taking into account that responsibility is shouldered to the United States government. If immigration from Mexico is a onetime journey than it is highlighted that the children of the migrants would definitely study and work in the United States and now is the edge of complications, attracting the attention of others (Ropp & S, 2019). In California, over hand of the population who walk through the classroom door live in immigrant head household. Today, California is home to almost 11 million immigrants that makes up a quarter of the foreign-born population. In 2017, about 27% of the population was immigrants (Ropp & S, 2019). Nearly half of the California population is naturalized as the United States citizen and as per the information collected. The center of immigration studies about 23% of the population in California are undocumented. Although there have been some significant efforts in the past currently there is some heart-breaking news that is seen on the timeline of the world. It is found that today one in five are the immigrant children and they have to face a lot of issues in terms of their survival and living. It asserted that 21 century should probably be called as the century of the children of immigrants. According to one of the surveys of 35000 teachers, that was conducted in 730 schools, counted in 24 districts it is highlighted that the immigration policies are casting a negative impact on the immigrant families as well as leading to social and psychological issues with an increased academic decline and high level of anxiety in children (Light, et al 2017). These significant issues are disuse as follows.

Role of immigration policies

It is a word of mouth there are a lot of immigration policies designed by the government of the United State are meant for improvement adhering to a broader control and the integration of the policies. Unfortunately, it is highlighted that the immigration reforms and polices have not shown the required results, in fact these policies have become one of the central notions of promoting discrimination between locals and the immigrants. The situations are even worsened by the end of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (Pitti & S. J, 2018). Possessing ambiguous documents or fewer documents have excluded a particular number out of the quota of those who should be given basic necessities of life that is casting a negative impact on the children in California.

Assimilation vs. Acculturation

According to many of the researchers, the issue of immigration is now turned into a philosophical one. there are two major dimensions and concepts that are used to explain immigration adaptation process either it is a classical model that is an assimilation model, and the other is that of a melting pot that refers to the acculturation process (Pitti & S. J, 2018). An in-depth analysis has highlighted that there is a dire need to define the definition of merging for children in terms of assimilation or acculturation because there is a need to look for one way out. In order to promote homogeneity in school, students need to assimilate while teachers continue to teach the concept of a boiling pot which is not capable of resulting in the required outcomes. Assimilation requires a reformation that requires children to forget their past while boiling pot assert them to keep their identity which is hard for the other students to digest and adhere to. So, there is a need for social reform that can infer assimilation in the children.

Social aspects

In addition to the political and economic progressions, the social context has made a significant impact on immigrant children or children of California. It is highlighted that the identities of immigrant children are shaped by the ethos of reception (Gutiérrez & R. A 2019). In schools, immigrant children face a lot of issues in representation in class. The major reasons for their underrepresentation are the lack of teacher training and other approaches that can be favorable for students. Students quote that their teachers usually make them realize that they are exploiting American resources as they are overpopulating the country, especially while studying social studies.

Challenges of Language Acquisition

Another major barrier that stops students in California from becoming assimilated with the other students of the class is the language barrier. It is highlighted that usually there are pronunciation issues and a lot of gaps in the understanding language that position immigrants on at a lower position as compared to the other students in the class. Immigrant children's accent, dialect, and choice of words is something that is always criticized and they are unaccepted. Though it is something that cannot be sorted by the help of some policies but welcoming attitude, and code shifting is something that can resolve this issue. This issue is not just confined to the realm of student life, but it paves the way for a student unable to understand what their teachers are saying. It also refers to the gap between students and the instructor language, which leads to the feeling of segregation and loneliness in schools (Light, et al 2017).

Stereotypes

Ethic and racial identities and association are more like a dilemma in the present time because it is an issue that is presented several times but it is deep-rooted in the mind of every student. These stereotypes are one of the major issues that refrain a student from practicing the decorum or culture of the school or the education system. There are a lot of cases in which students don’t want to go to school because their class fellows think about them as someone who is not part of their culture. The intensity of these stereotypes is seen in the violent attitude of students, highlighted immigrants being abused and threatened by the other class fellows. This stereotyping results in social, moral and then psychological deterioration because immigrant student also develops that hatred for the students finding themselves unable to fit in the set dimensions (Feliciano, et al. 2019)

Segregation

Segregation is one of the barriers that is faced by the students in California. Firstly the idea of being an immigrant and new to someplace is always frightening for the students. The sadness to the situation is added by the segregation that is faced by the students in the names of “immigrant” in schools. This differentiation paves the way for unwanted and unseen distances that can not only affect the life of the student but it can also enhance the gap in the student relationships. According to one of the researchers, the information resources have become so strong that almost everyone knows about immigrants and immigrants from different cities are given different connotations that is tormenting for students. This segregation creates psychological barriers that keep students of California segregated and apart from the other students in the same classroom (Light, et al 2017).

Social standards

Immigration has several social connotations and one of these connotations is "poor life standards”, “lack of Sandside life” and “immorality”. There are several research reports in which “crime” is also associated with immigration. All these issues cast a negative impact on students within school realms. Poverty is something that attracts the attention of everyone. The stance of materialism and material wealth is so strong that children don't want to be friends with the poor, especially when they are immigrants. Poverty is another aspect that refrains a child in California from participating in the classroom setting taking into account that children of California don’t have the learning resources and the required resources that can let them assimilate with the classmates (Pitti & S. J, 2018). 

Lower standards of living is another major concern to be addressed because there is a lot of students in California who live in deprived conditions and it prevents students from being a part of society. Just like other policies of student funding, attention is required in this context as well but still, it is one of the issues that is disturbing the mental comfort of the children of California. Another phenomenon associated with social paradigms is the essence of crime and immorality. The stereotypes and perceptions that immigrant students are low in moral growth and they are criminal creates psychological gaps among the students. It is one of the reasons that student fails to assimilate with the other classmates taking into account that this notion cannot be fought off as it is fed by the families of the students (Gándara & P 2019).

Education

Education is something that is a compulsion for everyone when it comes to educating the children of California there are a lot of issues that are faced by the students in terms of education. One of the issues is the unavailability of seats for education in the schools, there are a lot of schools that are reluctant to give admission to the student who are immigrants or who have come from some other geographical location. Also, there is a complete denial of the acceptance of children of California especially in the private schools that are myriad of good education. It is highlighted that the students are doomed to get admissions in public schools where they have to deal with other social and ethical dilemmas by themselves. Also, there is a massive gap observed at the edge of the students who are taught by the teachers, reflecting that the teachers do not pay equal attention to the students, either immigrant students are criticized or they are treated as absentees in the classroom which is more of a dilemma (Pitti & S. J, 2018).

Health issues

Taking into account some particular cases and evidence of people immigrating because of violence or some critical issues, there is a possibility that students might suffer from health issues. When students are admitted to schools, their health concerns are treated as transmittable disease, rather than empathizing with the students the other students are taught to stay away for them. Also, there are a lot of students who are doomed to get admission in public schools in California and there, they are exposed to some unclean conditions and environment that may develop some serious health concerns. Health issues also include a negative attitude towards the illness of student highlighting the idea of disease because of some ill act or lack of hygiene awareness. All these and other compact aspects are associated with the students taking into account that hatred reaction not only imparts gap in assimilation but they make students hate education and the students prefer to stay at home and work (Ropp & S, 2019).

Access to resources

It is asserted that the unacceptance of children of California is not just limited to the attitude but there a lot of physical attempts to degrade students such as lack of access to the learning resources. It is highlighted that there are a lot of students who have shared that their teachers do not share with them the online available resources. As they don’t have the gadgets so they have to stay idle and share with friends themselves rather than initiatives by teachers to arrange for their learning.

All these issues play a central role in casting a negative effect on the immigrant children who are living in California because they are neglected in almost all the dimensions and aspects of life and it paves the way for the negative impact that discourage them to take an active part in the progression of the country. In a nutshell, the children of California face social, economic, health economic and psychological issues, without any way out that can act as life support for them (Light, et al 2017).

Conclusion

After an exegetical analysis of the lifestyle and treatment of immigrants in California, it is highlighted that it is not just immigrant families who are suffering but immigrant students are facing more torment. Educational realms are less of enlightenment resources and more of torture cell for students that keep on reminding them of their past, unacceptance and the negative impact that they can cast on the others. All the issues discussed are thought-provoking and demand quick action because students are the ultimate key to future success but when a majority of the student are immigrants and then they are deprived than the situation is a clear emblem of destruction and dire need of reforms that can ensure assimilation and cooperation.

References

Feliciano, C., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2019). The evolution of ethnic identity from adolescence to middle adulthood: The case of the immigrant second generation. Emerging Adulthood, 7(2), 85-96.

Gándara, P. (2019). The students we share: falling through the cracks on both sides of the US-Mexico border. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 43(1), 38-59.

Gutiérrez, R. A. (2019). Mexican Immigration to the United States. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History.

Light, I., & Bhachu, P. (2017). Introduction: California immigrants in world perspective. In Immigration and Entrepreneurship (pp. 1-24). Routledge.

Pitti, S. J. (2018). The Devil in Silicon Valley: Northern California, Race, and Mexican Americans. Princeton University Press.

Ropp, S. (2019). The Child and the Latina Immigrant: Reimagining the Southern California Imaginary in Héctor Tobar's The Barbarian Nurseries. Western American Literature, 53(4), 469-495.

Sawyer, A., Rosales, O., Medina, O., & Sawyer, M. T. (2019). Improving schooling outcomes for Latinos in rural California: A critical place-based approach to farmworkers history. Journal of Latinos and Education, 1-14.

von Glascoe, C. A., & Schwartz, N. A. (2019). Bad Lungs/Bad Air: Childhood Asthma and Ecosyndemics among Mexican Immigrant Farmworkers of California's San Joaquin Valley. Human Organization, 78(2), 110-121.

The Indian Removal Act

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[July 17th, 2019]

The Indian Removal acts

Introduction

In the first half of the nineteenth century, many Native Americans were removed for America. Among them, Cherokees were also included. Cherokees have a significance and attribution to the American land. They tried to adopt the Anglo- American culture as well. They transformed themselves and adopted the culture and living pattern of the American natives. They did so all, just to receive the appreciation of the White politicians and to preserve their short-lived identity in the American land. This changed of civilizational policy forced them to totally change their religious beliefs and spiritual values. They established new schools, written new laws and totally changed their style of living just to appease the White people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"v5zNDRwc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green and Perdue)","plainCitation":"(Green and Perdue)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":264,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/HBQPXUYG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/HBQPXUYG"],"itemData":{"id":264,"type":"book","title":"The Cherokee removal: A brief history with documents","publisher":"Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The Cherokee removal","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael D."},{"family":"Perdue","given":"Theda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green and Perdue). Cherokee women became involved in weaving garments and men started a plantation. The historian argues that they did so all just to appease the ruling elites of that time. By adopting such a culture, they just wanted to earn respect.

In the words of a Cherokee scholar “Cherokees firmly believed that civilization was important and preferable to their way of life”. This progress of the Cherokee community astonished many White people who travelled through their countries in the early nineteenth century. In the year 1820, a Cherokee scholar wrote a new syllabus that helped his community to read and write in their own language. By 1827, they have adopted a constitutional structure like that of the United States. Their educated class people started participating in religious seminaries, in the classes of history, theology and politics. At the time of their removal from the United States, many American believe that Cherokee was among the most civilized people ever existed in the United States ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7OHAQ6TY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green and Perdue)","plainCitation":"(Green and Perdue)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":264,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/HBQPXUYG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/HBQPXUYG"],"itemData":{"id":264,"type":"book","title":"The Cherokee removal: A brief history with documents","publisher":"Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The Cherokee removal","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael D."},{"family":"Perdue","given":"Theda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green and Perdue). What made the American people think about removing Cherokees? Why were they forced to leave? What made the circumstances for the signing of the Indian removal act of 1830? The following paragraphs will analyse the following details.

Causes of the Indian removal act

There is disagreement among the historians about the causes of the Indian removal act. Some believe that it was adopted to make the American more intact. Some argue that this decision of Jackson administration to force the Cherokee people to leave the American land was the continuation of National policy. This policy was the practical manifestation of seizing the lands of the Native Indians which were continued from as early as the 1790s. In the last decades of the eighteenth century, seizing the land of the Indians was the policy adopted by the Republicans for civilizing the native Indian of the American land ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DIMEfj4N","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cave)","plainCitation":"(Cave)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":268,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/IAIJWS7N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/IAIJWS7N"],"itemData":{"id":268,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abuse of power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian removal act of 1830","container-title":"The Historian","page":"1330–1353","volume":"65","issue":"6","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Abuse of power","author":[{"family":"Cave","given":"Alfred A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cave). This policy was first articulated by George Washington and Henry Knox after the treaty of Holston in the year 1791. This treaty aimed at bringing more civilization among the Native Indians. The United States authorities also promised to donate gracious donations from time to time to such native communities of that time America ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gRHsMSp7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cave)","plainCitation":"(Cave)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":268,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/IAIJWS7N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/IAIJWS7N"],"itemData":{"id":268,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abuse of power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian removal act of 1830","container-title":"The Historian","page":"1330–1353","volume":"65","issue":"6","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Abuse of power","author":[{"family":"Cave","given":"Alfred A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cave).

Apparently, the original purpose of the civilization policy appeared philanthropic. If any American was able to pull the civilized people out of the savages, it would have benefitted the native Americans and would have ensured the progress and wellbeing of humans in the continent. To pull Cherokee out of their land, Knox and his team announced that if Indian quit barbaric occupations, they will get surplus land which they can willingly exchange to support education and well being of their people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GCMMorYr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bolt)","plainCitation":"(Bolt)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":266,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/49RTITP6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/49RTITP6"],"itemData":{"id":266,"type":"book","title":"American Indian policy and American reform: case studies of the campaign to assimilate the American Indians","publisher":"Allen & Unwin London","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"American Indian policy and American reform","author":[{"family":"Bolt","given":"Christine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1987"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bolt). Such reasons helped the white people like Knox to accelerate the coercion of Indians to occupy their lands. After coercing, the Knox and his people used to acculturate the lands left by Cherokees. After coming to the Presidency, Thomas Jefferson who supported the beliefs and views of the Knox accelerated these efforts. Jefferson uses to offer huge sums to people who were ready to leave their land. With the people who refused to accept such an offer, Jefferson used aggressive tactics. Jefferson intensified this pressure and was able to get the large tracts of land ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kHnMM7hd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bolt)","plainCitation":"(Bolt)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":266,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/49RTITP6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/49RTITP6"],"itemData":{"id":266,"type":"book","title":"American Indian policy and American reform: case studies of the campaign to assimilate the American Indians","publisher":"Allen & Unwin London","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"American Indian policy and American reform","author":[{"family":"Bolt","given":"Christine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1987"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bolt).

This shows that the cause of the Indian removal act did not erupt in the1830s rather it existed from the early nineteenth century. However, with time the situation tilted in favour of White American and during the Presidency of Jackson, the Congress was able to pass the Indian removal act in 1830 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vtHVI7ZB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Grose)","plainCitation":"(Grose)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":267,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/77EI8LH8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/77EI8LH8"],"itemData":{"id":267,"type":"article-journal","title":"Edwin Forrest,\" Metamora\", and the Indian Removal Act of 1830","container-title":"Theatre Journal","page":"181","volume":"37","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Grose","given":"B. Donald"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1985"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Grose). Other causes which contributed to passing the Indian Removal Act was the discovery of gold, silver and other precious metal on the lands occupied by Cherokees.

Effects of the Indian removal act

The act left many things undefined. For example, there was no such mentioning of the facts that where and how the eastern Indian living in America will be repatriated. Cherokee family tribe John Ross believed doing so will put aside the years of effort, the Cherokee family have been doing to become a civilized nation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tOx9f2ZS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nichols)","plainCitation":"(Nichols)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":263,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/4DCKLKR6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/4DCKLKR6"],"itemData":{"id":263,"type":"book","title":"The American Indian: Past and Present","publisher":"University of Oklahoma Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The American Indian","author":[{"family":"Nichols","given":"Roger L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nichols). Therefore, the Cherokee community decided to not leave the eastern land and this land belonged to them. There was another group among Cherokees which believed that if there is a war between the Americans and the Cherokee people, they will have nothing to achieve but to accept a big loss. There were then two groups in Cherokees community, one believed that it is useful to live on the land they have occupied for centuries, while others believed that leaving this land is a rational choice. In 1839, many Cherokees gathered in a wide-open place to decide about their fate but could not reach any decision. The White army, on the other hand, announced that those who want resettlement are true patriots while others are not ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QpDB6OSK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nichols)","plainCitation":"(Nichols)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":263,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/4DCKLKR6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/4DCKLKR6"],"itemData":{"id":263,"type":"book","title":"The American Indian: Past and Present","publisher":"University of Oklahoma Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The American Indian","author":[{"family":"Nichols","given":"Roger L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nichols).

The rift between the Cherokee community intensified with time and there was enormous bloodshed which left no chances of compromise between the belligerent groups. The American whites took advantage of the rift between different groups and launched coercive measures to draw the Cherokees out of their land. The American White Army was in no position to rectify any other treaty with the Cherokee community. Many historians argue that in their own conflict, the Cherokee community lost its respect which it earned in centuries. With years of conflict in their land, the Cherokee people finally achieved peace when the United States government signed the agreement with them in Washington. The Cherokees lost many of their civilized people in their own land. Cherokee people finally managed to live on their own land, when after the treaty of Washington in 1846, they were allowed by the United States government to retain their land ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GonQjKiV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Unger)","plainCitation":"(Unger)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":269,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/EYG6H94Y"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/EYG6H94Y"],"itemData":{"id":269,"type":"article-journal","title":"The destruction of American Indian families.","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Unger","given":"Steven"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1977"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Unger). The most pressing effect on Cherokee people was the loss of their economy which they made after years of struggle and they also lost their civilized culture. The Indian removal act suggests that the community upbringing takes centuries whereas it takes no days to ruin a culture.

Conclusion

There are different causes of the Indian removal act of 1930, which are still open for interpretation. Some historians argue that Jacksonian’s policies were like Hitler’s policy, whereas some argue that Jacksonian cared for the national cause of the United States of America. The geographical separation which took place in the times of his presidency was considered the worst times of American history. The removal of Cherokees from the Northern parts of their land was the worst atrocities that could have ever committed. In the aftermath of the act, the Cherokee community showed utmost resilience and rejected the loss of their culture. This act and the discrimination attributed to it suggest that how it is impossible to separate a community which have brought itself up in centuries.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bolt, Christine. American Indian Policy and American Reform: Case Studies of the Campaign to Assimilate the American Indians. Allen & Unwin London, 1987.

Cave, Alfred A. “Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830.” The Historian, vol. 65, no. 6, 2003, pp. 1330–1353.

Green, Michael D., and Theda Perdue. The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1995.

Grose, B. Donald. “Edwin Forrest," Metamora", and the Indian Removal Act of 1830.” Theatre Journal, vol. 37, no. 2, 1985, p. 181.

Nichols, Roger L. The American Indian: Past and Present. University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.

Unger, Steven. The Destruction of American Indian Families. 1977.

The Knights Templar

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If you turn the tide of time by thousand years, you will find long and dangerous pilgrims’ routes from western Europe to the holy land and the City of Jerusalem. The place was feared by pilgrims who would travel to Jerusalem for the visit of their holy lands. A Russian monk in 1106 described the place as “dreadful and dangerous” and stated that “pagans” and ”Saracens” lives there ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qtUUAtHj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Martin)","plainCitation":"(Martin)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":68,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/PS4X365A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/PS4X365A"],"itemData":{"id":68,"type":"book","title":"The Knights Templar: The history and myths of the legendary military order","publisher":"Basic Books","ISBN":"1-56025-645-1","author":[{"family":"Martin","given":"Sean"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Martin). During this time of the early crusades, a devote French group of knights appeared in Jerusalem willing to dedicate their lives to Christ. They were referred to as Templars refer to religious men who had power and based on this, they showed a religious lifestyle. Their belief was to domain the Christians from non-Christians and for this, they were assigned specific duties and responsibilities in society. The Church and the States of Europe allowed the use and establishment of Templars. These were regarded as the multinational corporation that has leading positions during all fights. Their role in early society was started in the wake of the First battle when the city of Jerusalem was taken by warriors from Western Europe. This catching of Christ's empty tomb infuriated these Templars to assemble fighters. Thus, to protect the Holy Sepulcher from Muslim Bandits, a military religious association was formed. This further got Church official approval in the early twelfth century and its members were formally known as Templars.

With time, their duties got broaden and they started defending the borders of the new crusader also. They were also responsible for getting information from the East and encourage Western Europe Christians to assist their fellow religionists. However, with the passage of time they got enormous prosperity and inspiration. In the early fourteenth century, King Philip IV of France blamed them for deviation from Church. These charges were not verified but Order's reputation was severely scratched. Considering all these elements, King of France and Pope conjointly prohibited the use of Templars in the early 14th century ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wvooOsU3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nix)","plainCitation":"(Nix)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"TG8PZt8K/Jx4hbcRw","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/GTI6UWII"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/GTI6UWII"],"itemData":{"id":193,"type":"webpage","title":"Who were the Knights Templar?","container-title":"HISTORY","abstract":"After Christian fighters captured Jerusalem during the First Crusade, groups of pilgrims from across Western Europe began visiting the Holy Land. Around 1118, a","URL":"https://www.history.com/news/who-were-the-knights-templar","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Nix","given":"Elizabeth"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nix). In reality, many historians still believe that the order went underground and are still effective because in the 18th century some organizations revived the medieval knights’ traditions and their fighting and cultural symbols ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"L8bfPCIN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nix)","plainCitation":"(Nix)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"TG8PZt8K/Jx4hbcRw","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/GTI6UWII"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/GTI6UWII"],"itemData":{"id":193,"type":"webpage","title":"Who were the Knights Templar?","container-title":"HISTORY","abstract":"After Christian fighters captured Jerusalem during the First Crusade, groups of pilgrims from across Western Europe began visiting the Holy Land. Around 1118, a","URL":"https://www.history.com/news/who-were-the-knights-templar","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Nix","given":"Elizabeth"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nix). Upon receiving their formal authorization from the Catholic Church many donations were provided and recruits were hired. They became known for their specific clothing and severe code of conduct. They develop a reputation of fierce warriors and started gaining a lot of financial help through their network of banking. At the height of their power, they owned an entire island, boasted a large fleet of ships and continued to lend to European kings and emperors.

Initial Motives

Initially, the knights provided health support and shelter to the traveling pilgrims in Jerusalem nearby the church of Holy Sepulcher. The motive was to safeguard the escort of pilgrims and facilitate their traveling difficulties. Due to intense heat in the region, their duties were to ensure the supplies of water and food for the travelers. Initially, the purpose included "to protect pilgrims along the perilous pilgrimage routes of middle east" they even named themselves as "Poor Fellow-soldiers of the Christ and the Temple of Solomon" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ecLaSnVZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(O\\uc0\\u8217{}Gorman and Beveridge)","plainCitation":"(O’Gorman and Beveridge)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":69,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/SPJ9NE74"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/SPJ9NE74"],"itemData":{"id":69,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Crusades, the Knights Templar and hospitaller: a combination of religion, war, pilgrimage and tourism enablers","container-title":"Tourism and War: A Complex Relationship.(Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism and Mobility). London","author":[{"family":"O’Gorman","given":"Kevin D."},{"family":"Beveridge","given":"Euan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (O’Gorman and Beveridge). They presented themselves as religious, dedicated to God and noblemen. Their main duty was to maintain peace in the areas and roads of pilgrimage travelers against Muslim bandits. The Templars saw this as an opportunity of a direct entry to heaven through offering their lives in defense of others. The Templars were vastly regarded as an honest and disciplined group, due to which people would place their trust in them. The trust in their administrative skills allows people to fund them, as they considered it a noble cause. This funding would, later on, help to develop the current banking system in Europe. Banking and defending people's wealth and possessions started to become a complement for their activities in the Holy land of Jerusalem. One of their main achievements was also the development of a connection between European states and the transfer of people and information started from medieval times have resulted in current interconnected modern sovereign states. The money they received was mostly spent on building castles, routes to the holy land and was also distributed in the poor people. The rules through which they spent their lives are very similar but not so strict as what people would find in the monastery. They were not allowed to own any valuables and were supposed to carry a very small amount of money. The worldly pleasure was not permitted, flashy clothing, hunting and hawking were prohibited. These restrictions made them the most powerful and fearsome warriors of the crusade.

Peak of Powers

Their powers increased several times around 1140 when Pope Innocent the 2nd issued a Papal Bull that gave them some additional advantages and protections ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"07UK69ap","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}BBC - Travel - The Secret Seat of the Knights Templar})","plainCitation":"(BBC - Travel - The Secret Seat of the Knights Templar)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":70,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/TRTDD7JK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/TRTDD7JK"],"itemData":{"id":70,"type":"webpage","title":"BBC - Travel - The secret seat of the Knights Templar","URL":"http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20190724-the-knights-templars-mightiest-stronghold","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (BBC - Travel - The Secret Seat of the Knights Templar). They were relieved from taxes and gifts they received. This was the time where their powers spread beyond the areas of Jerusalem. The Knight Templars have consisted of different nationalities from all over the world, but initially, it was founded by a French man also almost all the leaders o the order were mostly French which makes France the hub of Templer's development in Europe. At that same time King Louis, the 7th donated a whole state to the Templers. One of the main reasons for their success was their banking system. Even at that time, Templers permitted people to deposit money in one place and then with certain assurances and letters withdraw it from another place. Their banking system was what people today called it as current account, where people would pay in regular deposits and then the Templers would pay it off to anyone nominated by the account holder. The success and their trustworthiness can be determined by the fact that by the end of the 13th century the kings and monarchs of France would place their treasures and valuable things with the Templers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fi4B0OaS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia})","plainCitation":"(Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":72,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QIUP2DN5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QIUP2DN5"],"itemData":{"id":72,"type":"webpage","title":"Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia","URL":"https://www.ancient.eu/Knights_Templar/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia). The Templars became an important central figure in the economy of Medieval Europe. They had a proper organizational structure at that time and the order was led by a Grandmaster who stood at the top of the power. To create harmony and unity between distant branches usually, two knights were assigned with a single horse. They were involved in many battles which resulted in success. Some of the major victories include the siege of Acre in 1189-91 CE, Damietta in 1218-19 CE, and Constantinople in 1204 CE ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ERXK60eX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia})","plainCitation":"(Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":72,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QIUP2DN5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QIUP2DN5"],"itemData":{"id":72,"type":"webpage","title":"Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia","URL":"https://www.ancient.eu/Knights_Templar/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia). However, there are numerous defeats that came along the way as well. These battles resulted in the beheading and killing of several hundred Templers with the battles against Saladin. A huge amount of Templers died in the Crusades with Muslim armies.

Decline, Criticism, and Abolition

The shift of tide occurs slowly in the 12th century. With the concerns among Christians regarding the Holy land and the unity of Muslims under the leadership of Saladin. Conflicts arose on matters with other Christian military orders and they struggled monetarily. This, in general, weakened the position of Christians and Jerusalem was captured back by Muslims under the leadership of Saladin. This meant that Templers were made obligatory to shift their forces and centers, to other cities. With key losses, they moved their headquarters from present-day Israel to Present-day Cyprus. In 1302 the Templers now lost the island to Mamluk Sultanate from Egypt ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3rB78Deh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia})","plainCitation":"(Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":72,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QIUP2DN5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QIUP2DN5"],"itemData":{"id":72,"type":"webpage","title":"Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia","URL":"https://www.ancient.eu/Knights_Templar/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",10,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia). When western countries started to gain huge reserves of land and wealth, they started becoming vary in different military orders. Like many different military orders, the knights were also accused of misuse of their power and facilities provided to them. One of the main criticisms on them was that critics believed that Templers waste too much money and spend very little of it. They argue that this money can be spent on other better works. Even if the money is available for spending it should be spent on the troops of other holy wars. The Templars used to convert people from other religions to Christianity but one accusation on them was that they were simply eliminating many Muslims rather than converting them to Christianity. Later in the early 14th century, the acquisitions became stronger and Templers faced some blames that they deny Christ as a God and they are involved in trampling and spitting on the crucifix. They were accused of committing idolatry and worshiping other things than Christ.

There then came a time when king Philip the fourth ordered to arrest all the Templers. Though to this day, his true motives remain unclear but some historians suggest that lust for the acquisition of wealth, their military force and the political threat they faced to him. Moreover, the desire to get a political reputation and prestige of the critics on Templers may as well be another reason for the king to order their arrest. A trial was later conducted in 1310 CE in France after that dozens of Templers were either were burned to their bones ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dxD7ZJPb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Martin)","plainCitation":"(Martin)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":68,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/PS4X365A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/PS4X365A"],"itemData":{"id":68,"type":"book","title":"The Knights Templar: The history and myths of the legendary military order","publisher":"Basic Books","ISBN":"1-56025-645-1","author":[{"family":"Martin","given":"Sean"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Martin). The Grand Master of the order, who was still protesting his lack of knowledge about any political activity while he was taken for his funeral. While during the trial many confessed to some of the crimes but none of them were in any regard any serious one.

Most former Templar knights were forcefully prevented from joining any other military order. Some of the lands and duties were passed on to other groups but most of the wealth and money ended up with different landlords. Some of the kings of the neighboring countries provided proper protection and insurances of safety to Templers. They settled there and changed their name accordingly from Knights Templar to the Order of Christ.

Conclusion:

The original plan of its formation was to protect and safeguard pilgrims of Jerusalem. They devoted themselves to the wellbeing and safety of pilgrims in the Holy land. Their duties evolved with time by caring for the sick and homeless people. The money and funding they would get were spent on the building road networks toward the Holy land. However, with time the organization became more powerful and influential. It has helped in developing a number of tourism traditions. Not only that but Templar knights were the ones behind the formation and governance of the first European banking system. Their financial stability and power to protect that money was their main trustworthy abilities for people to believe in them. However, they didn't evolve with time and in the end, got used by the monarchs and Kings for their purposes.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY BBC - Travel - The Secret Seat of the Knights Templar. http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20190724-the-knights-templars-mightiest-stronghold. Accessed 5 Oct. 2019.

Knights Templar - Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.ancient.eu/Knights_Templar/. Accessed 5 Oct. 2019.

Martin, Sean. The Knights Templar: The History and Myths of the Legendary Military Order. Basic Books, 2004.

Nix, Elizabeth. “Who Were the Knights Templar?” HISTORY, https://www.history.com/news/who-were-the-knights-templar. Accessed 4 Oct. 2019.

O'Gorman, Kevin D., and Euan Beveridge. "The Crusades, the Knights Templar, and Hospitaller: A Combination of Religion, War, Pilgrimage and Tourism Enablers." Tourism and War: A Complex Relationship. (Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism, and Mobility). London, 2012.

The Life Of A Colonist In Jamestown

Term Paper: The Life of a Colonist in Jamestown

Mackenzie Young

19 November 2019

In 1607, Jamestown was founded as the first English permanent settlement in the United States of America. But it is not the first successful European permanent settlement in the United States as St. Augustine was founded in Florida by Spanish before Jamestown. Almost four hundred ago at an unexpected day of December, a total of three small ships started a huge and dangerous voyage from England across the Atlantic Ocean. The main aim of the passengers was to acquire wealth as well as the discovery of a new land. The desire and temptation of new opportunities led them to this journey. Next year in May, they arrived in the new world where they started the new journey they contributed to the betterment of the United States of America. Though this summary seems ridiculous that people set out from their places and started a journey towards new worlds for wealth. Most American citizens believed that this story happened fourteen years before while the actual story of Jamestown settlers is not known to anyone who settled in 1607. However, when the people hear the word Jamestown, they link it with a negative association, they usually associate them with Separatists of New England.

The colony of 1607 has lasting issues related to their background which they experienced for almost four centuries and it is said by most of the scholars that they still have a bad impression on people. In 2007, a book published which states, "The overburdened streets of London were scraped of thousands of English men, women, and children, mostly poor, who were shoveled into the insatiable engine of torment that was Jamestown”. This book represents Jamestown as a "tiny profane death-haunted European outpost and as a mostly male occupied stockade with no history, no culture, and no civic pride”. These are the harsh realities related to the historical representation of the Jamestown. Generally, historians focused narrowly on several issues which were experienced by the early colony as well as the time in that they encountered defeat. Four main critics arise regarding Jamestown settlers. This colony was established at the extreme poor site with no access to fresh water and the area is also insect-infested while the soil is marshy. Secondly, these colonists were clueless and inept while dealing with locals. The constant warfare added more sorrow in their life, they were the laziest people they don’t have any ability to feed themselves and are even unable to do laborious tasks. Finally, the death toll of this colony was unfortunate. Through these critics the story of Jamestown is exposed.

The pilgrims are the fundamental example of early settlers who received better images in the memory although it is well-known that the pilgrims also encountered various hardships in the early years in Massachusetts. The main aim of this paper is to study the process through which Jamestown faced this dismissal reputation in the memory of Americans. I will argue about the emerging evidence which develops a positive image about the settlers of Jamestown. Though the people of Jamestown encountered so many hardships in the beginning but now the perception about this colony is continuously changing and it is focused on America’s development.

The Jamestown colony origin can be seen as the economic crisis which England experienced in the early 17th century. For acquiring the monetary gains the company of Virginia is established having branches in both London as well as Plymouth. This company had the joint-stock project which means that some portion of the company was owned by its investors while this company hopes to acquire a significant amount of return once this company managed to get a hold on the world. This company success will help to boost the business in England as well as also relief this colony population, investors eagerly risked their money. As the investors had various hopes such as the precious metal discovery, beneficial and friendly trade with locals as well as they believed that the colonist labor significantly produce the marketable commodities. From the 17th century beginning, England was behind the other nations in developing new colonies in the United States. At that time Spain has a huge empire in control which consist of Central and South America, Mexico, Florida settlement and some part of the Caribbean. They were also trying to settle in Southwest of America. The Jamestown Foundation is because of the King James I blessings, that's why this settlement and the James River were named after him. Although, this colony was run as well as financed by the company of Virginia. This company was in turn financed through private investors and they expected from these colonists to find a route towards East Asia or any valuable commodity that will make the enterprise profitable as well as offer return on investment. But unfortunately, this company selected the bug-infested and disease-ridden land with no access to fresh water. This colony is located almost 94km away from the river of James through the Atlantic coast this site was selected as there were orders from the investors that not to choose a land in which native people live. When the colonist reached there in May of 1607 they were categorized in the three groups. The first group was the one whose task was to construct storehouse and defense walls with few simple houses, the other group task was crops plantation while the third group task was to discover minerals as well as a route towards East Asia. But the colony get in trouble soon when several Indians attacked this settlement, and the colonist has no time to fight. Soon the colonists started dying, from the 104 boys and men only 38 alive. The misery of the colonists added as they drink salty water, also, food shortage because of famine as well as the harsh winter. It is written by George Percy one of the survivors of this colony, "Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases as swellings, fluxes [also called dysentery], burning fevers, and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of mere famine, there were never Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia." Initially, they buried bodies in the unmarked graves so that people don't get an idea how many settlers have died and two bodies were buried in the same grave. However, in 1608 hundred new settlers were resupplied though the period from 1609 to 1610 was the starving time in which the elected governor Smith was forced to leave this colony because of his gunpowder injury and the new governor was appointed named Thomas Gates who came there with food supplies. The situation of Jamestown improved in the coming decades. When the company of Virginia grew the Jamestown also flourished. Several colonists initiate the tobacco plantation that expanded Jamestown to the New Town which is located at the east of original fort. The colonists of Jamestown were working well and the residents developed English style houses and cottages along the main road of New Town. When more and more new settlers were coming in Jamestown the English people gain control over more area as well as launching various new colonies which also include Plymouth. In 1624 May, the company of Virginia was dissolved and the Jamestown formed as the crown colony whose governor was appointed directly by the king. In the year 1994, APVA started archeological work to find the remaining of the original fort of Jamestown it was believed by many people that this fort was washed away in the River of James. Through excavation, the hole was seen where the triangular fort was once present. Archeologists also discover five other churches remain and row houses. From that day Jamestown is the most active site for digging. In 2015 archeological team also uncovered the burial site of 4 leaders of Jamestown. Also, on the original spots the replicas of the triangular fort were produced some past buildings are reproduced through similar bricks used previously. Kelso who was hired for the excavation of 17th-century site says,

Were there gentlemen at Jamestown? Of course. And some of them were lazy and incompetent. But not all. The proof of the matter is that the settlement survived, and it survived because people persisted and sacrificed. And what began as an English settlement gradually evolved into something different, something new. You look up and down the river as the settlement expanded and you find it is not like England. The houses are different—the towns, agriculture, commerce. They were laying the roots of American society. Despite the agony, the tragedy, and all of the missteps, this is where modern America began.

It takes a long time that the perception about the Jamestown changed significantly, it is now hoped that the Jamestown has taken its rightful place not only as the permanent settlement of English but also as it played a major role in the economic development of America and also they contributed in what America is today.

Bibliography

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Hashaw, Tim. The Birth of Black America: The First African Americans and the Pursuit of Freedom at Jamestown. 1st Carroll & Graf Ed edition. New York : Berkeley, Calif.: Basic Books, 2007.

Horn, James. A Land As God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America. Basic Books, 2008.

July 24, Owen Jarus-Live Science Contributor, and 2018 History. “Jamestown: Facts & History.” livescience.com. Accessed November 19, 2019. https://www.livescience.com/38595-jamestown-history.html.

Mcbee, Sarah. By, 2009.

Robertson, Patrick. Robertson’s Book of Firsts: Who Did What for the First Time. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2011.

The Life Of Fredrick Douglass

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Essay: The Life of Fredrick Douglass

Fredrick Douglass expressed his narrative on slavery through literature, as it encompass the literature power which allows the reader that they can interpret it in various ways. The rules system was enforced by institutions through authority. The literature significantly contributes to the development of law. In the history of America, ‘slavery’ is considered as the most unfortunate practice and in the early centuries, people used to oppose or favor slavery by literature. Fredrick Douglass presented the religion role, particularly about Christianity, in the “Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass”. It is written in his literature that the bible possesses two versions, one is true Christianity while the other is white Christianity which assists to strengthen slavery ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UhYRSyJF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":496,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/3EU3Q4ZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/3EU3Q4ZL"],"itemData":{"id":496,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass","container-title":"Skyhorse Publishing","abstract":"Packaged in handsome and affordable trade editions, Clydesdale Classics is a new series of essential literary works. From the musings of literary geniuses li...","URL":"https://www.skyhorsepublishing.com/9781945186189/narrative-of-the-life-of-frederick-douglass","language":"en-US","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass”). Douglass is well-known because of his outstanding oratory skill although he is usually acknowledged as the incredible abolitionist.

The work of Douglass regarding slavery demolishment is greatly known because of his slavery life experiences as well as his theory about slavery. In his theory, “Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass”, he expressed his view that the bible has influenced negatively on slavery and also developed white Christianity. He claims himself as a slave and according to him, he does not have information about his family roots because slaveholders do not share much knowledge with slaves because if slaves get to know about themselves, they will find ways to escape as Douglass did through recalling his memories. Douglass also targeted the behavior of slaveholders as it was usually harsh and they were forced to perform labor, murder and blood-shedding in the name of religion. In this way, Christianity was practiced in two ways according to Douglass slaves believe in one Christianity while the master who was white Americans believed in the other Christianity version. According to Douglass's theory, the master used cruelty as an excuse for Christianity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nU1g2jGZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(vrana25)","plainCitation":"(vrana25)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":464,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/3WYCQYLF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/3WYCQYLF"],"itemData":{"id":464,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Frederick Douglass’s theory on Religion (Christianity), Slavery, and the Law","container-title":"Vipul A Rana","abstract":"8/07/2010 Law and Literature encompasses the power of literature and they way it presented the law in a light that allows its readers to interpret it from different directions. The law is a system …","URL":"https://vrana25.wordpress.com/2010/08/07/frederick-douglasss-theory-on-religion-christianity-slavery-and-the-law/","language":"en","author":[{"literal":"vrana25"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",8,7]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (vrana25). Christianity no doubt teaches politeness but the one practiced by masters did not allow optimism. As in the peak time of slavery, Christianity was one of the most dominant religions of the US. Although Douglass describes Christianity as the peaceful and pure religion, but according to him, Christianity is of two types ‘Christianity of Christ’ and ‘Christianity of this land’. Though Douglass hates the hypocritical Christianity practices in the name of religion. Here Douglass is demonstrating that there is no good inside the master and slaveholder. The actions of slave owners include enforcing excessive labor on slaves without giving food, stripping privileges, and murdering in some cases. He further explained in his theory that the non-religious slaveholders were not as cruel as the religious were. He also remained puzzled in understanding how a person can act in such a way under the faith of Christianity. The person who has faith in God how would he justifies his inhuman acts which include starving, killing and beating the other person. Thus Douglass only assumed that Christianity devastatingly influenced slavery. According to the theory, it is misinterpreted from bible that, “Opponents of slavery offered complex arguments demonstrating that the slavery allowed in the Bible was different from the ‘monstrous system of American slavery,’ going so far as to claim that the word “slave” in English translation of the Bible was, at least in some passages, actually a mistranslation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nyIwjfXU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Mocking the Sacred: Frederick Douglass\\uc0\\u8217{}s \\uc0\\u8220{}Slaveholder\\uc0\\u8217{}s Sermon\\uc0\\u8221{} and the Antebellum Debate over Religion and Slavery: Quarterly Journal of Speech: Vol 88, No 3})","plainCitation":"(Mocking the Sacred: Frederick Douglass’s “Slaveholder’s Sermon” and the Antebellum Debate over Religion and Slavery: Quarterly Journal of Speech: Vol 88, No 3)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":466,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/9JD24NMK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/9JD24NMK"],"itemData":{"id":466,"type":"webpage","title":"Mocking the sacred: Frederick Douglass's “slaveholder's sermon” and the antebellum debate over religion and slavery: Quarterly Journal of Speech: Vol 88, No 3","URL":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00335630209384380","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mocking the Sacred: Frederick Douglass’s “Slaveholder’s Sermon” and the Antebellum Debate over Religion and Slavery: Quarterly Journal of Speech: Vol 88, No 3)”.Douglass also believed that being attached with faith produces significant changes in the person while recalling his old master, Auld Douglass explains that, "Emancipate his slaves and if that (Christianity) did not do this, at any rate, make him more kind and humane." While recalling inhuman act Douglass describes that Mr. Wilson tied up the young woman and whipped her naked shoulder with heavy cow skin which injured her badly and drops of red blood were started flowing from her shoulder. The master justified this act with the scripture which states that, "He that knoweth his master's will, and doeth it not, shall be beaten with many stripes." This event demonstrated that such religious literature provides evidence to masters on their inhumane act. Although the term law and religion help in building better norms in society. Like on religion masters also justify their behavior through law as the law must be followed by everyone. In slavery, people were not allowed to read and write. Although Douglass managed to read various literature including the bible through which he gets an idea about how slave masters are using religion in the wrong way. In the slave era even reading the scripts of Bible was considered as law-breaking. At some point, he also describes that his master's wife used to help him in reading different types of biblical literature.

Owning the slaves reinforced the idea in slaveholders that they are superior they consider slaves as their property. This made slave owners to behave inhumanly with slaves. In addition, the actions of slave owners were mostly protected through law and they justify their actions through religious scriptures. Douglass presented that the owners of slaves deny their slaves' inhumanity by justifying their human ownership. They do not consider their slaves as human and mostly treat them inhumanely. While treating the slaves like the beast the owners of slaves become beast themselves. They usually become religious and pious in public so that no one can observe their brutality act. They also pervert the bible for the justification of owning slaves. Through the two examples, Douglass represented the slaveholding effect on the slaveholders by the Edward Covey and Thomas Auld character. According to Douglass, they both represented them in completely different they actually are. Edward Covey shows himself as the pious and righteous Christian man but in actuality, he was a cruel slave owner. According to Douglass slavery badly affects the slaves as he witnessed the transformation of Sophia from the righteous woman to the corrupt slave master. As before slavery, she is an affectionate and kind woman after slavery she persuaded the mind of her husband by saying that being slave education will ruin Douglass ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"heQtUVf4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stow)","plainCitation":"(Stow)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":494,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/VFAA744U"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/VFAA744U"],"itemData":{"id":494,"type":"chapter","title":"Douglass, Frederick (1818–1895)","container-title":"Encyclopedia of Political Theory","publisher":"SAGE Publications, Inc.","publisher-place":"Thousand Oaks","page":"403-403","number-of-volumes":"3","source":"SAGE Knowledge","event-place":"Thousand Oaks","URL":"http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/politicaltheory/n134.xml","note":"DOI: 10.4135/9781412958660","author":[{"family":"Stow","given":"Simon"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stow). She used to treat slaves like her property the slaveholding transformed Sophia from the generous lady to the cruel and harsh character woman.

Douglas once turns the table towards slaveholders and appealed with people to do not provide the Underground Railroad secret as he only wanted to protect the slaves but also to experience the helplessness of the slaveholders. It is strongly believed in the south that lifestyle and wealth belong to slavery. The narrative of Douglass is based on the perpetuate slavery of the white slaveholders through keeping their slaves ignorant. When Douglass was writing his narrative at that time it was believed that slavery was considered as the natural state. It was believed that the black was incapable to participated in the works of civil society. So, it is required to keep them as white workers. The strategies of this narrative explain that white has power over black from the time of their birth. The owners of the slaves used to keep the slaves ignorant about their fundamental rights and information about their birthplace, date, and paternity. The master used to prevent their slaves from learning reading and writing because literacy would provide them a sense of capability and understanding. So, through keeping the control over the slaveholders the southern masters of slaves keep their slaves illiterate. As when the slaves could not write about their stories they could not tell to anyone else ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yEeQzu3g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}SparkNotes: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Themes})","plainCitation":"(SparkNotes: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Themes)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":469,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/54RZQJ9L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/54RZQJ9L"],"itemData":{"id":469,"type":"webpage","title":"SparkNotes: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Themes","URL":"https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/narrative/themes/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (SparkNotes: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Themes).

It was surprising for Douglass when he came to know that the people in the North are not different from one who did not own slaves in the south. They were quaint, poor, and live humbly. According to his perception, only the slave owners can be comfortable and rich. Although, New Bedford completely changed his expectations the north people were intelligent, hardworking and well-mannered. He saw their crowded warehouses, well-kept ships, and clean houses. Every person understands his duties and works effectively. Douglass observed various churches their all are shining and lovely. The residents of the South seem to be healthier and happier as compared to those in the South. The man whom Douglass resided was not a wealthier slave owner but a well-mannered man both politically and religiously. Douglass marveled at what he observes in North although there was also imperfectness in the north as he experienced prejudices therein business as well as he didn’t find work and he had to take odd jobs. However, the north was not the place free from racism but a better and pleasant place to live.

Being a slave Douglass slaves’ narrative was often questioned by the reviewers at the various event. The narrative of Douglass faced scrutiny when it was noted by William Garrison the white abolitionist that Maryland was less barbarous as compared to the other states of the south. Though the narrative of Douglass was true in every perspective.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Mocking the Sacred: Frederick Douglass’s “Slaveholder’s Sermon” and the Antebellum Debate over Religion and Slavery: Quarterly Journal of Speech: Vol 88, No 3. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00335630209384380. Accessed 30 Nov. 2019.

“Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.” Skyhorse Publishing, https://www.skyhorsepublishing.com/9781945186189/narrative-of-the-life-of-frederick-douglass. Accessed 2 Dec. 2019.

SparkNotes: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Themes. https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/narrative/themes/. Accessed 30 Nov. 2019.

Stow, Simon. “Douglass, Frederick (1818–1895).” Encyclopedia of Political Theory, SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010, pp. 403–403. SAGE Knowledge, doi:10.4135/9781412958660.

vrana25. “Frederick Douglass’s Theory on Religion (Christianity), Slavery, and the Law.” Vipul A Rana, 7 Aug. 2010, https://vrana25.wordpress.com/2010/08/07/frederick-douglasss-theory-on-religion-christianity-slavery-and-the-law/.

The Little-Known History Of Slavery In California: Lynette Mullen

The Little-Known History of Slavery in California: Lynette Mullen

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Little-Known History of Slavery in California: Lynette Mullen

Pictorial history of California (1925)

Lynette Mullen gives a presentation over a book by Owen Cochran Coy who explored the roots of slavery in California. Generally, slavery was associated with Negroes until Coy wrote this book. He explored that Blacks were not the only people who were used as slaves by the European colonizers, there were Native Americans too. Humboldt County of California was the most notorious for the enslavement of the Indians. Coy explains a law that was passed in 1850 to protect the natives; it was, in fact, an ironical law. It did not protect rather seriously exploited the Indians. Indian’s enslavement was channelized through this law. For example, every White had the right to sue any Indian or use any imprisoned Indian for his land labor by paying a short amount to the government. On the contrary, no Indian had the right to sue any White according to that law.

Every White man was equipped with Indian slaves who were young boys and girls mostly because the adult slaves were avoided for the fear of their fight-back. It increased the demand of Indian adolescents and thus increased their trafficking. Indian children were hunted from woods or captured from their houses and were sold to the Whites who used them for domestic jobs as well as agriculture. The parents who resisted were killed by the White traffickers. Humboldt Times reported in 1861 that George Woodman was arrested having more than 500 Indian adolescents. Legally, the boys were supposed to stay and work at the houses of the whites until 30 and the girls until 25. They were treated as half-wild animals. Hoopa Reservations were created to channelize those Indians who were not living in anyone’s house. Hoopa Reservations were other places to exploit them. Sylva Huestis was the first lady who renounced slicer and ran from the house of her patron. She was followed by many others and the Indians started speaking against their exploitation when the 20th century started. Owen Coy’s accounts prove that slavery existed in California as it existed in South America.

The Lost Colony Of Roanoke

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THE LOST COLONY OF ROANOKE AN ENIGMA

As ground zero for the mystery of the Lost Colony, it is also inhabited with wraiths and werewolves, enchanted animals and aliens, and all manner of supernatural beings help responsible for what happened to eighty-five men, seventeen women and thirteen children more than four centuries ago.

-Andrew Lawler

Thefollowing paper encapsulates the history of The Lost Colony of Roanoke and elucidates the notion of an associated enigma with its disappearance. Phenomenally, Sir Walter Raleigh, an English nobleman endeavored to establish first undeviating English arrangement within the premises of North America the colony of Roanoke was a manifestation of such attempts. It was 1585 when then-governor Ralph Lane founded the earliest colony on Roanoke Island. However, due to miscellaneous reasons, the first colony proved to be a failure the abortive settlement, in turn, paved the path for the settlement of a second protectorate. Consequently, John White embarked on the mission and established a colony on the very island in 1587 (Lawler, 2018). Astoundingly, the newly established settlement vanished from the face of the earth, and the evaporation of colonists becomes a tangled skein of mystery. After four hundred years, regardless of a myriad of speculations, the riddle of The Lost Colony of Roanoke is unsolved and known as the biggest puzzle of history.

Historical annals affirm that the first English colony was established in the proximity of the Chesapeake Bay region and comprised of more than a hundred inhabitants. In early stages, Roanoke colony strived to get stable as all other first neighborhoods. In 1587, John White sailed to England to obtain essential resources and men help, in order to sustain and expand the residential territory of Roanoke. Unfortunately, it was the epoch of Anglo-Spanish skirmish, and Spanish meddling and swindling were on its peak. As a result, White robbed by Spaniards on his way back to the colony, and it took him about three years to return Roanoke (River, 2013). At arriving Roanoke, White got found the most unexpected scenario the colony was bared of people, and no trace of struggle or any human presence was evident. White exhausted in pinpointing even a single clue that could explicate the causation of such utter disappearance of the populace of more than a hundred people. Different hypotheses are devised to comprehend the probable situation that swallowed up the entire colony some of them are as follow.

Capturing or blending of the colony into Local Indian Populace

Croatoan

Massacre of Colonists

Possibilities of Cannibalism

The Outbreak of some Fatal Diseases

Religious and Belief-Based Explications

Political Intricacies

Among all infamous theories and suppositions about the disappearance of Roanokes colonists, the idea of being imprisoned or amalgamation is highly approvable. A significant faction of historians agrees that in the absence of adequate aid and facilities, the colonists found it feasible to get sheltered with other Indian clans. Moreover, the historical annals carry some documented observations and pieces of evidence of Europeans presence around the region after missing settlers. The relevancy of premises and period suggests that such Europeans were either the vanished colony members or their offspring.

On the other hand, the conjecture regarding term Croatoan and its interconnectivity with the missing of Roanoke Colony is rationally debatable as well. It is explained that on his arrival to the colony premises, John White spotted an embossed inscription on a tree that read as Croatoan. However, in the given circumstances, it was not possible for White to search the islands around. The perceived presence of colonists on a nearby island also provoked the Spanish so that they could assault and rob the Europeans (River, 2013). Though, regardless of all the implied endeavors, no one triumphed in pinpointing the clue of colonists existence anywhere.

History is a dynamic and self-narrated mtier, and therefore anyone can falsely affiliate their credit or partake in substantial incidents. The theoretical framework regarding holocaust of the colonists seems one of such self-fabricated instances. It is believed that in 1607, Captain John Smith determined to unearth the fate of Roanoke colonists and in due course, he met Chief Powhatan. The chief exhibited some prominent objects from Roanoke people that include brass-made pastel and mortar and a musket barrel. With the help of such shreds of evidence, the chief bragged that he murdered all the colonists because they dejected the offer of tribal amalgamation (Conerly, 2017). In 1609, King and Royal Council accused Chief Powhatan of vanishing of the Roanoke Colony.

Like all other propositions, some people believe that the missing of Roanoke Colony is the consequence of cannibalism. In this context, it is suggested that either cannibal killed the colonists or they turned into cannibals for the sake of survival. Similarly, as a matter of fact, the tribesmen of Native America were not convivial to outsider settlers. However, the researchers never found unexplained dead bodies or remains (Conerly, 2017). For this, it is a common perception that human bones could be powdered to be utilized in the making of ancient remedies at that time.

Contrarily, another thought perspective emphasizes on the outbreak of a disease or virus, and some chronological proofs also sustain such implications. Experts believe that the colony members of Roanoke were a novice to the land, and therefore it is might possible that they lacked immune to cope with particular diseases. Contextually, theories exert that plague could be most sought after causation for implied insanity, paranoia, and hallucination in colonists. Regardless of logical grounds, the theory is failed to define the reasons of having no trace of any colonist dead or alive.

Along with other physical and psychological and regional issues, the researchers also sifted through supernatural and witchcraft-based explanations in understanding the basis behind the utter disappearance of the lost colony. Such otherworldly observations include the likelihood of witch crafting and other supernatural mishaps. When it comes to witchcraft, the underlying propositions segregated into two probabilities. A faction believes that Croatoan terminated the colonists as the suspects of witchcraft meanwhile, others vary and state that North Carolinas wood witches victimized the lost colony members. Similarly, religious and supernatural occurrences are also active in elaborating the associated rationalization (Conerly, 2017). Native American throw light on some paranormal speculations which are of course do not have any scientific validity, but yet an ample indigenous populace blindly deemed the supposition as accurate. According to Native Americans, wendigo (a wild beast spirit) gulps down the flesh of a human. Contrarily, Croatoan avers that island spirits are capable of sopping up the humans into the land (Conerly, 2017). Moreover, the spirit is recognized as a force that could turn the humans into stones, plantation, or animals as well as any other nonliving object if become furious or enraged.

Political trappings and plotting are also considered as a rational and logical reason behind the sudden and ultimate vanishing of the lost colony of Roanoke. In her book Roanoke the Mystery of the Lost Colony, Lee Miller explores different facades of Roanoke and the interlinked mystery behind its evaporation. For this purpose, Miller analyzes the entire scenario since the very beginning when in 1587 English settlers were foundered in the premises which was discovered by Sir Walter Raleighs voyage. In due course, numerous questions have established that include where what and why. Throughout the book, Miller explores the chances of incorporated deceptions and deceiving of Queen Elizabeths closed by accolades in the fading of the entire Roanoke Colony (Miller, 2012).

By analyzing all the facts and factoids regarding settlements and sudden and inexplicable disappearance of the Roanoke Colony, it becomes evident that untangling the enigma is not a piece of cake. After all these centuries, the traces and prospect clues to solve the mystery have also vanished. History is a discipline in which historians have substantial power to add, subtract, alter, or exaggerate the account of actual occurrences. The same phenomenon is interrelated with the obscured past of Roanoke historians of different era keep infusing accessible and comprehensible theories to partake in the resolution of the underlying inscrutability. Elucidations from almost all mtier of life, including politics, religion, sociology, psychology, and medical sciences are presented to justify the traceless fading of a sizeable colony. However, it is also apparent that every proposition features some technical flaws that impede the reliability and viability of perspectives. Not a single theory can be asserted as inclusive and perfect in terms of applicability. Disease and cannibalism demand acquisition of human remains that are never found the same rule applies to the theory of mass murder. On the other hand, the spirits and witchcraft are psychic aspects which are not believed by everyone and denied by most. Political maneuverings and immigration of inhabitants also necessitate some concrete proofs which are never revealed. Furthermore, only a few basic concepts are discussed in the paper meanwhile, there is much other roaming into the experts circle. Four hundred years is a considerable period to eradicate all the hints not from the landscape but also genetics and chronological annals. The dated epoch and ambiguity of evidence sustain that the enigma of the Lost Colony of Roanoke will remain an unsolved puzzle till eternity.

Work Cited

Conerly, Jennifer. The Lost Colony of Roanoke 8 Theories About the Mysterious Island  and Its Inhabitants. HistoryCollection.co, 15 Aug. 2017,  historycollection.co/lost-colony-roanoke-8-theories-mysterious-island- inhabitants/8/.

Lawler, Andrew. Secret Token Myth, Obsession, and the Search for the Lost Colony of  Roanoke. Anchor Books, 2019.

Miller, Lee. Roanoke the Mystery of the Lost Colony. Scholastic Nonfiction, 2007.

River, Charles. Historys Greatest Mysteries the Lost Colony of Roanoke. CreateSpace  Independent Publishing Platform, 2018.

The Lost Colony of Roanoke 8 Theories About the Mysterious Island and Its  Inhabitants. HistoryCollection.co, 15 Aug. 2017, historycollection.co/lost-colony- roanoke-8-theories-mysterious-island-inhabitants/.

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The Middle Ages: Humanism

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The Middle Ages: Humanism

Section 1

Why Charlemagne’s empire died out?

Charlemagne (742- 814) led a great empire after the death of his grandfather and father. He rose to prominence because of his expanding wealth and his close relations with the religious elites (Popes of those times). Despite a large area under his control, he kept on expanding his empire through military invasions and building strong administrative setups ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MCDW4HJZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Davis)","plainCitation":"(Davis)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T9LT6A8W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T9LT6A8W"],"itemData":{"id":1101,"type":"book","title":"Charlemagne's practice of empire","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Davis","given":"Jennifer R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Davis). Several historians have shed light on various reasons for the downfall of his empire. There are some historians’ arguments on administrative failure, extraordinary reliance on close aides, harmonious relations with the Church and expanded land with the failed administrative rule were the reasons for the downfall of his empire. Davis has highlighted these reasons in the following manner.

After overtaking the Papal States in the surroundings of his Empire, Charlemagne became so anxious to continue such adventures that he paid little heed towards the administrative restructuring of the captured lands. His people whom he appointed his representative there were also much careless and were least attentive toward the affairs of utmost importance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"b4VrVD5p","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Davis 256)","plainCitation":"(Davis 256)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T9LT6A8W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T9LT6A8W"],"itemData":{"id":1101,"type":"book","title":"Charlemagne's practice of empire","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Davis","given":"Jennifer R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}},"locator":"256","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Davis 256).

Charlemagne’s empire became so large that he often sought help from Church for financial matters, this resulted in the failure of his control on the financial matters.

The last blow to his empire was the outside attacks from Vikings. They considered this falling empire an easy prey and attacked the empire, which resulted at the end of Charlemagne's reign in days ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HSv8SrCP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Davis 259)","plainCitation":"(Davis 259)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T9LT6A8W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T9LT6A8W"],"itemData":{"id":1101,"type":"book","title":"Charlemagne's practice of empire","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Davis","given":"Jennifer R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}},"locator":"259","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Davis 259).

The feudal system on a new forming civilization

Ullmann argues that feudalism had enormous effects on the formation of new civilizations during the Middle Ages ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oU9UiFWS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ullmann)","plainCitation":"(Ullmann)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1103,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/IDHR7FB7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/IDHR7FB7"],"itemData":{"id":1103,"type":"book","title":"Principles of Government and Politics in the Middle Ages (Routledge Revivals)","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Ullmann","given":"Walter"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ullmann). Feudalism discouraged the formation of a unified government. The kings, knights and their closer subordinates were interested in keeping their control over the lands they use to inherit from their forefathers. In order to do so, they normally used to divide lands between them. This resulted in lesser administrative facilities for people living in those lands. This resulted in poor developments of those areas as the Kings and their associates were not interested in resolving the pressing issues of their masses ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"k2d5pzEN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ullmann)","plainCitation":"(Ullmann)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1103,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/IDHR7FB7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/IDHR7FB7"],"itemData":{"id":1103,"type":"book","title":"Principles of Government and Politics in the Middle Ages (Routledge Revivals)","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Ullmann","given":"Walter"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ullmann).

Another important reason highlighted by Ullmann, which hindered the progress in the development of civilizations were reduced economic activities. Kings used to make deals with their friends normally in geographical proximities. They largely ignored the trade opportunities offered by the distanced empires. Moreover, Kings used to build personal relations rather than building them on economic grounds. The trickledown effect of such behavior impacted the routines of farmers and peasants, they then had to work for long hours to produce grans for sufficient consumption.

Reciprocity as the backbone to the Middle Ages

During the middle ages, most of the daily affairs were based on reciprocal terms. State affairs relevant to trade, economics, cultural and social relations and also the bilateral empire relations were based on reciprocal terms. It was mainly observable in the exchange of prisoners and in the exchange of grains and things of daily use consumption. The reciprocity was also followed in the treatment of delegations which normally paid visits for resolving issues pertaining to planned military invasions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hTwAFYKB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hershey)","plainCitation":"(Hershey)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1105,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CYRMG6G6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CYRMG6G6"],"itemData":{"id":1105,"type":"article-journal","title":"The history of international relations during antiquity and the middle ages","container-title":"American Journal of International Law","page":"901–933","volume":"5","issue":"4","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Hershey","given":"Amos S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1911"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hershey).

Within the empire, the kings also used to follow a reciprocal system. For example, any close aide or a loyal person was treated on the basis of how loyal he had been with the empire. The Kings normally used to grant large areas of lands to peasants who were hardworking. This in result assured the production of more grains and crops. Similarly, the persons who were serving on positions considered close to King were given high social status.

Critique of the Song of Roland

In the Song of Roland, there are around five themes which in one way or another depict that how middle ages were important. The primary themes of this poem include Loyalty, benevolence to God, the Will of God and Duty. These themes depict that the masses were controlled by presenting them with an attractive side of everything. For example, as mentioned by Davis, Charlemagne was considered close to Bishops and Popes. This shows that he might have urged the Pope to spread a message of submission among masses. During the middle ages, Popes and Bishops were also considered to spread the message of submission to God and then to monarchs.

These themes in the song of Roland suggest that Kings and the ruling administer of that time implied such literary methods just to keep the masses as subordinates. Through the use of literature and by giving prominent positions to Popes and religious elites, they kept the masses in observance. Such techniques helped them especially in the times of war and clashes with other empires as well.

Section 2

The causal events which allowed the Renaissance to transform away from the feudal system. There were many events which allowed the Renaissance to transform away from the Feudal system. During the middle ages, there were very few interactions between people of different cultures. As with the time went on, people from different cultures and religions started interacting with each other. This slowly helped in shedding away the impact of feudalism and people became more opened and bearable towards each other ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2a6Y5JbT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bennett)","plainCitation":"(Bennett)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1107,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SHM5DMTU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SHM5DMTU"],"itemData":{"id":1107,"type":"article-journal","title":"On the Causes of the Renaissance","container-title":"Renaissance News","page":"5–6","volume":"2","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Bennett","given":"Josephine Waters"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1949"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bennett). Celebrations on specified events became a norm and it helped in making people more interactive towards each other.

The crusades also resulted in the downfall of the established empires and helped in making way for a renaissance, and resulted in the ultimate downfall of the feudal system. The Crusades resulted in the establishment of new governments, which were way better than the way monarchs use to deal with administrative matters. The foremost reason which helped in making people away from the feudal system was innovations and decentralization. These were some casual events that made the way for renaissance and ultimately helped in transforming away from the feudal system.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bennett, Josephine Waters. “On the Causes of the Renaissance.” Renaissance News, vol. 2, no. 1, 1949, pp. 5–6.

Davis, Jennifer R. Charlemagne’s Practice of Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2015.

Hershey, Amos S. “The History of International Relations during Antiquity and the Middle Ages.” American Journal of International Law, vol. 5, no. 4, 1911, pp. 901–933.

Ullmann, Walter. Principles of Government and Politics in the Middle Ages (Routledge Revivals). Routledge, 2010.

The Nadir Of Race Relations By John Boles

Funmilola Kayode

[Name of Instructor]

History and Anthropology

20 June 2019

The Nadir of Race Relations by John Boles

The Nadir race relations is an essay authored by John Boles. Boles depicts the darkest realmsof human society where pessimism remained persistent amongst the American society. The essayfeatures the occurrences between the years 1880’s and 1930’s. This is known as one of the darkest time periods in American history. The events during era were dominated by racist notions of discrimination between the black Americans and the white Americans. White Americans did not only deprive the blacks of their rights and freedoms but also exploited, abused and oppressed them. Boles records a brutal and violent account of the victimization of the blacks. He supports his claims by presenting facts and statistics of the events to the reader. Whitesimplied how the color of their skin made the blacks inferiors, dangerous and deserving of injustice. He states that lynching, mob violence and killing was also introducedduring this time period. The white also introduced segregation; black Americans were limited to certain areas, had different schools, churches and limited opportunities to excel. The White supremacy forced the blacks to recognize the exploitation and oppression, therefore developing their own spheres of life separate from white settlements. The black Americans struggled to gain recognition in the society. This significantly changed the dynamics for the blacks. Boles states that despite being marginalized and oppressed, the blacks found law to their aid. Several leaders like Lugenia Hope and Washington fought for the fundamental rights such as equality, freedom and justice for their race. Boles concludethe essay in the years 1930, of Great Depression stating that these efforts by the Blacks to rise out of oppression would not go fluid. They would eventually emerge successful against racial discrimination.

Human beings fear what is different from them which give birth to power relations between them. John Boles article bases its claims on the theme of racism and discrimination. Boles explain the classed distinction and limitations the blacks faceddue to their skin color. The articles show how the race relations brutalized the living conditions for the blacks. Race is not ascribed status of individuals it has no biological connotations. Race is purely a social construct. Hence suggesting that skin color deserves a particular privilege and status due to their phenotypes is irrational. Race is phenomena which cannot be changed from any medical treatmentsraces can complement and co-exist peaceful in a society. Therefore using race to justify any inequitable and unjust treatment is unreasonable and a breach of human dignity and human rights. The article gives a ray of hope for the individuals and groups suffering from suppression due to their race, that struggle for equality can eventually lead them into an equitable and free of oppression future.

A Good Way to Pick a Fight by Charles L. Mee

The article ‘A Good Way to Pick a Fight’ is authored by Charles L. Mee. I chose this article because it provides an unconventional and indulgent exposition of the events that led to the Cold War. Mee in his article demonstrates the differnt perspectives and views which provide considerable evidence that the world power dynamics had reached a point where Cold war was inevitable. The article is based in the post World War II years. Mee begins his article with statements of three most powerful leaders of the time who were later involved in the Cold war; President Harry Truman of the United States, Joseph Stalin of Soviet Union and Winston Churchchill from Britain. Mee relays foundations of his article on the basis of statements by these three leaders which hinted at a possible war between them. He implies that United States was not the only country to initiate it, the actions of all three states led to inevitable skirmish between them. All three states wanted to dominate the polarity however, the soviet had already hinted and wanted to go to war, it just so happens that the United States initiated it. Mee argues in situations like these where power struggles are persistent war becomes inevitable. The article further stat that although these states never confronted each other directly however, their separate struggles brought them to a common point of interest. The mistrust between these states was the sole reason for animosity between these states.

Charles L. Mee’s article is themed upon the state power and domination in the world. In my opinion I think the power averts wars or limits their occurrences, hence it can be concluded that power maximization gives birth to peace. Thereforecontinuousdemonstration of acts of power determines peace. Therefore the United States Act of launching atomic bombs on Japan as an act of power. The United States wanted to show the world and USSR in particulate that it had a weapon capable of mass destruction. The act demonstrated the implications of going to total war between states in the future. This did not only spark an arms race between the two in the future but also led to conclude that power dominates and promises political supremacy in the world. Cold war

is a classic example of power maximization through economic, political, diplomatic, ideological and military factors. These factors in turn determine a states stature globally.

The New Nationalism Vs. The New Freedom

Name of Student

Name of Professor

Name of Class

Day Month Year

The New Nationalism vs. the New Freedom

Roosevelt had made arguments regarding human welfare and property rights in the overall context of New Nationalism. According to him, the major issue was the protection of human rights as it is more important than property matters. In his speech, he emphasized the power of federation. A strong federal government can stabilize the economy and ensure justice in society. Furthermore, he stressed that the implementation of effective economic policies is possible only if the President gives first preference to human welfare.

Roosevelt was of the view that focus on developing industry is the key to a stable economy. He added that it is the responsibility of the federal government to protect labor, children, women, and men from exploitation. Roosevelt wanted reforms at a broader level in the society. His focus was the issues of common man. Developing social insurance to facilitate old, disabled, and unemployed was the part of his socioeconomic policy alongside a minimum wage regulation for females, and 8-hours working time during the day. He was strictly against the dominance of politics by large corporate groups. He believed that large business interests should not be able to influence the government to protect their interests. All policies should be made in the larger interest of the country. However, he made it clear that he was not talking about over-centralization.

Woodrow launched his campaign of New Freedom for the presidential election of 1912. He presented the idea of limited government, i.e., the powers and authorities restricted by law. For this purpose, he wanted to do legislation in the country. He was in favor of business, tariff reforms. Woodrow presented the idea of economic freedom from elements such as strong monopolies or big corporate enterprises. In a way, he did not want the business interests to control the government; instead, he wanted the government to keep an eye on big businesses.

Both Roosevelt and Woodrow had same thoughts that trusts abuse power. However, they differed on the mechanism to limit the power of big corporations in a large society. Also, both wanted to bring reforms in the society so that common man can benefit. Furthermore, Roosevelt wanted the government to get maximum power to build strong federation that could work for the welfare of people. On the other hand, Woodrow did not support the idea for the government to have more powers as he gave the concept of restricted power according to the law. Overall, both had the same goals as they were the advocates for poor people, small factory workers, and farmers.

The New Nationalism of Theodore Roosevelt was an approach to build an effective social, political, and economic environment for the people of the United States. In addition, he was against the corrupt mafia that was sitting in the large corporate organizations and businesses as they were the hurdle in the progress of the society. His priority was to bring structural reforms in the society in favor of a common man. So much needed to be done for poor people, and he believed the living standard of poor people could be lifted with the effective policies of the Federal government. For this purpose, Roosevelt wanted the government to get more control and authority to reform the lives of common people. Moreover, the concept of New Freedom presented by Woodrow Wilson was substantial as he was also aware of the root cause of the society. According to his ideology, he wanted to see the people free with no pressure of policies as he was of the view that some policies in the country were not in favor of common man and that is why people get frustrated and think they are slaves of the policies. In this respect, the Clayton Act of 1914 was aimed at helping common laborers in the nation. The Act gave exemption to labor union from antitrust suits. Overall his approach was progressive, and both Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt wanted to develop prosperous societies for the welfare of laborers and poor people in the country (Ekirch, Arthur Alphonse).

Finally, the concept of New Nationalism by Theodore Roosevelt and New Freedom by Woodrow Wilson are relevant in today's scenario. The government of the United States should focus more on the economic condition of poor people. More than 43.1 million people in the country are living in poverty. Therefore, the government should make policies that could benefit laborers and farmers. The big corporations are already earning huge profits; their lobbies are very strong in the country. The President of the United States Trump has been a business Tycoon. The government should bring reforms in the health and social sector. Not everyone in the country has health insurance, and that is why they struggle to get proper treatment when they fall sick. Keeping in mind the health needs of the population, the elderly, disabled and unemployed people should be given priority. Also, young people should be given more employment opportunities. The ideologies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were great, and the government should bring the same types of reforms in the country for the welfare of people.

Works Cited

Ekirch, Arthur Alphonse. Progressivism in America: A study of the era from Theodore Roosevelt to Woodrow Wilson. New viewpoints, 1974.

Theodore Roosevelt’s NEW NATIONALISM vs. Woodrow Wilson’s NEW FREEDOM

The Norman Conquest

Crystal Jackson

Instructor Name

Course Number

27 October 2019

The Norman Conquest by Marc Morris

When we discuss the substance of the Norman Conquest, to the already much-discussed tale of William of Normandy, better known as "William the Conqueror", leading his troops across the English Channel to seize control of England, the facts are often mixed with fiction, creating an aura of grandeur and romanticism. As Marc Morris emphasizes in his book called The Norman Conquest: The Battle of Hastings and the Fall of Anglo-Saxon England, the incidents associated with the conquest of English have been added a lot as they were told a multitude of times. The Bayeux Tapestry alone mentioned in the book has been the topic of discussion for at least ten widespread historic compilations in the last decade alone. All the chief contributors of that year's events – from King Harold to the Viking invader Harald Hardrada, even William of Normandy himself has all have complete biographies. We get this deeply researched book by Mr. Morris, who cannot probably explain why he chose this subject in the first place but is willing enough in trying to do it just the same. If you only read a score of books on the subject, this would be one of them.

As can be quickly understood from hundreds of retellings of this historic event, the original incident is one of the greatest page-turners of the historic record. England's strangely powerful king Edward the Confessor is on his deathbed and has no heir to his throne. This gives rise to the competition between Harold Godwinson and William of Normandy for the rule of England. Harold has the benefit of nearness. There is acclaim that Edward had nominated Harold to replace him as king, a claim that was not opposed by anyone present at the deathbed of the old king. We do not observe Morris taking sides between the English or the Normans, but we can still observe that he still looks, with interestingly judgemental sharpness at Harold’s successive actions to seize power. He can be observing writing that no king has so hurriedly crowned himself after his predecessor’s death.

The move enraged William, who first sent envoys to Harold advising him to abandon his claim to the throne and then applied to Pope Alexander II for papal authorization to invade England. The invasion was launched, and he succeeded in capturing England. Morris is strangely appealing when he is simply conveying the bravery of the Normans with their appearances. He also admires the English for their battle-readiness and their willingness to give all that they have for defending themselves.

The most captivating point of Morris's book is its writing style and the use of the historic sources, counting his examination of the iconic instant of the Norman Conquest: the death of King Harold on the battlefield by a thick wooden arrow that went through his eye. It is an impressive scene on the visual substantiation alone, and Morris portrays a really strong situation that is never conveyed before by the writers covering the subject. He believes that skiving off a particular point can damage the building of an argument. This most limited of William writers neither refutes nor approvals the bloodbath of King Harold, which can be indirectly taken as a strong indication that the butchery happened. It is good and well-developed thinking, and it the most appealing characteristic of this book.

The Original Rolling Stones

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

The Original Rolling Stones

Q 1. Chunkey is a game of Native American origin. The game seems to have held great importance in the social and political circles of the primitive societies in America and Native Americans used to play it with great fervor and enthusiasm. Disc-shaped rolling stones were used in order to play this game, and the players used to throw spears at them in an attempt to land them as close to the stopped stone as possible. The game was properly played in huge arenas and stadiums, and a massive number of people gathered to witness the game. The origins of the game date back to 600 CE in the Cahokia region which has been converted into modern-day Louis in Missouri.

Q 2. Various lines of evidence have been found regarding the study of Chunkey and its importance for the clan of Cahokia. Multiple pieces of supporting proof have also been found that clears the concepts more regarding the spread of the game from the region of Cahokia to the other areas. For example, the discs used in the gameplay of Chunkey have been found in various regions of North America as well. Although the shapes and sizes have been amended as per the requirements of the area, the basic form and other features have remained the same. The spears used in the game have also been found from the residential places of multiple tribes, in different shapes and sizes, which depict that the game was very much popular, not only in the tribe of Cahokia but also in the other regions.

Q 3. The game of Chunkey formed a microcosm of the greater cosmos. The symbols and crosses were occasionally engraved over the Chunkey discs that represented the four quarters or directions of the vast universe. Another practice that was carried was the engravement of the eye motifs in the discs as they were thought to be linked to the more significant and supernatural eye of the Creator, the God (the original rolling stones). Many discs carried such engravements and stones, along with other works of art that depicted the masculine qualities or the heroic figures of the community. Some of them even carried the figures and features of Gods.

Q 4. Many archeological remains have been found that support the significance of Chunkey for the Native Americans, especially for those who had grown up watching and playing this game. The primary evidence that has been found by the archeologists is the disk-shaped stones that were the main component of the game. These stones have been found in both child and adult sizes. These stones were mostly made from stone or baked clay. The adult-sized stones were more finely crafted as compared to the child-sized stones. Sometimes the families and even tribes kept these stones as prized possessions for generations. The game of Chunkey was so important that it also formed a part of some religious rituals.

Q 5. The Game of Chunkey is crucial in clearing many concepts about the birth and influence of the Cahokia Tribe over the area. The game represented their social, political, cultural and religious beliefs and was extremely popular among the people of the tribe. People used to bet huge amounts and even items over the game. Its influence over the people of Cahokia can be judged by the fact that people did not hesitate to bet their skins, stocks arms and even their wives in the game, and the losers would often commit suicide. The game was further taken from the Cohakian tribe by the members of other tribes Choctaw, Creeks, Chumash, Chickasaw, and Mandans. The borrowing tribes further made amendments to the game as per their convenience, rituals, and culture.

Works Cited

Chapter 4, the Original Rolling Stones

The Purpose Of A Thesis Statement

Chicago Manual of Style Assignment

HIST 121

Using the template provided below, answer each of the following. Each is worth 5 points

____ In your own words, define Plagiarism: Plagiarism can be defined as an act of copying someone’s ideas, themes or content without giving them the due credit.

____ In your own words, explain the purpose of a thesis statement: A thesis statement gives a brief and succinct overview of the main theme of the paper. A thesis statement is usually one or maximum two sentence long.

____ In your own words, explain what a thesis statement is not: the summary of the paper. It is also not a lengthy part of the essay.

____ Based on the term paper topic you have selected, please write your thesis statement here: The implications of pre-Civil War racism era still exist in the US society in various forms such as racial segregation, political emphasis to build Mexican border wall, and religious intolerance.

____ In your own words, define a primary source: Primary source is the one documented by the eyewitness of the incident or the event.

____ In your own words, define a secondary source: Secondary source is the one prepared by the people who are not the eyewitness of the event. For instance, book, article, essay, etc.

____ Find an example other than the Rampolla text and show the correct format for a footnote or end note: “They include Steven Bogardus, or “Bogie,” of New York, who credits his life”.

____ Find an example other than the Rampolla text and show the correct format for an electronic source citation: “Google Search Policies”,

____ Find an example other than Rampolla and show the correct format for a bibliographic reference: William Strauss, and Neil Howe. Generations: The history of America's future, 1584 to 2069. William Morrow, 2008.

____ Find an example other than Rampolla and show the correct way to cite a quote: Hyman (2011) quoted that “Before the twentieth century, personal debt resided on the fringes of the American economy, the province of small-time criminals and struggling merchants.”

____ Total points out of 50

*FOR YOUR REFERENCE*

Relevant information from the Rampolla text for each question:

Chapter 6

Chapter 4

Chapter 4

Chapters 4, 5

Chapter 2

Chapter 2

Chapter 7

Chapter 7

Chapter 7

Chapter 7

The Requirement

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Instructions to Conquistadors: The Requirement, 1517

Introduction

The Council of Castile provide, The Requirement in 1510 as an ultimatum to the American Indians. Roman Catholic pope had to exercise its religious authority over the entire earth along with the political power of Spain over America. The underlying demand was the acceptance of Spanish rule and Christian preaching, death, enslavement and risk subjugation. In the absence of interpreters, the requirement was read in Latin to the Indians. The primary purpose was self-justification for the invaders from Spanish.

Discussion

How did the Spanish justify their actions?

Three important arguments provide for the justification of subjugation of the native inhabitants were the conquest, discovery and papal donation. Spanish crown’s lawyers noted that Jesus Christ had given the keys to the kingdom of heaven (Turner, 30). Under the doctrine of discovery during the crusades they have the right to take over all the newly discovered lands. Those who resisted against the conquests were considered as harbor evil intentions and defying the plan of God.

What did the Spanish demand of the Indians?

The demand for Spanish from the Indians was the right to those lands which were held by Indians. Spanish claimed that they were sent by God on the earth to rule over the world. With the same doctrine, they have the right to overthrow Indians from their native lands, and they have to leave their rights in the submission of papal authority.

What did the Spanish offer the Indians in this deal?

Various offers were given to the Indians by Spanish invaders, and these include the free trade and movement from American to European regions. Indians were declared as free vassals which implies that they were welcome and paid for their labor. Further, the respect and honor of Native Indians were considered in war zone regions. A series of laws were passed for protecting Indians from excessive exploitation and punishment.

What would happen if the Indians refused the deal?

There would be a surprise attack and severe exploitation of Indians if they refused the deal. All were prepared, and papal authority was in action to eliminate the resistance that can create hurdles for the fulfillment of divine commandments. There would be nothing left for Indians except the corn-grinding bowls, clothes, and deerskin. Native Indians have no preparation for war, so they have to accept the terms and conditions of the deal. The state policy of enslavement is an example for Indians who resisted peaceful negotiations.

Do you think the Indians understood the terms of the deal?

The Indians understood the deal despite the circumstances of the uprising and they preferred to negotiate with Spanish masters. They have to live in better terms and to face hunger and starvation. Some regions and sections of Indians have resisted them, and they were enslaved for not following the commandments as it was embodied in the medieval doctrine of Just Wars (Turner, 34). The Indians tribal leader Powhattan considered newcomers as a power of the land because they have arms like knives and guns. The leader also tried to consolidate his power in the region and looking for more advantage.

Conclusion

The requirement was the instructions to Conquistadors for expanding the papal authority and divine control over the newly discovered lands of Native Americans. The deal among Spanish and Indians was aim to achieve legal control over their area without the use of force or through the conquest.

Works Cited

Turner, S. P. (2016). The Bergantín, a Little Known Craft from the Early Spanish Period in the New World. In The Archaeology of Vernacular Watercraft (pp. 29-51). Springer, New York, NY.

The Roman Legacy

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

History and Anthropology

[Date]

The Roman Legacy

Q1. Ans:

Roman civilization is one of the privileged civilizations of the world. The decline of the Roman Empire was the physical decline only, there were some strengths of the Roman Empire that remained reserved. One of the strengths of Roman civilization was the unity among its people. The law and administrative system of the Roman Empire were so strong that it kept the whole empire integrated. The institutions of Romans continued even after the civilization of Rome changed. Even after the crisis, those organizations survived to function. Secondly, going through the crisis, the Roman culture still managed to survive through different eras and successfully transferred its heritage from one generation to another generation. The political unity of the Roman Empire is incomparable with any other civilization. Katz is so inspired by the political system of Rome which was extended over long territory, and later, it became the heritage for the next generations. The political unity, the idea of citizenship and a well-organized state system is used as an example nowadays. The proper system of Rome had impressed even Christian Poets and Philosophers that they praised it. People were so united, and they had common citizenship. Their legacy civilized the whole of Europe later on. They were the ones to spread the laws on the basis of equity and humanity.

Q2: Ans: The Roman Empire contained some strengths which are still glorified. All of its practical functions in terms of administration, law, and politics are considered most significant by the writer. They had succeeded in developing a world-state. They had the power to unify the world. Other than a strong administration, the Roman Civilization also had political standards, common citizenship, and an organized state which was having a proper law system. The Roman government was so structured regardless of the form of government. People of different origins were unified, and there was tolerance for local varieties of language, religion, and customs. Roman law is considered as one of the greatest achievements of Rome, and it also survived as an example for the rest of the world even after the decline of the Roman Empire. It is the root cause of the development of the Western World law. Roman law has influenced many other fields such as Philosophy, politics, and jurisprudence. Throughout the years, the Roman lawmakers modified the law according to their needs. Although, the Roman Culture could not survive the principles and standards became the sources for the world. Though the Roman Empire was destroyed, it still survived throughout Europe and spread over the whole world.

Q3: Ans:

The law and administration of the Roman Empire were not the only the heritage of the Roman Empire. The Estates or Villas from the Roman Culture incorporated into the middle ages. However, there was a fusion of German elements in the Roman system at that time. Moreover, the late Roman system also introduced the cultivation and holding of the land that was protected by an influential landlord. However, in the medieval period, it was common for the landlords to grab the land by using feudal methods. At the same time, the roads and streets of the Roman Period were also maintained throughout Europe. Moreover, the trade system from Roman Empire also existed in the middle ages. The infrastructure was Roman roads was so durable that survived hundreds of years. Even today, when a person travels through Europe, he or she can see the ancient routes made by the Romans. The existence of Roman cities are the indicators of the well-structured system of ancient Rome. There is no Roman Culture, but the ideals and practices still inspire the world today. It is one of the magnificent achievement for the Romans.

Works Cited

Katz, Solomon. The decline of Rome and the rise of medieval Europe. Cornell Univ Pr, 1955.

The Romans

The Romans

[Name of the Student:]

[Name of the Institution:]

The Romans

Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus, and it was one of the greatest empires of the ancient era. Rome started from a small town in central Italy, which later grew into a vast empire. It included most of Europe, England, Northern Africa, parts of western Asia, and islands of the Mediterranean.

Rome rose to prominence in the age of Julius Caesar who turned the country from a monarchy to an empire. The Roman law was written on twelve tables, which were the bronze plates with the Roman law code inscribed on them. These basic laws guided the Romans through all subsequent law formulations related to civil rights, property rights, and legal procedures. The Senate included aristocrats and nobles, whereas the political powers accumulated in it. The Romans excelled in developing a sound political system, strong army, and a huge cultural heritage ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"O7TJLSJt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Graham & Kamm, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Graham & Kamm, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":84,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/227K2MFC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/227K2MFC"],"itemData":{"id":84,"type":"book","title":"The Romans: an introduction","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1-317-57845-7","author":[{"family":"Graham","given":"Abigail"},{"family":"Kamm","given":"Antony"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Graham & Kamm, 2014).

The Romans used to speak old Latin (classic Latin) for official purposes, and Vulgar Latin for informal conversation. The modern Latin is not the same language as was spoken by the Romans. Many European languages evolved from their language, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Among other legacies of the Romans are the religion of Christianity, the alphabets, democratic ideology, and tactics used in battles.

Romans built a strong army by incorporating soldiers into it coming from different backgrounds. They trained, organized, and led their troops efficiently. They developed extraordinary fighting skills that helped them conquer vast lands. They acquired more soldiers as they continued to win battles, and turned the enemy’s soldiers into their loyal army by offering them citizenship.

The Romans came into contact with the Greek literature that was full of knowledge. The Romans translated literary works of the Greek into classic Latin and continue working on their discoveries. The Romans adopted Greek sciences, philosophy, art, and much of its religion. A major distinction between the Greek and the Roman hallmarks was that the Greeks excelled in intellectual sciences and art, whereas the Romans surpassed all their contemporary counterparts in battle-field skills, political system, and administration.

The Punic wars fought against Carthage, North Africa, three times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IiOiPuJD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lazenby, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Lazenby, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":83,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/D7GNH4BA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/D7GNH4BA"],"itemData":{"id":83,"type":"book","title":"The first Punic war","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1-315-07221-1","author":[{"family":"Lazenby","given":"John"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lazenby, 2016). In the final battle with Carthage around 149 BC, the Romans captured the city. The Macedonian Wars fought against King Philip V of Macedonia spread the influence of the Roman Empire in the East. In 52 BC, Julius Caesar led the army in the battle of Alesia and stood victorious by extending his empire to many countries of Western Europe. Other major battles include the battle of Actium, third servile war, the battle of Milvian Bridge, etc.

Romans' culinary habits evolved with time. Their empire continued to expand through centuries, and they had encountered numerous civilizations during warfare. Further, the differences between different classes in the Roman society also increased as their civilization evolved and empire grew ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9oKVX2Tf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Duducu, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Duducu, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":85,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/T3XY9D5E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/T3XY9D5E"],"itemData":{"id":85,"type":"book","title":"The Romans in 100 facts","publisher":"Amberley Publishing Limited","ISBN":"1-4456-4971-3","author":[{"family":"Duducu","given":"Jem"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Duducu, 2015). They named their meals during different times in a day as Ientaculum (taken in the early morning), Cena (at noon), and Vesperna (in the evening). Cena was the main meal of the day, the most nutritious in its composition. As time elapsed, Cena evolved to more developed forms and would include many dishes when served. It totally replaced Vesperna, and began to be served relatively later in the evening.

Roman architecture is one of the most remarkable architectures in the world and it has an everlasting impression on the coming generations. Certain buildings like Colosseum, which they constructed, still stand today intact, because they used excellent building materials. They also built the best roads in the ancient world. They developed systems to transfer water from its source to the urban areas.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Duducu, J. (2015). The Romans in 100 facts. Amberley Publishing Limited.

Graham, A., & Kamm, A. (2014). The Romans: An introduction. Routledge.

Lazenby, J. (2016). The first Punic war. Routledge.

The Travels Of Marco Polo

Anthony Raimo

Instructor Name

Art 101

03 December 2019

The Travels of Marco Polo

Thirteenth-century traveler, Marco Polo was the world’s supreme well-traveled voyager. The travels of Marco Polo chronicles was his voyage through Asia as an exceptional herald to Kublai Khan. Kublai Khan was a powerful and rich leader of the Mongol Empire. He commissioned Marco Polo to travel through the Empire ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SshSvhO1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":196,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":196,"type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). The mission was to explore Empire and to survey the civilizations and customs of the societies, the fauna and flora and the geography of the land ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U3XhfjIC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf ({\\i{}Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science})}","plainCitation":"(Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science)"},"citationItems":[{"id":783,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"itemData":{"id":783,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science). The great Kublai Khan opened the land for travelers and explorers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pevuZlIZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sparavigna)","plainCitation":"(Sparavigna)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/nfRQkUKY","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/Y88AS66R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/Y88AS66R"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/nfRQkUKY","type":"article-journal","title":"The road to Xanadu in the Travels of Marco Polo","container-title":"PHILICA, Article","issue":"1097","author":[{"family":"Sparavigna","given":"Amelia Carolina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sparavigna). The travel of Marco Polo was a book written by romance writer Rustichello da Pisa who served from books that he had perceived from Marco Polo ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"m4zXhWbu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yule)","plainCitation":"(Yule)"},"citationItems":[{"id":192,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/N4CGTTHC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/N4CGTTHC"],"itemData":{"id":192,"type":"book","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo","publisher":"BoD–Books on Demand","volume":"2","ISBN":"3-7326-2070-0","author":[{"family":"Yule","given":"Henry"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Yule). They both were imprisoned together in Genoa. The Travels of Marco Polo was Polo’s viewpoint and how he encountered foreign lands and civilization ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4mRLXKmv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(August 30 and History)","plainCitation":"(August 30 and History)"},"citationItems":[{"id":200,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"itemData":{"id":200,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels","container-title":"livescience.com","abstract":"The travels of Marco Polo from Venice to Asia opened up a whole new world to Europeans. The story of his journey influenced mapmakers and inspired Christopher Columbus.","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","title-short":"Marco Polo","language":"en","author":[{"family":"August 30","given":"Jessie Szalay-Live Science Contributor"},{"family":"History","given":"2017"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (August 30 and History). He described the origins of different traditions in his book and the ideas and shapes of various civilizations and their cultural backgrounds were shared. He also evaluated and inspired the views of the great Kublai Khan and his empire, employment, trade and the admiration of the court was described in the book. Various versions of the book were published and no known book of this kind was ever published for travelers.

The journey was started at the age of seventeen by Marco Polo and he spent twenty years of his life trekking. Rustichello da Pisa relates the stories of the explorer’s travels that a large area of the land was traveled ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tvpdA4t1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":196,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":196,"type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). He also generated a portrait of the Mongolian Empire. He stated that the Mongolian Empire was a rich and wondrous land. The narrator said that Marco Polo explored along the Silk Road. Silk Road is known for the trade route that wound over Northern China, Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7HlJYrdK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":196,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":196,"type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). The narrator said that Marco Polo has various experiences through this journey with the diverse civilizations of the Mongolian Empire. He stated that Marco Polo encountered societies and lands and had a personal understanding of a range of diverse cultures and customs.

The first trip was initiated in 1260 to the East. Merchandise for Constantinople was the cargo and the journey was voyaged by Maffeo Polo and Nicolo. The lands of the Tartar princes were ventured from this trip ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"iQ48Hxd6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(August 30 and History)","plainCitation":"(August 30 and History)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/RqiTAe44","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/RqiTAe44","type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels","container-title":"livescience.com","abstract":"The travels of Marco Polo from Venice to Asia opened up a whole new world to Europeans. 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Into the greatest and highest favor of the Kublai Khan, they both were ingratiated ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t3m4DxZe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Chang)","plainCitation":"(Chang)"},"citationItems":[{"id":194,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/4ZDY555D"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/4ZDY555D"],"itemData":{"id":194,"type":"article-journal","title":"Kublai Khan in the Eyes of Marco Polo","container-title":"European Review","page":"502-517","volume":"25","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Chang","given":"Na"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Chang). The Emperor asked them a few questions related to the Catholic faith during this stay. Kublai Khan asked them to return to Europe also, to the pope to refer to preachers to his distant land ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5BJUHM4f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sparavigna)","plainCitation":"(Sparavigna)"},"citationItems":[{"id":193,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/Y88AS66R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/Y88AS66R"],"itemData":{"id":193,"type":"article-journal","title":"The road to Xanadu in the Travels of Marco Polo","container-title":"PHILICA, Article","issue":"1097","author":[{"family":"Sparavigna","given":"Amelia Carolina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sparavigna). The two Polos arrived in Venice in the year 1269 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WLjAM293","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf ({\\i{}Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science})}","plainCitation":"(Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science)"},"citationItems":[{"id":783,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"itemData":{"id":783,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science). After reaching there the Polos came to know that Pope Clement is dead. In this year Nicolo polo’s wife also gave birth to a son, Marco Polo and she died ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U4PwLKAJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wittkower)","plainCitation":"(Wittkower)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/q2BB3Plc","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/64YNWHDZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/64YNWHDZ"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/q2BB3Plc","type":"chapter","title":"Marco Polo and the Pictorial Tradition of the Marvels of the East","container-title":"Medieval Ethnographies","publisher":"Routledge","page":"175-207","author":[{"family":"Wittkower","given":"Rudolf"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wittkower). At this time, there was a long delay in the new pope. The two Polos decided to return to Kublai Khan, at last. They took young Marco Polo with them ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qcFR2S2B","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wittkower)","plainCitation":"(Wittkower)"},"citationItems":[{"id":195,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/64YNWHDZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/64YNWHDZ"],"itemData":{"id":195,"type":"chapter","title":"Marco Polo and the Pictorial Tradition of the Marvels of the East","container-title":"Medieval Ethnographies","publisher":"Routledge","page":"175-207","author":[{"family":"Wittkower","given":"Rudolf"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wittkower). At that time, Gregory the tenth was nominated in Rome. When they decided to leave in the year 1971, they asked the new pope to send missionaries to Kublai Khan and Gregory designated two priests with them ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0VCNCjUN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yule)","plainCitation":"(Yule)"},"citationItems":[{"id":192,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/N4CGTTHC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/N4CGTTHC"],"itemData":{"id":192,"type":"book","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo","publisher":"BoD–Books on Demand","volume":"2","ISBN":"3-7326-2070-0","author":[{"family":"Yule","given":"Henry"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Yule). Because of fear of new and strange land, the priests turn back. 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The two Polos were attended by the Emperor graciously also, Kublai Khan appointed Marco one of his followers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"b6Y8ca7L","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wittkower)","plainCitation":"(Wittkower)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/q2BB3Plc","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/64YNWHDZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/64YNWHDZ"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/q2BB3Plc","type":"chapter","title":"Marco Polo and the Pictorial Tradition of the Marvels of the East","container-title":"Medieval Ethnographies","publisher":"Routledge","page":"175-207","author":[{"family":"Wittkower","given":"Rudolf"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wittkower). 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Kublai Khan sent Marco Polo in different missions and he learned four different languages in a very short time ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8FWl7HQE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). 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Kublai Khan was not agreed to part with the Polos however, they offered him to send barons from East Indies and the emperor agreed. Fourteen ships were prepared for the voyage ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Eh7zZc21","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf ({\\i{}Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science})}","plainCitation":"(Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science)"},"citationItems":[{"id":783,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"itemData":{"id":783,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science). The voyage arrived Java and the journey took three months. Further, eighteen months were required in order to reach the territory of King Argon. Six hundred crew and two of the barons were lost in this journey ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7OSs70HM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). The Polos took the overland route to Trebizond. During this journey, they learned that great Kublai Khan was dead. The journey was passed safely in good health and possession of wealth and the Polos reached their homeland in the year 1295.

Marco remembers that Armenia was sectioned into two halves, the lesser and the greater. Major Armenia was the mountains and well known Mount Ararat, where Noah's ark finally came to rest was found ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"iGTNdzRr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). He described that near this mount is a great oil fountain ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DS1FIpiw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf ({\\i{}Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science})}","plainCitation":"(Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science)"},"citationItems":[{"id":783,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"itemData":{"id":783,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science). He stated that groups of camels pull away from the oil and castoff it for ointment as well as for heat and light. The book opened new ventures for the travelers and explorers to travel through the sea to explore Asian areas.

Content History

Marco Polo was tolerant and curious and devoted to Kublai Khan. The Travels of the Marco Polo was Polo's account of his travels to China. He called it Cathay and Manji where Cathay is north China and Manji was south China. The Polos left China in the year 1290 or early 1291 and return to Venice in 1295. The period spent in prison in Genoa around 1298- 1299. The travels were sectioned into four parts. One part defined the lands of Central Asia and the Middle East encountered by Marco on his way to China ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WDl2Jv1g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(August 30 and History)","plainCitation":"(August 30 and History)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/RqiTAe44","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/RqiTAe44","type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels","container-title":"livescience.com","abstract":"The travels of Marco Polo from Venice to Asia opened up a whole new world to Europeans. The story of his journey influenced mapmakers and inspired Christopher Columbus.","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","title-short":"Marco Polo","language":"en","author":[{"family":"August 30","given":"Jessie Szalay-Live Science Contributor"},{"family":"History","given":"2017"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (August 30 and History). The second part defined the court of Kublai Khan and China. The third book describes coastal regions of Sri Lanka, India, Southern Asia, and Japan. The fourth part described major wars among Mongols and regions of far north such as Russia. The descriptions of cannibals and spice-growers were also the part of the book ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Lbikpl9F","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/Zbj8VZQu","type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). The Travels of Marco polo was a tremendous book in history that has evaluated various civilizations of Asian China and Europe.

Legacy

The travel was an occasional widespread achievement in an age afore printing. The book comprised of various civilizations, lands, and customs of people. The court of Kublai Khan and the journey was described marvelously in the book. The cartography was delayed whereas the primary map in which few names were mentioned by the Polos, Catalan Atlas of Charles V was the prominent one. The book inspired various readers to travel to see. Christopher Columbus was inspired by the riches of the book and the description of the sea by Marco polo that he decided to travel to Asia by sea. The annotated copy of the polo's book was with Christopher Columbus in his belongings on the westward route. Christopher Columbus and various other travelers explored the voyages of Central Asia through the sea. The book has inspired numerous travelers and explorers to explore the sea and court of Kublai Khan.

Different Versions of the Book

Marco Polo traveled accompanied by his father and uncle. No known book was published by his father or uncle. The major sections of the book were four in number and it was translated into various languages particularly European languages in Marco Polo's time. The manuscripts of the original book were now lost however, various versions are available in different languages.

Old French immensely flavored with Italian was the oldest Polo manuscript in which F text was the basic original text. Other sources are R and Z whereas R was first printed in 1559. Old French manuscript was apprehended by the National Library Sweden around 1350. The travels of Marco Polo continued British captivation with ancient global connections and added to the expansion of emergent British Sinology.

The Travels of Marco Polo

The travels of Marco Polo chronicles were a voyage of Marco Polo through Asia as an exceptional herald to Kublai Khan and the book was narrated by Rustichello da Pisa. The book was an observation of routes, lands, people, civilizations, and research on history and wars by the eyes of Marco Polo. The travels of Marco Polo was not just a book, it was a complete detail of the court of great Kublai Khan, lands of Mongol empire and Central Asia. The Travels of Marco Polo was Polo's perspective on how he encountered foreign lands and people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vStNBzSV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(August 30 and History)","plainCitation":"(August 30 and History)"},"citationItems":[{"id":200,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"itemData":{"id":200,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels","container-title":"livescience.com","abstract":"The travels of Marco Polo from Venice to Asia opened up a whole new world to Europeans. The story of his journey influenced mapmakers and inspired Christopher Columbus.","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","title-short":"Marco Polo","language":"en","author":[{"family":"August 30","given":"Jessie Szalay-Live Science Contributor"},{"family":"History","given":"2017"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (August 30 and History). He described the ideas and shapes of various civilizations and their cultural backgrounds. He also evaluated the great Kublai Khan and his empire, trade and the admiration of the court. Various versions of the book were published and no known book was written by his father or uncle however, the original manuscript was lost. Marco Polo started his journey at the age of seventeen and spent his life traveling and trekking. The book has covered diverse events and various geographical areas of central Asia and Europe. The fauna and flora of the land were beautifully described in the book. The travels of Marco Polo not only covered his views and journey, but it also gave a new insight to readers to travel to the sea to explore lands and civilizations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"shfBvdqC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(August 30 and History)","plainCitation":"(August 30 and History)"},"citationItems":[{"id":200,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/9J4L4NU8"],"itemData":{"id":200,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels","container-title":"livescience.com","abstract":"The travels of Marco Polo from Venice to Asia opened up a whole new world to Europeans. The story of his journey influenced mapmakers and inspired Christopher Columbus.","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","title-short":"Marco Polo","language":"en","author":[{"family":"August 30","given":"Jessie Szalay-Live Science Contributor"},{"family":"History","given":"2017"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (August 30 and History). The travels of Marco Polo have described the traveling experiences of Central Asia, Mesopotamia and Northern China, also it encouraged people and societies to travel to these areas adding trade and economy to the country.

Marco Polo was commissioned by the court of Kublai khan to travel through the Empire and to explore areas of his land so that he can open new ventures for the travelers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mbBEsTBH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":196,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/RS9V5KET"],"itemData":{"id":196,"type":"webpage","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - eNotes.com","container-title":"eNotes","abstract":"Complete summary of Marco Polo's The Travels of Marco Polo. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of The Travels of Marco Polo.","URL":"http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com”). The mission of travels of the Marco polo was to explore the entire Empire and to survey the civilizations and customs of the societies, the fauna and flora and the geography of the land of Kublai Khan ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aekSfdA9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf ({\\i{}Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science})}","plainCitation":"(Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science)"},"citationItems":[{"id":783,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/K5GPCWPR"],"itemData":{"id":783,"type":"webpage","title":"Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science","URL":"https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science). The great Kublai Khan was really impressed by the courtesy and the obedience of the Polos, therefore, he decided to introduced them in his empire and opened the land for travelers and explorers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MjJjWCXV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sparavigna)","plainCitation":"(Sparavigna)"},"citationItems":[{"id":"RIMQnydB/nfRQkUKY","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/Y88AS66R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/Y88AS66R"],"itemData":{"id":"RIMQnydB/nfRQkUKY","type":"article-journal","title":"The road to Xanadu in the Travels of Marco Polo","container-title":"PHILICA, Article","issue":"1097","author":[{"family":"Sparavigna","given":"Amelia Carolina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sparavigna). The travel of the Marco Polo was a historical book written by romance writer Rustichello da Pisa who served from books that he had perceived from Marco Polo ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7JYaeznW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yule)","plainCitation":"(Yule)"},"citationItems":[{"id":192,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/N4CGTTHC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Hznayqvz/items/N4CGTTHC"],"itemData":{"id":192,"type":"book","title":"The Travels of Marco Polo","publisher":"BoD–Books on Demand","volume":"2","ISBN":"3-7326-2070-0","author":[{"family":"Yule","given":"Henry"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Yule). They both were imprisoned together in Genoa. The book was transformed into various versions into different languages and it provides insight to many travelers to get directions for their traveling and voyages.

Chronicles

Year

Description

1254

Marco Polo born

1260

Merchandise for Constantinople was the cargo and the journey was voyaged by Maffeo Polo and Nicolo polo.

1269

The two Polos arrived in Venice

1271

The polos decided to leave their country

1291

Left China

1295

The Polos reached their homeland

1295

The Polos return to Venice

1298

The period spent in prison in Genoa

1298

Wrote hi book

1299

Marco released from prison

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY August 30, Jessie Szalay-Live Science Contributor, and 2017 History. “Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels.” Livescience.Com, https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html. Accessed 3 Dec. 2019.

Chang, Na. “Kublai Khan in the Eyes of Marco Polo.” European Review, vol. 25, no. 3, 2017, pp. 502–17.

Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels | Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/27513-marco-polo.html. Accessed 4 Dec. 2019.

Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina. “The Road to Xanadu in the Travels of Marco Polo.” PHILICA, Article, no. 1097, 2017.

“The Travels of Marco Polo Summary - ENotes.Com.” ENotes, http://www.enotes.com/topics/travels-marco-polo. Accessed 3 Dec. 2019.

Wittkower, Rudolf. “Marco Polo and the Pictorial Tradition of the Marvels of the East.” Medieval Ethnographies, Routledge, 2017, pp. 175–207.

Yule, Henry. The Travels of Marco Polo. BoD–Books on Demand, 2018.

The Triumph And Tragedy At Pearl Harbor

Name of Student

Name of Professor

Name of Class

Day Month Year

The Triumph and Tragedy at Pearl Harbor

Introduction

The USA’s naval base adjacent Honolulu is known as “Pearl Harbor.” On December 7th, 1941, it came under the attack of Japanese forces. It was a Sunday morning when hundreds of Japanese fighter planes made a surprise attack on the base. They succeeded in taking down 20 US naval vessels. There were more than 2300 American causalities, including civilians and more than 1000 others wounded, added to the sum. The attack on Pearl Harbor is also known as the battle of Pearl Harbor. The battle of Pearl Harbor also played as United States’ entry ticket to World War II.

The attack was referred to as "Hawaii Operations" and "Operation AI" by the Japanese Military. The intention behind this attack by Japan was to prevent US's involvement in its planned Military activities in South Asia in contradiction of external grounds of Netherlands, UK, and USA. These outbreaks were synchronized Japanese attacks. Within seven hours the attacks were made on the USA, Wake Island, Guam, Hong Kong, British seized Singapore; US seized Philippines and British Empire in Malaya.

History

The attack was initiated just before 8 am. It was 7:48 am following Hawaiian time, on a Sunday morning. 353 Japanese jets took on the base taking Americas by surprise. The eight US battleships were damaged due to the attack, and four of the eight ships sunk. A total of’ 188 US aircraft were destroyed in the attack as well. There were many causalities as mentioned above, with the majority being the American navy and civilians. Around a thousand others were injured in the process. The Japanese were much less in comparison.

This surprise attack shocked all the Americans and held their hand to World War II. After the attack on Pearl Harbor on the 7th of December, immediately the next day 8th December, America professed war on Japan. Further, upon USAs’ declaration of war against Japan, on December 11th, Italy and Germany declared war against the US. The US responded to them with the announcement of war against both the countries as well.

Plenty of historical examples were present for the surprise attack by Japan. Never the less, there was the absence of any warnings, that too when peace negotiations were current. This pushed President Franklin D. Roosevelt to decree the attack on Pearl Harbor 7th December 1941; as a day that will be forever dated in history as a representation of dishonor. Quote “Yesterday, December 7th, 1941-a day that will live in infamy.” Since there were no prior warnings of the war made by Japan, the attack on Pearl Harbor was judged by the Tokyo Trials and deemed to be a war crime.

President Roosevelt claimed; it did not matter that how long it took for the US to get back on its feet after the sudden attack, but they will continue in the right direction. He also said that the people of America, together, will put this incident behind them and taste victory soon. He stated that he was in full belief of the fact that he was making this statement in synchronization with the thoughts of the Congress, as well as the people of the country. He made sure to make his point by saying; that never again will the country be taken by surprise and go through such deceit.

The motive behind the Attack

The Japanese Government made a firm decision of taking down Pearl Harbor after the US cut off their oil exports to Japan. This cut off was made before the war in the summer of 1941. The Japanese depended on the oil exported from the US. The 80% of the oil that they needed for their navy came from the US. The Japanese Navy could not have functioned if it was not for the exported oil.

The US was not pleased with Japan. The fact that Japan was gravitating towards its neighbor China was causing the US unease. On the contrary, the Japanese Government believed the view, that the demographic and economic problems faced by them could be solved if they extended into the neighboring country. The hold on China's import market would have given them an edge and proved to be beneficial. This caused the US to retaliate by cutting off the oil supply and access to money and goods. The US believed that the shortage of oil would strap Japan from extending to China. This move, of course, sealed the deal for Japan to go to war with the USA.

When Japan attacked the Pearl Harbor, they were eyeing the US Pacific fleet. They wanted to damage the Pacific fleet as much as possible so that they could provide their navy complete control to the Pacific. The Pacific fleet was the only hurdle that was containing Japan from the subjugation of Malaya and Dutch East Indies, and to take over Southeast Asia without any intrusion.

Japan was also driven by the idea of "Asia for Asians." The view supported that Japan takes control of the Asian colonies under the reign of the US and Europe. They felt that the plan was solid, as Dutch, French and British were against a war with Europe. Since Europe was in the war already, they will not be able to preserve their Asian colonial holdings. As mentioned above, following their plan, Japan not only attacked Pearl Harbor but also went after Wake Island, Guam, Hong Kong, British seized Singapore, US seized the Philippines and British Empire in Malaya.

The Premonitions concerning the attack

It is a fact that the US was held impromptu for the attack on Pearl Harbor. If it were not for bad luck, things would have come out different for the United States. The Japanese diplomatic code was broken by the US in the project known as "Magic." Post breaking the code General George Marshall on holding the now broken code, warned the Pearl Harbor to stay alert prior to the attack. But due to adverse weather conditions, the message never reached the base on time.

The US thought that the Japanese attack was forthcoming in the Pacific. The US military believed that the Philippines or any other area close to Japan would be the target. They never expected Japan to come as far as Pearl Harbor base. Since the distance between Japan and Pearl Harbor was 3,500 miles, the US Government and Navy declared it to be a doubtful target. Japan used this as an advantage and hit where they were least expected.

The Navy Preparations

The planning to carry the attack on Pearl Harbor, to preserve the move of Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia, initiated earlier in 1941. The full-on preparations were proceeding by spring 1941. The planners behind thoroughly studied the British air attack on the Italian fleet. It was dated to 1940 and served as a perfect learning foundation for the planners. Even though, according to a US poll, above 50% of the American saw a war coming between Japan and USA. While this might have given the US a heads up, but their underestimation of Japan led to the attack being a success.

Over the months, Japan trained its pilots and gave proper instruction to the navy. Every step was being held meticulously, but Emperor Hirohito had his doubts. He did not give his approval for the war till early November, post the third Imperial Conference. The planning was done strategically, and not a single loophole was left. Japan also wanted to break America's perception, that they cannot mount more than one naval operation simultaneously.

Japan’s Declaration of War

It is evident in history that indeed the attack made by Japan on Pearl Harbor was without any formal declaration of war. That might be the case, but it was not the intent of Japanese Admiral Yamamoto. His view was that the war would not inaugurate till the US was notified. The war was initially to start 30 minutes after informing the US that the peace treaty between the two nations is over.

Sadly, the war started prior to being informed. Tokyo did transmit the notification consisting of 5000 words to the Japanese Embassy situated in Washington, but it took them a long time to decode it. Hence, the Japanese ambassador could not deliver the message before the war. Though the US code breakers had already decrypted the notification before the ambassador's word, but they were also behind.

Many military and government officials went through every detail minutely post-war. While the war was inevitable, there were no indications to when it was going to break out. Other than that, Japan never officially broke the diplomatic relations between the two countries before the attack either. After a thorough look at the scenario by a professor of International relations and Law, it was clear that Japan never intended for the US to find out about their intentions. They never formally ended the peace treaty nor the diplomatic relation with the US, even after decoding the message delivered by Japan, there is no direct mention of it.

The American Fatalities and Blight

Within 90 minutes of the attack, it was all over. Around two thousand sailors died, over 700 others were injured, above 200 soldiers were killed and over 350 wounded, more than a 100 marines were taken down while 69 left severely hurt. Lastly, 68 civilians died in the attack, and 35 were left wounded. A total of 2335 American fatalities with over a thousand people poorly wounded. Half of the American causalities were the cause of the explosion made on the battleship Arizona. Eight battleships in total were destroyed and sunk. Amongst a total of 402 American jets, 188 were taken down, and more than 150 jets were damaged. Having said that, none of the jets were ready to take off and fight to protect the base. There were around nine civilian jets in the vicinity, three of those planes were also taken down.

Japanese Damages

The Japanese faced far less damage contrary to Americans. Only 55 aviators were taken down, along with them nine submariners also died. Japan had more than 400 planes at its disposal, of which only 29 were lost during the war, while 74 of them were damaged through fire from the ground.

Accomplishment through tragedy

While it is true that the attack on Pearl Harbor is one of the most noted tragedies of the United States, but it is safe to say that America achieved "Triumph through this Tragedy." Over seventy years ago Japan took America by surprise, and a huge sum of fatalities was the result. This war led to America's entry in the World War II. This step changed the destiny of many and resulted in a term which many call "The Greatest Generation," known as the ones who helped detain a global threat. Pearl Harbor indeed became an event that could never be forgotten, amongst tragedies of 9/11 and John F. Kennedy’s assassination.

December 7th carries great importance for all Americans. From this tragedy, a sense of unity rose amongst the people of the country. After the dreaded attack, many capable people stepped forward to join the army and serve the US military abroad while trying to support the exertions on home ground. While many lives were lost in the process, but it all aided in eliminating oppression for good by mid-1945.

Prior the attack on Pearl Harbor, the departments of State, Navy and War all compromised of one single building near the White House. Two years into following, the world’s most prominent organization “The Pentagon” came in the picture as the massive National Security Establishment.

In the case of Japan, Pearl Harbor served as a tactical success and an epic strategic mistake. Tokyo misread the democratic debate as a symbol of corruption and expected America to sue for peace, but that backfired majorly. The postwar Japan jumped into accepting the American enforced constitution disowning offensive war. There was a time when America viewed Japan as untreatable militarist, now the same country feels the need to push Japan to invest additional money in its defense.

The same way Americans cannot forget about Pearl Harbor, the Japanese cannot let go Hiroshima and the bombing of Tokyo. There are many offended Japanese who do not like the fact that it is stated in history; the war instigated by Japan was in response to America's decision of cutting the oil supply. While this was not the case, the attack on Pearl Harbor was being planned way before America caused the oil shortage. This might be the history, but Japan's history taught in schools on the war with China contradicts from what actually happened. Never the less, Japan regenerated stronger. They came forth as a free society. They emerged as one of the most generous foreign aid donors.

Pearl Harbor also served the post-colonial world. It initiated the unanticipated liberation. While for super patriots, Pearl Harbor was an admonitory fiction. Finally coming to the world; for the world, Pearl Harbor brought the message of the collapse of fascist tyranny. This aided in faking a democratic union, which overcame Soviet oppression. It is true that the event of Pearl Harbor led to Hiroshima and the bomb, but it also instigated the United Nations and the worldwide declaration of Human rights.

Conclusion

Pearl Harbor did not just start a war; it started a whole new era. Today the US might be facing a lot of issues, but that only ensures that the obstacles are going to lead to success. A lot of American blood was spilled on 7th December 1941, and the event caused more bloodshed in the future. All these events led to America becoming invincible from being vulnerable. The message of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the events triggered by it is clear; there are no challenges that a country cannot meet, and there are definitely no challenges that a country cannot overcome. The people who lost their lives seventy years ago deserve a salute to what they started. They began a frenzy that cannot be stopped. This extraordinary moment in history should be reflected on by everyone. It is remarkable how America rose from the ashes and brought upon light in the darkest hour. The US took its deceit and turned it into one of the biggest Triumphs, known to this day.

Works Cited

Feis, Herbert. Road to Pearl Harbor: The Coming of the War between the United States and Japan. Princeton University Press, 2015.

Feis, Herbert. China Tangle: The American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission. Princeton University Press, 2015.

Brody, J. Kenneth. Crucible of a Generation: How the Attack on Pearl Harbor Transformed America. Routledge, 2017.

Jackson, Richard. "Writing the war on terrorism: Language, politics, and counter-terrorism." (2018).

Dower, John W. "Hiroshimas and Nagasakis in Japanese Memory." United States and Asia at War: A Cultural Approach: A Cultural Approach (2015): 27.

White, Geoffrey. "19 Pearl Harbor and D-Day as iconic memory." Managing and Interpreting D-Day's Sites of Memory: Guardians of remembrance (2016): 237.

Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in World War II: Bombs, Cities, Civilians, and Oil. University Press of Kansas, 2016.

Boggs, Carl. "From Pearl Harbor to the “Asian Pivot”: Contours of us Imperialism in the Pacific." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 16.1-3 (2017): 217-240.

Unoki, Ko. "Japan-US Relations 1853–1941." International Relations and the Origins of the Pacific War. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2016. 26-160.

The Twentieth Century And The Violence That Followed

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Argumentative Essay: The Twentieth Century and the Violence that Followed

This essay is based on the interpretation and narratives which are regarded as the age of violence, genocide, and terror. By using the historical examples such as civil wars, and genocide. Bloody, dark and savage is the description of the twentieth century which causes several deaths. In this century some of the great events occurred which include WWI, WWII, forced displacements and deportation. The period of the twentieth century was completely based on the war as well as mass annihilation for racial, national, political reasons and identity as well. On the other hand, the twentieth century witnessed advancement in science, communication, technology as well as cultural, religious and racial tolerance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). Though, it is obvious that the twentieth century cannot only be marked in terror and violence terms but it is difficult to imagine the twentieth century without these variables.

In short, the twentieth century regarded as the violence history or violent century in human history based on the loss of human lives as a result of racial, identical and political wars ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). This century can be characterized as the complex phenomena which consist of repression, uprising, ethnic conflict, genocide and ethnic ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). It can also define through civil wars with the period of post-war. It also includes the national displacement and national displacement on a large-scale. It also consists of extreme violence process against entire groups and individuals ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Xu3IUqaG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). From Africa to Europe and from Asia to America, thus the twentieth century was the fascism and revolution century but also the century of democracy and science. However, most of the historians record this century as the genocide, violence and terror century. In this essay, I include particular traits of this violence politics by contemporary history narrative that focused the twentieth century as the violence century.

The main mechanism of the twentieth century defined as war and violence. In the violence history alongside the openly violent as well as the elimination of political culture. The identification and politics are the major motives of such situation justification. The first half of the European 20th century is the most studied period of recent decades ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). However, this period not only studied as the politics of violence and in general drawn as the common characteristic of the research methodology. Three characteristics referred to about the twentieth century. Initially, violence caused by human conflict. According to Drink Moses, “when I voiced my doubts about the concept’s applicability to the context of the Spanish Civil War, genocide is not a historical exception, but an almost constant feature throughout the history of humanity”. This mechanism secondly reduced to various repeatable and comparable behavior in various places and times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). It is explained as the metaphors series which take in the victims’ identification and the violence functionality. Thirdly the twentieth century surrounds the 1945 watershed period in the second half of the century which is free from the collective violence that is focused exclusively on 30 year period from 1914 to 1945.

The theoretical period tools used to analyze the process such as civil war, genocide, and murder which remain no more than twenty years ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8Dh3eMfp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Spartacus Educational\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Spartacus Educational”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":333,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/9TADJWD4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/9TADJWD4"],"itemData":{"id":333,"type":"webpage","abstract":"The Spartacus Educational website provides a series of free history encyclopaedias. Entries usually include a narrative, illustrations and primary sources. The text within each entry is linked to other relevant pages in the encyclopaedia. In this way it is possible to research individual people and events in great detail. The sources are also hyper-linked so the student is able to find out about the writer, artist, newspaper and organization that produced the material.","container-title":"Spartacus Educational","language":"en","title":"Spartacus Educational","URL":"https://spartacus-educational.com/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Spartacus Educational”). The changes mostly occurred in territorial control and political governance management. After the cold war ended, with the economic resources globalization, this led to the necessary means for analyzing the contemporary reality which was also applicable in the collective violence field. It grows complexity long before related to the historical analysis field. For instance, it is apparent that the increase in the rapid genocide study from the 1990s. However, the theoretical debate is intense and rich since the end of WWII. Indeed, violence is the central theme that promotes a conceptual approach between science, sociology, histography, and anthropology. Political science is the major tool that tackled violence through the predictability perspective ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). In most cases, the political science notion referred to violence historical mechanism with political objective, nature, and explanation. This century always given the reference to terrorism as mass killing and the political motive was its prevention.

The collective violence specifically comes through the social sciences. It is the prerequisite of present and future assumptions from past knowledge ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). Consequently, the twentieth-century violence is much relevant to collective violence scrutiny. Through this perspective, the authors narrated that violence can only be avoided when its repetition is prevented. For acquiring this loft goal, the world can be divided into several categories such as the components of race, people and class. Historians analyzed such behaviors through mathematical formulas, analytical diagrams, and behavior charts. Recently, the 20th century is often termed as the century of genocide. It is described as the result of unexpected and extreme aggression specifically on innocent and defenseless victims that are mostly racial and religious groups. In which these groups are often stereotyped and identified by the other groups. The inflicted violence might have causes, forms, and consequences that respond to the pre-established recognizable plan for the elimination of this victim category. Consequently, because of forced displacement and mass killing ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CHTPqdcv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Spartacus Educational\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Spartacus Educational”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":333,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/9TADJWD4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/9TADJWD4"],"itemData":{"id":333,"type":"webpage","abstract":"The Spartacus Educational website provides a series of free history encyclopaedias. Entries usually include a narrative, illustrations and primary sources. The text within each entry is linked to other relevant pages in the encyclopaedia. In this way it is possible to research individual people and events in great detail. The sources are also hyper-linked so the student is able to find out about the writer, artist, newspaper and organization that produced the material.","container-title":"Spartacus Educational","language":"en","title":"Spartacus Educational","URL":"https://spartacus-educational.com/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Spartacus Educational”). Such violence elements generate the terror process and explain with others such as political repression.

When Europe is analyzed in the context of the 20th century, it is known in contemporary destruction dynamics and violent progression ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"k8FJb7BZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Spartacus Educational\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(“Spartacus Educational”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":333,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/9TADJWD4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/9TADJWD4"],"itemData":{"id":333,"type":"webpage","abstract":"The Spartacus Educational website provides a series of free history encyclopaedias. Entries usually include a narrative, illustrations and primary sources. The text within each entry is linked to other relevant pages in the encyclopaedia. In this way it is possible to research individual people and events in great detail. The sources are also hyper-linked so the student is able to find out about the writer, artist, newspaper and organization that produced the material.","container-title":"Spartacus Educational","language":"en","title":"Spartacus Educational","URL":"https://spartacus-educational.com/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Spartacus Educational”). It is noteworthy that without war the violence rates are mostly lower. Such as violence on the Armenian minority in Turkey which provided the functional and legal context for global war. In Spain, the killing rates are the result of collective violence and political persecution which include forced labor mostly after the end of state war. Throughout the Fascism protracted age, the greatest violence occurred on the Italian soil which occurred in the WWII context and relation to Liberation and Civil War. Throughout the era of the 20th century, Italy gave the violence examples in Mussolini’s which results in hundreds of arrests which consist of violence diverse range including the political, racial and colonial nature ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). Although, despite for the permanent elimination of violence. The violence policy was quite considerable for violence evocation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x3kdV7kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kang et al.)","plainCitation":"(Kang et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":243,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/ALSDU3VW"],"itemData":{"id":243,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International journal of medical informatics","page":"83-88","title":"The public’s opinions on a new school meals policy for childhood obesity prevention in the US: A social media analytics approach","volume":"103","author":[{"family":"Kang","given":"Yin"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Youfa"},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Dongsong"},{"family":"Zhou","given":"Lina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kang et al.). The European major collective violence occurred under the auspices and because of the war process results. With a global perspective, genocide is not always analyzed in the context of war. The 1933 Ukrainian Holodomor and 1950 massacre in China were not related directly to the military confrontation.

Through the combined analysis of the 20th century combined violence considered in different lights (Fang). The war superimposition and the internal conflicts made the twentieth century dark and bloody. The civil from 1918 to 1947 and the two world wars happened from 1914 to 1919 and 1939 to 1945. Wars were based on the superimposed phenomena that gave rise to great violent conflicts. It is reasonable to regard the 20th century as the most violent in the history of Europe ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"liAjbHNZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kawakami)","plainCitation":"(Kawakami)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":330,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/5LTJSF4Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/5LTJSF4Q"],"itemData":{"id":330,"type":"book","abstract":"The metadata below describe the original scanning. Follow the \"All Files: HTTP\" link in the \"View the book\" box to the left to find XML files that contain more metadata about the original images and the derived formats (OCR results, PDF etc.). See also the What is the directory structure for the texts? FAQ for information about file content and naming conventions.; A world unsafe for democracy / Isoh Yamagata -- The Monroe doctrine and the League of nations / Rikitaro Fujisawa -- Mikadoism / R. Oda -- Japan's defective constitutional government / Yukio Ozaki -- Liberalism in Japan / Sakuzo Yoshino -- Japan's navalism / Tetsutaro Sato -- Militarism and navalism in America / Henry Satoh -- Harmony between East and West / Takashi Hara -- The war's effect upon the Japanese mind / Masahur Anesaki -- Illusions of the white race / Marquis Okuma -- The \"white\" problem in Asia / an anonymous writer -- The Japanese question in America / Shimpei Gogo -- Can Japan be Christianized? / M. Zumoto -- Appendix: The Yap controversy","call-number":"DS841 .K3","language":"eng","number-of-pages":"248","publisher":"New York : Macmillan Co.","source":"Internet Archive","title":"What Japan thinks","URL":"http://archive.org/details/cu31924023233327","author":[{"family":"Kawakami","given":"Kiyoshi Karl"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,15]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["1921"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kawakami). As it consists on the series of internal conflicts and civil wars ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KuBCihdj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rodrigo)","plainCitation":"(Rodrigo)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":327,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/F4SNLPH2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/F4SNLPH2"],"itemData":{"id":327,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"This paper looks at major European twentieth-century narratives and interpretations that have seen it as an age of violence, terror and genocide. Using examples from historiographical debate and the analysis of specific historical processes (including the debates on genocide, concentrationary systems, civil wars and the Holocaust), it addresses both the characteristics of those narratives and some of their limitations and conceptual edges. Finally, the conceptual proposal put forward seeks to analyze, through historical contingency, continuities and discontinuities in the history of European collective violence.","container-title":"Culture & History Digital Journal","DOI":"10.3989/chdj.2014.014","ISSN":"2253-797X","issue":"2","language":"en","page":"014","source":"cultureandhistory.revistas.csic.es","title":"Dark, bloody and savage: Twentieth-century European violence and its narratives","title-short":"Dark, bloody and savage","volume":"3","author":[{"family":"Rodrigo","given":"Javier"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",12,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rodrigo). It was also the era of mass execution, implemented and maintained dictatorship by civilian bloodshed. This essay analyzed the violent process and provides the understanding of historic relationship which can be established between them. However, several technological advancements happened in the twentieth century but collective violence made the twentieth century bloody.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Kang, Yin, et al. “The Public’s Opinions on a New School Meals Policy for Childhood Obesity Prevention in the US: A Social Media Analytics Approach.” International Journal of Medical Informatics, vol. 103, 2017, pp. 83–88.

Kawakami, Kiyoshi Karl. What Japan Thinks. New York : Macmillan Co., 1921. Internet Archive, http://archive.org/details/cu31924023233327.

Rodrigo, Javier. “Dark, Bloody and Savage: Twentieth-Century European Violence and Its Narratives.” Culture & History Digital Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, Dec. 2014, p. 014. cultureandhistory.revistas.csic.es, doi:10.3989/chdj.2014.014.

“Spartacus Educational.” Spartacus Educational, https://spartacus-educational.com/. Accessed 15 Dec. 2019.