DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

Depressive Disorder

[Author’s name]

[Institute’s name]

Abstract

Today, the issue of depressive disorder makes an impact on people in many different forms that require necessary attention. A critical consideration of DSM-5 criteria is a necessary condition to ensure appropriate diagnosis of psychological problem of depressive disorder. This diagnostic criterion helps to identify potential signs and symptoms of depression in the case of any individual. It is observed that there are different genetic and environmental factors that play a critical role when it comes to assessing the risk of depressive disorder for any individual. The successful evaluation of psychological problems requires the application of a suitable form of treatment to help people who are suffering from the complications of depressive disorder. 

Depressive Disorder

Introduction

The growing uncertainty and complications of life increase the chances of different psychological diseases for people. Undoubtedly, the population of this age is continuously struggling to obtain the balance of life by enhancing the perspective of the necessary well-being. It is important to critically observe different forms of psychological troubles to help people efficiently. It is noteworthy to mention that catastrophe of depression also appearing as one alarming situation, such as suicide that requires necessary attention. It is observed that people experiencing a feeling of depression due to many diverse reasons which includes socioeconomic and financial crisis. It is one complex psychological phenomenon because its consequences are established as immensely detrimental or horrific. The chronic implications of depressive disorder not only affect the well-being of the victim but it also affects routine functioning of close family members and friends of victim. Every human being has the legitimate right to live his life with a healthy body and mind. This objective is greatly smashed by the strong influence of depression as a psychological disorder. This paper focuses on critically analyzing the procedure of diagnosing and the differentiating signs and symptoms of the diagnoses of depressive disorder according to DSM-5 criteria. 

Overview of Depressive Disorder

Today, A number of people are suffering from complications of depressive disorder. The major hurdle in the context of assessing this issue is that most people are unable to recognize their psychological condition as the issue of depressive disorder. Most of the time, patients of depression find themselves unable to recognize the actual reason of their depressive feelings. The growing range of depression characterized as one major psychological disease faced by people belongs to different age-groups. This psychological difficulty is not only limited to young individuals but it also witnessed in the case of children. The growing occurrence of depressive disorder ranked it as one of the major psychological disorders. 

 A critical consideration of DSM-5 criteria is significant to successfully recognize the approach of depression as a major psychological disorder. The criteria of DSM-5 established as the standard manual for proper evaluation and diagnosis of different forms in the shape of signs and symptoms of mental disorders. A correct consideration of this form of assessment is vital to achieving the goal of accurate diagnosis to offer appropriate treatment accordingly. The diagnosis of mental disorder in the form of DSM-5 is characterized as the first practical measure to determine the intensity of the psychological issue of depressive disorder. The diagnostic standard of DSM-5 is a helpful option to successfully define depression as a chronic psychological disorder (Association, 2013). Depression is recognized as a major depressive disorder or clinical depression that is one serious form of mood disorder. The DSM-5 criteria provide concise outline to ensure successful diagnostic of depression as a major psychological disorder. According to DSM-5 criteria, an individual must be facing five or more than five major symptoms during the time-frame of the same 2-week period to be categorized as the patient of depressive disorder. Moreover, it is also important to consider the nature of different symptoms as it is established that one of the symptoms must be either extreme loss of interest or regular depressive mood (Fava & Kendler, 2000). The category of DSM-5 criteria also reveals some more details about the symptoms that can be helpful to diagnose the issue of depressive disorder. These aspects are successfully characterized as follows:

Experiencing depressive mood for most of the day and sometimes it appears without any particular reason. 

Lack of interest and pleasure in different activities of life in daily routine. 

Substantial weight loss is another alarming indicator referring to the problem of depression as a major psychological disorder. 

Facing the issue of fatigue or immense loss of energy that eventually affects daily-life performance for the individual. 

Constant feeling of being worthless individuals who are unable to achieve goals and objectives.

Lack of concentration in almost every matter of life is another critical symptom concerning the prospect of depressive disorder. 

Consistent development of feelings of death and thoughts of attempting suicide are established as chronic symptoms of major depressive disorder under the domain of DSM-5 criteria of diagnosis. 

Potential Causes of Depressive Disorder

Identification of potential causes of depressive disorder is necessary to propose suitable clinical help to the patients. It is significant for the healthcare provider to closely monitor an individual’s historical background and existing routine to determine the actual reason for the psychological problem of the depressive category. The potential reasons for this issue can be characterized in the form of various categories. Both, genetic and environmental aspects need to be considered to identify reasons for depressive disorder. Determining the actual causes of depressive disorder is one complex perspective because it involves both genetic and environmental factors. 

Genetic Causes of Depressive Disorder

 A comprehensive examination of an individual’s family history is an important step to identify the actual cause of the depressive disorder. Any former case of depression in the family increases the risk of depression for the people (Shadrina, Bondarenko, & Slominsky, 2018). It is established that the implications of genes in the case of depressive disorder are one complex phenomenon because there can be many different genes that enhance the potential hazard of depressive disorder. The existence of the depression gene in individuals concerning the practical idea of recurrent depression due to different biological factors. It is established that individuals with family members who have the issue of depression are most likely to suffer from the issue of depressive disorder. An individual with a family history of depression has three times more risks of facing the calamity of clinical depression at some point in their life (Shadrina, Bondarenko, & Slominsky, 2018). These chances are further expanded due to different environmental factors and the complication of heredity. Heritability rate for the psychological issue of depressive disorder is high which eventually increases the risk of depression for the individual. 

Environmental Causes of Depressive Disorder

Environmental factors including food, water, and air are recognized as a major contributor when it comes to appearance of depressive disorder for the individual. The involvement of the environment in this scenario can be observed in many different forms that ultimately increase the risk of major psychological dysfunctioning. Sometimes, environmental exposure becomes the major reason for the development of psychological issue of depressive disorder. Environmental contribution to the issue of depressive disorder is mainly classified into three major domains of air, food, and water pollution. Inappropriate forms of these specific areas increase risk of depressive behavior by the individual, who is directly suffering from these issues (Nabeshima & Kim, 2013). The mental health of people is closely dependent on the functioning of different environmental aspects such as food, air, and water. The developing environmental trends in the forms of artificial chemicals, food additives, pesticides, industrial byproducts, etc. are all recognized as the potential environmental factors that impacts mental development of individuals (Peyrot et al., 2013). Additionally, it is also argued that the growing spectrum of environmental pollution in many different forms badly damages the overall development of the mental health of people. The negative influence of the environment as the major cause of depression can also be witnessed in case of occurrence of various natural disasters (Nabeshima & Kim, 2013). Different natural disasters such as floods, earth quacks, hurricanes, etc. immensely increases the potential hazard of depression for the individuals. People who have experienced natural calamity have a higher risk of facing the challenge of depressive disorder. An individual with a low approach of sensitivity has higher chances of facing psychological problems. 

Spiritual Causes of Depressive Disorder

There is an active consideration of some spiritual factors that are closely linked with the practical idea of major depressive disorder. It is important to determine the prevailing connection between spirituality and depressive disorder. A detailed understanding of spiritual causes of depressive disorder can be helpful to propose better treatment prospects for the people who are suffering from depression (Bonelli, Dew, Koenig, Rosmarin, & Vasegh, 2012). Losing a sense of joy is one critical indicator of of depressive disorder, and this feeling is closely associated with the paradigm of spirituality. Lack of spirituality ultimately made it difficult for people to find the necessary balance between life and the inner level of peace. The phenomenon of spirituality explicitly reveals that depression as the phase of darkness and disappointment for the individuals. The dense and heavy depressing emotions have a strong connection with the practical implications of spirituality (Bonelli, Dew, Koenig, Rosmarin, & Vasegh, 2012). The increasing form of inner darkness made it impossible for people to successfully resist the psychological issue of depression. Internal emotions in the broader perspective of spirituality greatly linked with the spectrum of depression for the individual. The increasing trend of materialism adversely damages the desired form of spirituality that ultimately turned as the major reason for depression for the individual. The material success made it difficult for people to successfully examine their spiritual domains and attain a balanced form of overall well-being in life.  

Consideration of Biological, Neurological, and Physiological Factors 

The overall human development, functioning, and behavioral prospects are also related to different factors of consideration. These significant aspects can be recognized as various biological, neurological, and physiological aspects. The development of depressive disorder can be characterized as an implication of different factors. When it comes to the exploration of biological factors that cause the development of depressive disorder, it is not simply the matter of the existence of brain chemicals in the form of intensity. There are different aspects that play their role as the major causes of depressive disorder. These areas can be recognized as improper mood regulations by the individual’s brain, genetic vulnerability, any form of medications, or medical issues, etc. 

The psychological problem of depression is also closely linked with the broad perspective of neurology. The problem of depressive disorder can be established as the concern of neurology because it is actively relevant to any dysfunction of any particular part of the brain. The adverse impact of this form of issue eventually appeared as the extreme consequences in the routine-life of people (Peyrot et al., 2013). The process of development is also closely linked with the spectrum of physiological aspects that influence the functioning of people in a great manner. The intense combination of various social, biological, and physiological elements leads to the development of depression as one critical disorder in people. The functioning of individuals played a critical role to examine the risk of major depressive disorder. Development of someone’s personality is one major critical referring to the approach of potential causes of major depressive disorder. Personality traits or elements of functioning possess by anyone ultimately influence the level of risk in the form of clinical depression. 

Processes to Evaluate Depressive Disorder

A systematic process of evaluating depressive disorder requires the adoption of different steps to obtain correct outcomes in the end. Assessment of psychological disease is a critical step to ensure proper healthcare services for patients who are suffering from the chronic disease of major depressive disorder. There are diverse ways that can be used by the service provider to determine the correct form of diagnosis in case of depressive disorder. These different options of assessment recognized as physical examination, lab tests, psychiatric assessment, and considering the approach of DSM-5 criteria. All these practical measures can be considered as valuable options when it comes to assessing the potential risk of depressive disorder in any individual. 

The practical step of physical exam requires interaction between the healthcare provider and the individual. In this setting, the healthcare provider asks different questions from individuals to make better inferences about their health. The body functioning is also assessing through the practical idea of a lab test by examining body movement of people (Belmaker & Agam, 2008). Moreover, mental health professionals are interested to critically observe various signs, symptoms, thoughts, aspirations, and behavioral patterns of the individual to make better inferences about the depression as a major psychological concern. The standard form of assessment in the form of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) is one major practical approach of assessment concerning the existence and intensity of the depressive disorder. It is vital for the healthcare professional to evaluate the physical and mental health of the patient under the spectrum of DSM-5 criteria of evaluation. 

The process of evaluating depressive disorder can never be ranked complete without identifying the actual type of depression possess by an individual. A comprehensive understanding of different symptoms of depressive disorder helps to identify various types of depression in the case of different people. The major types of depressive disorders are characterized as an anxiety disorder, mixed features disorder, melancholic aspects, atypical features, etc. All these are the representation of some degree of depression for the patient. A proper understanding of all these types is necessary for a healthcare provider to meet the standard of the assessment process of depressive disorder. The issue of the anxiety disorder is defined as the occurrence of depression with the consideration of different unusual aspects of restlessness or extreme worry for the individual. Experiencing mixed problematic aspects such as increased energy can be another major indication of depressive disorder. Critical consideration of various melancholic aspects is also an integral form of assessment to determine the actual type of depression. These aspects are recognized under the spectrum of lack of responsive behavior, extreme mood aversions, feelings of unhappiness and guilt, agitation, etc. Identification of atypical factors is another major part of the assessment process of depressive disorder. It is important to identify the individual’s ability to show an active response to different routine activities. 

Active engagement between a mental healthcare professional and the potential patient is a mandatory step to meet the target of assessing the occurrence of depressive disorder effectively and efficiently. Screening is one of the initial steps of assessment that can never be considered complete without focusing on different symptoms of depressive disorder approach. The constant existence of various signs helps healthcare professional to successfully determine the magnitude and actual type of depression facing. Clinical setting in the form of assessment of major depressive disorder can never be ranked as complete without following the criteria of DSM-5 referring to the exploration of potential symptoms and signs of depression. It is also vital to indicate that regular examination of an individual is necessary to determine the tendency of depression by keenly focusing on the consistent existence of various signs of depression. 

Treatment Options for Depressive Disorder

Identification and selection of the most suitable treatment procedure is one crucial practical measure to successfully address the problem of depressive disorder. Mental healthcare professional needs are vigilant when it comes to adopting a particular form of treating depression because people have a different level of acceptance when it comes to treating any psychological concern. There are many treatment options referring to the objective of providing better services to the sufferers of depressive disorder. A complete understanding of all the possible options of depressive disorder is a necessary measure to select the most suitable approach according to the need of treatment for the patient. 

Therapy, medications, and self-help are three main classifications of treatment that appears in the scenario of depressive disorder. All these options related to the main spectrum of assessing the intensity of the issue of depression for the individual. This form of assessment helps service providers to adopt particular treatment measures accordingly. Medications and psychotherapy are characterized as the most effective ways to provide active treatment to the people who suffer from the issue of depressive disorder. When it comes to the option of medication, different forms of antidepressants are available to provide necessary relief to the people who are struggling with a chronic form of depressive disorder. It is critical to establish that regular use of various medications can cause different side effects, so healthcare professionals need to be careful when prescribing any antidepressant medicine to the individual. Psychotherapy is a popular approach to treatment concerning the sensitivity of depressive disorder for any individual. This practical approach comprised of comprehensive conversations between healthcare professionals and individuals. This form of counseling session helps people to communicate their forms of depression to the healthcare professional and seek necessary guidance (Renn & Areán, 2017). There are various forms of psychotherapy are available when it comes to offering the most suitable practical approach according to the patient’s specific requirements. Cognitive-behavioral therapy or interpersonal therapy are characterized as two major options to ensure successful provision of counseling services to the patients of depressive disorder. The phenomenon of psychotherapy as treatment can be helpful for individuals considering different practical domains. It can be assistive and motivating for the person to successfully deal with any form of the crisis appears in their lives. Moreover, it is a successful practical strategy to learn to develop a successful and positive association between others. This form of conversation is vital for the patients to regain their confidence level and set realistic objectives in their life. It is critical to understand that the idea of treatment of depressive disorder closely linked with critical aspects of consideration that requires necessary attention of service provider. 

It is essential for a service provider to consider standards of ethics and culture when it comes to adopting a specific form of treatment for the patient. A successful counseling session requires critical consideration of ethically and culturally correct strategies of psychotherapy. It is mandatory for the mental health professional to avoid all the questions, during the session, that can be ethical or culturally inappropriate in the regional context of the patient. The standards of ethics also demand that counselors played their role as unbiased professionals who are only interested to help patients of depressive disorder. It is strictly prohibited for a counselor to share personal information of patients with any other individual without their consent. The objective of counseling closely related to both the domains of the in-person and technology-based association during the counseling session. It is one central duty of the counselor to build a strong association with the patients, so they become able to openly discuss their problems, concerns, and insecurities with a counselor without any fear. The opportunity of a technology-assisted relationship can also be helpful to meet the standards of counseling and provide better treatment in case of depressive disorder (aan het Rot, Mathew, & Charney, 2009). This phenomenon can mainly be observed in the form of online therapy that ensures a practical approach to counseling between geographically distant patients and mental healthcare professionals. Adoption of evidence-based counseling practices is an essential condition to recognize the actual cause of the patient’s depression and offer different treatment measures accordingly. This form of consideration requires healthcare professionals to thoroughly understand the entire case history of patients of depression and provide the most suitable form of treatment. This idea is a basic standard to develop the practical idea of integrated counseling for the patients of depressive disorder. 

A Biblical Perspective of Depressive Disorder and Treatment

           A Christian perspective can never be ignored when it comes to ensuring the successful healing of individuals forms the problem of depressive disorder. Different religious and spiritual factors played an important role to attain necessary faith and motivation in life. A strong form of development through the help of religion guides people to obtain a successful form of self-help and adopt different cope-up strategies against the adversity of major depressive disorder. Spiritually-integrated treatment is one popular concept referring to the biblical perspective of depressive disorder under the spectrum of necessary treatment. 

           The platform of religion played its role as a guiding domain to provide ethical and religious standards when it comes to offering treatment services to the people who are struggling with some form of depression. Identification of basic dynamic forces is an essential step to ensure the application of successful treatment under the religious domain. The problems of meaninglessness and helplessness due to the psychological issue of depressive disorder can be successfully overcome through the spiritual power delivered by the religion (Lin, 2011). Practical consideration of biblical perspective helps people to obtain the true meaning of this life through hope and convicts. These features of motivation can be established as the parameters of healing and treatment for the ones who lost their hope and drive due to the disease of depressive disorder. 

Future Research Considerations

           The growing epidemic of depressive disorder demands the adoption of further research in the context of depressive disorder. This specific prospect is mandatory to offer better forms of treatment to the strugglers of depression. Application of evidence-based research practice is a critical practical step to recognize changing requirements in the forms of proper diagnosis and treatment of the issue of depressive disorder. Moreover, a critical examination of the entire viewpoint of depressive disorder is also vital to identify and establish evidence-based counseling strategies according to different treatment requirements of people. The active role of counselors is crucial during the entire scenario of counseling to develop better associations with the patients of depressive disorders. This practical approach can be further helpful to offer various forms of treatment and confidence to the patients, so they can successfully regulate themselves according to the situation. 

Conclusion

           To conclude the critical discussion on the psychological concern of depressive disorder, it is vital to indicate that this problem is actively linked with different associated factors. Active consideration of different steps of the process of treating depression is a necessary condition to ensure better clinical services for the individuals who are suffering from depression in their lives. The role of mental healthcare professionals is important to timely assess the nature of depression and ensure proper counseling services for the patient under the domain of psychotherapy to meet the standard of evidence-based counseling strategies.  

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY aan het Rot, M., Mathew, S. J., & Charney, D. S. (2009). Neurobiological mechanisms in major depressive disorder. Cmaj, 180(3), 305–313.

Association, A. P. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®). Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=-JivBAAAQBAJ

Belmaker, R. H., & Agam, G. (2008). Major depressive disorder. New England Journal of Medicine, 358(1), 55–68.

Bonelli, R., Dew, R. E., Koenig, H. G., Rosmarin, D. H., & Vasegh, S. (2012). Religious and spiritual factors in depression: Review and integration of the research. Depression Research and Treatment, 2012.

Fava, M., & Kendler, K. S. (2000). Major depressive disorder. Neuron, 28(2), 335–341.

Lin, H.-N. (2011). Dealing with Depression: A Christian Perspective. 臺灣精神醫學, 25(4), 224–232.

Nabeshima, T., & Kim, H.-C. (2013). Involvement of genetic and environmental factors in the onset of depression. Experimental Neurobiology, 22(4), 235–243.

Peyrot, W. J., Middeldorp, C. M., Jansen, R., Smit, J. H., de Geus, E. J., Hottenga, J.-J., … Barragan, I. (2013). Strong effects of environmental factors on prevalence and course of major depressive disorder are not moderated by 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms in a large Dutch sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 146(1), 91–99.

Renn, B. N., & Areán, P. A. (2017). Psychosocial treatment options for major depressive disorder in older adults. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 4(1), 1–12.

Shadrina, M., Bondarenko, E. A., & Slominsky, P. A. (2018). Genetics factors in major depression disease. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 334.

Descriptive Article Critique

Descriptive Article Technique

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Descriptive Article Technique

Introduction

In the study of psychology, various researches are conducted and on an exceptional basis. The researchers have done a thorough survey of all the psychological aspects that can create hindrance in the mental development of the people. All these factors play a significant role in determining the various characteristics of the research field. These all factors helps the researcher’s to look forward to conducting multiple types of research in the psychological studies and their effects on human beings. The following analysis is performed on the factors of alcohol and its side effects on both the genders but this research clearly focuses on the male gender and their consumption of alcohol in the society whether it is in the limit of the usage of the alcohol or the situation is getting out of control that it is moving towards the addiction which is causing severe consequences on the personalities of human beings. This research is not only focusing on the concerns but also on the factors which play a vital role in determining their social sustainability or the measure to which they are getting addicted.

Discussion

The main concern of this research is to find out what were the main concerns to carry out this research and it was found out to investigate about the personality traits that were identified in the male gender during the consumption of alcohol on a daily basis and its adverse effects that were found on the males. The other factors were their main comparison between the normative and multi-variation based data that was tested on the population size of n= 100. There was just a single hypothesis in this research which was supposed to be check and rechecked through the study conducted on the 100 members of the community that the men. The primary assumption was that men with more consumption of alcohol have a specific type of addictive personality which was proved correct in this research. As it was conducted through the research that the men with this are so much into the alcohol intake that it becomes difficult for the men to stop taking alcohol (Bacchi, 2015).

The main variables that were included in this research were to identify the relationships level between the men and the consumption of alcohol usage. The other factor was of the social stability and the link between the use of alcohol. These variable were not enough to be mentioned in the research as it is a beautiful stud which needs more explanation. The subfactor should also be introduced. The relationship of men with and without alcohol and the effects on the personality and human mind and the social factors that can be linked with the men (Berglund et al., 2011).

.

There were many limitations as the population size as per the research-based topic, and the way of its conduction was not appropriate, out of 100 only 50 people will be alcohol addictive, and 50 will be not and on the basis of 50 people, the research cannot give appropriate solution to the research as it should be in the little more considerable amount so that results can be more stratified.

Conclusion

With this, we can conclude that the research and the optimized solution to the problem which was raised were strategically answered in the appropriate ways as perusing the required sources and samples appropriately. The finding was appropriate as scrutinizing the statistical approaches, and the usage of SPSS can be more effective without giving any doubts to the researchers. The only concern that can be a little alarming is the sample size if it would have been more the results and the conclusion can be more effective and taking the research to high-level research (Bacchi, 2015).

References

Berglund, K., Roman, E., Balldin, J., Berggren, U., Eriksson, M., Gustavsson, P., & Fahlke, C. (2011). Do men with excessive alcohol consumption and social stability have an addictive personality?. Scandinavian journal of psychology, 52(3), 257-260.

Bacchi, C. (2015). Problematizations in alcohol policy: WHO's "alcohol problems." Contemporary Drug Problems, 42(2), 130-147.

Developing Group Identity

Institution

Student’s name

Course

Date

Developing Group Identity

As a basketball team coach, there are various things I would do in ensuring that there is a development of group identity. This is important in maintaining the functionality of the team, the performance and also it enhances a good relationship between the team members. One way of achieving this is enhancing social support. This is by encouraging team members to be there for each other, being ready to listen to the concern of others in the team and helping them solve their problems. Social support is all about supporting each other emotionally in order to ensure a better environment is created for all the team members.

In an attempt to promote group proximity, I would create various events where the team members could have fun together, share their feelings and ideas (Dunn& Andrews 2015). Such activities are important in allowing the team members to learn more about each other therefore enhancing closeness among them. Increasing distinctness is also another way of developing a group identity. This can be achieved by effective training of the team members when it comes to basketball. This would help the team to be outstanding as compared to other teams. Better performance would also be attained through effective and efficient training.

There is also a need for creating a perception of fairness. This can be achieved by providing equal resources to all members be it the attire and even opportunities to go to various gaming functioning. Creation of standards that must be considered in electing group leaders or representatives also needs to be consistent without practicing any form of favoring. Lastly, increasing similarity is also essential in enhancing group identity (Dunn& Andrews 2015). This can be attained by creating common goals for the team members so that there can be a creation of a certain common pace that needs to be used by all team members. Basically having all members working on the same thing at a time. 

References

Dunn, D. S., & Andrews, E. E. (2015). Person-first and identity-first language: Developing psychologists’ cultural competence using disability language. American Psychologist, 70(3), 255.

Developmental Profile Paper

Developmental Profile Paper [Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Developmental Profile Paper

Introduction

A newly born child undergoes various developmental changes until he or she grows into a fully developed adult. Such developmental changes are induced by the developmental stages experienced by a child as he grows. During these stages, the child grows through development in Physical, Neurological, Social, and Emotional changes. In early childhood and middle childhood, such developmental changes are on their peak. Numerous factors play a role in influencing the physical growth of a child as he grows. Moreover, these changes are accompanied by neurological changes, interaction-influenced social changes, and emotional changes. This paper will reflect on the physical, neurological, social, and emotional development changes that take place in early and middle childhood.

Physical Development

One of the many changes that a child experiences throughout his or her life is based on physical development. These changes begin to take place from early childhood and keep occurring until the middle part of life. During early childhood, the child grows into weight and height and begins to lose teeth. This is followed by the production of permanent teeth for the rest of life. During the time of this growth, motor skills keep developing, and the child can communicate via actions. The major factor that plays a role in physical development is genetics. One child is different than others due to the presence of different genetic codes. Moreover, such changes are also induced by diet and nutrition which provide the necessary energy to drive the motor skills.

In middle childhood, the child is mainly recognized by the physical appearance based on height and weight. There are differences in the height and weight of children in such a developmental stage. These differences arise due to many factors that influence the child's developmental processes differently. Such factors include heredity, sex, environment, diet, and disability. The most important factor among all is nourishment, which influences growth. Malnutrition children are unable to grow properly and efficiently due to metabolism dysfunction. As the child grows, body mass and height keeps on increasing with exercise and play. It is observed that during the early stages of development, males tend to possess a greater amount of mass than females ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ppMESHm0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berk, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Berk, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":621,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/PE6SLI5B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/PE6SLI5B"],"itemData":{"id":621,"type":"book","abstract":"My goal in preparing this fifth edition of Infants, Children, and Adolescents is to provide a textbook that meets the instructional goals of the students' courses as well as their personal interests and needs. To achieve these objectives, I have grounded this book in a carefully selected body of classic and current theory and research brought to life with stories and vignettes about children and families, most of whom I have known personally. In addition, the text highlights the joint contributions of biology and environment to the developing child, explains how the research process helps solve real-world problems, illustrates commonalities and differences between ethnic groups and cultures, and pays special attention to policy issues that are crucial for safeguarding children's well-being in today's world. I have also provided a unique pedagogical program that will assist you in mastering information, integrating the various aspects of development, critically examining controversial issues, reflecting on your own childhood experiences, and applying what you have learned. 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Studies have established that the maximum growth of the human body occurs between the age of 8 and 9 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aFDnCfvJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berk, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Berk, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":621,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/PE6SLI5B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/PE6SLI5B"],"itemData":{"id":621,"type":"book","abstract":"My goal in preparing this fifth edition of Infants, Children, and Adolescents is to provide a textbook that meets the instructional goals of the students' courses as well as their personal interests and needs. To achieve these objectives, I have grounded this book in a carefully selected body of classic and current theory and research brought to life with stories and vignettes about children and families, most of whom I have known personally. In addition, the text highlights the joint contributions of biology and environment to the developing child, explains how the research process helps solve real-world problems, illustrates commonalities and differences between ethnic groups and cultures, and pays special attention to policy issues that are crucial for safeguarding children's well-being in today's world. I have also provided a unique pedagogical program that will assist you in mastering information, integrating the various aspects of development, critically examining controversial issues, reflecting on your own childhood experiences, and applying what you have learned. 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Neurological Development

Along with the physical development and growth, the human body goes through a series of neurological development which begins to occur in early childhood and expands until middle childhood. The brain is the significant part involved in influencing the body through various developmental stages. The portion of the child's brain which is involved in the awareness and judgment is known as Rhombencephalon. The portion of the Cerebral Cortex which is involved in the formation of memories and learning process is known as hippocampus ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XPHdqUrr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Epstein, 1986)","plainCitation":"(Epstein, 1986)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":623,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/8JMBP5R3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/8JMBP5R3"],"itemData":{"id":623,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"In a 1974 survey of data on human brain and head growth statistically significant peaks in growth rates of human brains were found around ages 11 years and 15 years. In addition, correlations were found in that almost all studies had non-significant peaks around ages 3, 7, 11–12 and 15 years; troughs were found at the intermediate ages (5, 9, and 13 years). More recent data include a very extensive collection of head circumference data from a dozen countries which showed statistically significant peaks around ages 7, 12, and 15 years. Confirmation of those results have been found in data on cortical thickness, photographs of neuronal arbors, and the percent of EEG energy found in the α-frequencies (8–13 cps). The proposed peak around age 3 years cannot be decided from existing brain weight and head circumference data bases, but the EEG data and the cortical thickness data supply significant support. Overall, there are statistically significant peaks in brain growth rates at age 7, 11–12, and 15 years, though the latter holds only for males at present. The significance of the stages for development of brain functions is being explored.","container-title":"Developmental Brain Research","DOI":"10.1016/0165-3806(86)90139-2","ISSN":"0165-3806","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Developmental Brain Research","language":"en","page":"114-119","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"Stages in human brain development","volume":"30","author":[{"family":"Epstein","given":"Herman T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1986",11,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Epstein, 1986). Neurological components within the brain induce the child's behavior and cognition. The human brain is divided into two hemispheres: right and left. The left hemisphere is thought to develop in early childhood, while the right hemisphere takes form during middle childhood. As the child grows, the left hemisphere serves to develop the child’s ability to write, speak and solve problems using logic. In the same way, the right hemisphere influences the development of concepts, ideas, and skills. During early childhood, the child can fathom information and transcribe it into actions. Their structural and speech abilities keep on enhancing over time. They become capable of performing physical activities such as walking, running, jumping, drawing and writing, etc. Studies have depicted that the efficiency of performing such activities in males and females differs concerning the nature of the task. Boys are more prone to throwing and kicking objects while girls excel in writing and drawing ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xoFRHJ3s","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Epstein, 1986)","plainCitation":"(Epstein, 1986)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":623,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/8JMBP5R3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/8JMBP5R3"],"itemData":{"id":623,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"In a 1974 survey of data on human brain and head growth statistically significant peaks in growth rates of human brains were found around ages 11 years and 15 years. In addition, correlations were found in that almost all studies had non-significant peaks around ages 3, 7, 11–12 and 15 years; troughs were found at the intermediate ages (5, 9, and 13 years). More recent data include a very extensive collection of head circumference data from a dozen countries which showed statistically significant peaks around ages 7, 12, and 15 years. Confirmation of those results have been found in data on cortical thickness, photographs of neuronal arbors, and the percent of EEG energy found in the α-frequencies (8–13 cps). The proposed peak around age 3 years cannot be decided from existing brain weight and head circumference data bases, but the EEG data and the cortical thickness data supply significant support. Overall, there are statistically significant peaks in brain growth rates at age 7, 11–12, and 15 years, though the latter holds only for males at present. The significance of the stages for development of brain functions is being explored.","container-title":"Developmental Brain Research","DOI":"10.1016/0165-3806(86)90139-2","ISSN":"0165-3806","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Developmental Brain Research","language":"en","page":"114-119","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"Stages in human brain development","volume":"30","author":[{"family":"Epstein","given":"Herman T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1986",11,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Epstein, 1986)

Social and Emotional Development

The notion of social development emerges from the capacity of a child to interact with the society and environment to influence growth in behavior and personality. As the child grows, he can pick clues from the environment and incorporate those into his or her personality. They become capable of observing and understanding people’s actions, which in turn influences their communication abilities. They begin to explore their environment and social structure. The enhanced communication skills enable them to adapt to the new structural conformations. Moreover, the child can form new friendships with the help of acquired social skills ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"F32o1VfU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Parker & Gottman, 1989)","plainCitation":"(Parker & Gottman, 1989)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":625,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/JPYBPWTJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/JPYBPWTJ"],"itemData":{"id":625,"type":"chapter","abstract":"this chapter draws heavily upon a programmatic set of studies done in our laboratory / these studies, based almost entirely on observational methods, provide descriptions of friendship interaction from preschool age to adolescence (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","collection-title":"Wiley series on personality processes","container-title":"Peer relationships in child development","event-place":"Oxford, England","ISBN":"978-0-471-85131-8","page":"95-131","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons","publisher-place":"Oxford, England","source":"APA PsycNET","title":"Social and emotional development in a relational context: Friendship interaction from early childhood to adolescence","title-short":"Social and emotional development in a relational context","author":[{"family":"Parker","given":"Jeffrey G."},{"family":"Gottman","given":"John M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Parker & Gottman, 1989). He starts expressing his emotions via whining and sudden mood alterations. He may associate his emotions with friends and family. In middle childhood, the child is more prone to making and keeping friendships based on their judgment. The ability of judgment is not yet fully developed, but it is enough to determine the feasibility of friendship.

With the enhanced exposure towards the society and environment, the child can develop the concept of emotion-based upon the situations experienced. If we observe the patterns of expressing emotions among males and females, we will know that males are less prone to expressing their feelings as compared to females. The severity of expressed emotion is dependent on the gender, according to which males tend to express the behavioral changes more often than females ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SvtnlvVX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Parker & Gottman, 1989)","plainCitation":"(Parker & Gottman, 1989)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":625,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/JPYBPWTJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/JPYBPWTJ"],"itemData":{"id":625,"type":"chapter","abstract":"this chapter draws heavily upon a programmatic set of studies done in our laboratory / these studies, based almost entirely on observational methods, provide descriptions of friendship interaction from preschool age to adolescence (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","collection-title":"Wiley series on personality processes","container-title":"Peer relationships in child development","event-place":"Oxford, England","ISBN":"978-0-471-85131-8","page":"95-131","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons","publisher-place":"Oxford, England","source":"APA PsycNET","title":"Social and emotional development in a relational context: Friendship interaction from early childhood to adolescence","title-short":"Social and emotional development in a relational context","author":[{"family":"Parker","given":"Jeffrey G."},{"family":"Gottman","given":"John M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Parker & Gottman, 1989). Early childhood is associated with the child’s attempt to understand their identity, while middle childhood is associated with a child's ability to compare them with their peers through behavior and emotions. The notion of self-awareness is developed when a child observes different behaviors of others and infer emotional complexity. The notion of family bonding is prevalent in all stages of development. The child is dependent on the family because of various social and emotional needs throughout the early and middle developmental stages. During early childhood, the child is needy in terms of attention and care, but as soon as the child steps into middle childhood, he or she starts to seek freedom instead of attention.

Conclusion

An individual undergoes various developmental changes in life until he or she develops into a mature adult. These stages of development are associated with physical changes, neurological changes, social and emotional changes. Physical changes are largely dependent on genetics and environmental factors. As the child grows, neurological abilities keep on enhancing with the development of a child's ability to speak, write, and solve problems with logic. The motor skills which enable the child to walk, run, jump, write, and draw are also developed. Social development is largely dependent on forming new friendships while emotional development occurs as the child associate his or her behaviors with others and seek the concept of self-awareness.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Berk, L. E. (2005). Infants and children: Prenatal through middle childhood, 5th ed. Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.

Epstein, H. T. (1986). Stages in human brain development. Developmental Brain Research, 30(1), 114–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-3806(86)90139-2

Parker, J. G., & Gottman, J. M. (1989). Social and emotional development in a relational context: Friendship interaction from early childhood to adolescence. In Wiley Series on Personality Processes. Peer relationships in child development (pp. 95–131). Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.

Developmental Research Paper

Development research paper

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

.

Section 1

Life –span perspective:

It is one of the important methods that are used by the psychologists for studying and understanding development that a human being undergoes, as there is a proper process through which human develops i.e. from infancy to old age. It has been seen that from infancy to old age, they pass through changes in physiologically, emotionally and psychologically. There are different frameworks that are used for studying human development and the very first idea is that development is a multidimensional process. Following are the different characteristic of the life span perspective and are listed below:

Lifelong:

In this aspect, there is an emphasis that early adulthood is not the end stage for development. According to this concept, there is no age that dominates development.

Multidimensional:

It is another major aspect of life-span perspective which consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions,

Multidirectional:

Next aspect of life-span perspective is multidirectional that says throughout life there are some dimension or components that may expand or shrink throughout life. One of the best example that has been given for understanding this conception is language as it could be seen that language changes during the course of life, as one gets older the language may shrink or expand but in most cases language expands with age.

Plastic:

It is one of the most important terms that are being used in developmental psychology as it points towards the capacity of human change.

Multidisciplinary:

It is another characteristic of a life-span perspective. It is an area that psychologists, biologists, and neurologists are interested in as they wanted to study development stages that humans go through.

Contextual:

According to the contextual characteristic of life-span perspective, as the world changes the individuals also change. World mainly focus on three types of changes and these are:

Normative age-graded influences

Normative history-graded influences

Non-normative or maybe highly individualized events of life.

Section 2

Physical changes

Development is the process in which human passes through various stages and these developments include cognitive, emotional, intellectual and physiological changes and these changes function over the course of life-span starting from infancy to old age. Taking a look at own self I can see the changes in my own self as I have been through emotional, physical and cognitive changes. There is no doubt that human passes through these changes. I observed many changes in my body and like every growing child one day I ask my mother about my physical changes and then she told me that I was growing up that why my body structure was changed. I started getting hair on most of the body parts. One of the main prominent physical changes at the beginning of adolescent was development of breast.

Cognitive and socio-emotional changes

The time when I becoming conscious, I started realizing that they were occurring many physical changes and with the passage of time I came to know that these physical changes were actually the physical development that I was going through. From infancy till adolescent, I went through many prominent changes such as my height was increasing rapidly and it was because it was in my genetic as my parents are tall. I was growing up rapidly till middle. In the beginning, I was a little upset with my height that why it’s increasing at such speed. Not only my height was increasing but at the same time, I was able to see many other physical changes such as my voice changed as well as my physical features in size.

During the time when there were occurring visible changes in my appearance at the same time, I have to have many changes such as I was developing a sense for differentiating between trust and mistrust, shame along with knowing that what doubt is. When I was growing up, I started knowing more about feelings as well that when to do and what if things went wrong as I was having changes in my psychology as well. I felt that I was able to differentiate between guilt and initiative, as I started. I was started feeling shame for the things that I was unable to do. I started feeling for my behavior whether I was good or bad. After that stage, I also started having a sense of success and when I came to face bullies at that stage of life I came to know about inferiority and I also came to know about how it feels when there is the situation of success or failure. After that, as I was getting older I start to know about identity and came to know that people create confusion for us by showing many persons as they show various faces at different times. It was the stage where I came to know about the close groups that I had.

I was learning more and more about people how to deal with them. There was a time when I started learning that I have to be very careful when I had to choose people with whom I can share my personal experiences and stories. In that stage of life when I was growing up and was having many changes, I also learned that isolation and intimacy are the two things that go with humans for long terms. It was the stage when I learned that there are only a few people on whom you can trust. It was the phase of my life when I went through physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development. I became able to know how feeling develops and how behavior changes according to the situation. Cognitive development became obvious to me when I started learning how to deal with a certain situation and how to respond to various conditions. Though there were many changes in my life at that time and not only were I the one who notices that changes, at the same time all the close persons of my life. I experienced all developmental stages as I was growing up. I faced all these stages while I was growing up.

It was seen that during the cognitive changes I passed through various stages and after being passing through these stages it became clear to me that these stages depend on the age. In simple, it would say that in different phases of age I went through all the things and was really worried in the start but all my worries vanished with time and I came to know that all these changes socio-emotional and cognitive changes were becoming a part of my life experience that would help me in future. Firstly I came across with stage of learning trust and mistrust, then come to the stage where I learned how to see different between guilt and initiative, then came learning phase of knowledge between industry and confusion, then I found changes in my cognitive as I got to know how to differentiate between identity and confusion. Next, on the list, I found that I experienced another change as I got to know between isolation and intimacy, it was the stage of life that I experience after adolescent. There was a time when I came to know about generativity and stagnation as well. At present, I am going through the stage of life where integrity and despair. It won’t be wrong to say that all these stages of life that have been mentioned help in learning more about life and teach every individual how to deal with various situations.

There has been witnessed a difference that many of the scholars like Piaget believes is, it is the brain that is going to decide how environmental factor would be perceived and how they would cast impacts on development. Though I used to believe that stages are age-dependent but later I started realizing that it is the experience that determines how much mental development one would be having.

Section 3:

Yemisrach Tegegne, died on 15 Jan 2075 at home as she was fighting for long with kidney issues. She was born in Oklahoma on 25 Jan 1998. She was from a noble family. She was the youngest of all the siblings. She did her masters in Psychology and went to Australia for research. After doing her doctorate, she started practicing in various private hospitals. She was also interested in reading gothic novels and was fond of playing chess.

Since early childhood, she was interested in unusual things that look boring to other children. She was a great psychologist who used to help others. Especially, she was more interested in arranging the counseling sessions for the youngsters who used to attempt for suicide as according to her youngsters were the people who needed more help for coping the psychological issues. She worked as the counseling head in three hospitals during her life. She was a scholar and proposed many pieces of research in her field.

She was much interested in reading books and meeting people so that she would know more about the psyche of people. It was her old habit to meet people as it helps her in solving many of her cases that she used to deal in her psychological cases. She got married at the age of 27 with Charles Gain who was a famous lawyer. She was having a small family and had one son and one daughter. She was among most loved people. She was a kindhearted person who loved humanity and did also for serving people. One of her greatest work is, she opened a charity home for mentally changed people. Yemisrach’s funeral was arranged at St. Catherine after two days of her death as her daughter was out of the country. Her contributions are unforgettable and she would be remembered in good words.

References

King, J. D., Horton, S. E., Hughes, J. L., Eaddy, M., Kennard, B. D., Emslie, G. J., & Stewart, S. M. (2018). The interpersonal–psychological theory of suicide in adolescents: a preliminary report of changes following treatment. Suicide and Life‐Threatening Behavior, 48(3), 294-304.

Krasnow, D., & Wilmerding, M. V. (2018). Motor learning and control for dance: Principles and practices for performers and teachers. Human Kinetics.

Moon, J. A. (2013). Reflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice. Routledge.

Schachter, E. P. (2018). Intergenerational, Unconscious, and Embodied: Three Underdeveloped Aspects of Erikson’s Theory of Identity. Identity, 18(4), 315-324.

Şentürk, C., & Zeybek, G. (2019). Overview of Learning From Past to Present and Self-Directed Learning. In Self-Directed Learning Strategies in Adult Educational Contexts (pp. 138-182). IGI Global.

Diagnosis And Treatment Of Disorder

Bipolar Disorder

Submitted by

Affiliation

Date

Overview

Bipolar disorder, previously called manic-depressive syndrome, causes mood swings from emotional upsurge (mania or hypomania) to recession (depression). In the depressive phase, you may feel longing and hopelessness, lose interest in life and not enjoy what you liked before. When the mood changes in the opposite direction, you experience euphoria and are full of energy. Mood swings can occur several times a year or several times a week.

Symptoms

There are several types of bipolar disorder and related conditions. For each type, specific symptoms may differ from individual to individual. Bipolar disorders of types I and II may also be accompanied by some additional specific manifestations that can be added to the diagnosis based on specific symptoms and manifestations.

Criteria for episodes of mania and hypomania

The following criteria for diagnosing episodes of mania and hypomania are presented in the DSM-5 classification:

An episode of mania is a period of time that is characterized by a constant pathologically elevated mood, expansiveness, or irritability and lasts at least one week (or less if hospitalization was necessary). This episode is also characterized by constantly increased focused activity and energy boost. (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

An episode of hypomania is a period of time characterized by a constant pathologically elevated mood, expansiveness, or irritability for at least four consecutive days. To diagnose mania and hypomania, three or more of the symptoms described below should be present and significantly change the usual behavior of a person against the background of arousal and a surge of energy (four, if only irritability is present):

Increased self-esteem and ideas of greatness (grandeur)

Reduced need for sleep (for example, you feel rested after three hours of sleep)

Increased talkativeness

Speeding up the flow of thoughts (leap of ideas)

Pathologically increased distractibility

Increased focused activity (both social, at work or school, and sexual) or arousal

Unusual actions, the consequences of which can be potentially dangerous. For example, making many meaningless purchases, sexual illegibility or stupid enterprise.

To be considered an episode of mania:

A mood disorder should be serious enough and lead to expressed difficulties in work, training, social activities or relationships, or cause the need for hospitalization to prevent a person from harming himself or others; or cause the development of psychosis, a condition in which the perception of the real world and behavior are grossly violated. Symptoms cannot be explained by the use of alcohol, drugs, medication, or any kind of physical illness.

Treatment

It is best if the treatment is performed by a psychiatrist specializing in the treatment of bipolar disorder and related disorders. A team of specialists including a psychologist, a social worker and a nurse can also be involved in treatment. Depending on what you need, treatment includes:

Starting therapy. Often it is required to start taking medications that will reduce mood swings and bring him back to normal. Taking control of the symptoms, you can work with your doctor to work out the most optimal tactics for further treatment.

Maintenance therapy. Bipolar disorder requires treatment throughout your life, even during periods when you feel good. Supportive therapy is used to constantly monitor the course of the disease. People who interrupt maintenance therapy are at increased risk for symptoms of bipolar disorder, depression, and mania.

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is an essential part of treating bipolar disorder and can be individual, family, or group. The following types of psychotherapy may be helpful:

Cognitive behavioral therapy. This type of psychotherapy is aimed at identifying pathological, negative ideas and actions and changing them with healthy and positive ones. Cognitive-behavioral therapy reveals the causes of bipolar episodes, and also allows you to learn how to effectively deal with stress and traumatic situations.

Interpersonal and social rhythmic therapy. This type of psychotherapy is aimed at stabilizing the sleep, wakefulness and eating times, which helps to normalize mood. People with bipolar disorder feel better if their daily routine is streamlined and their sleep, meals, and physical activity are timed.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

(DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.

Disability And Mental Health Condition

Disability and Mental Health Condition

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Disability and Mental Health Condition

Introduction

Mental health has been an issue of great concern for medical practitioners for a very long time. Humans have tried to cope up from a number of mental disorders from the beginning of times. The practice of psychiatry and psychology have reformed the lives of many people since the initial days of these practices. Moreover, the mental health of the prisoners who have been serving their sentences in the jails is also a major area of interest for the researchers.

According to the experts in the area of psychiatry and psychology, individuals residing inside the prison facilities suffer from a wide range of mental disabilities and psychological disorders. Most of the criminals are already suffering from some kind of psychological disorder that is why they indulge in criminal activities and commit illegal activities. Some prisoners develop various mental and psychological ailments inside the cells and the prison facilities in the company of other prison inmates.

Researchers have contributed a number of pieces of research in order to better understand the relationship between the mental or psychological health and the state of the individual i.e., being in the state of imprisonment or roaming freely. Among the many numbers of articles published over the subject, two of the articles have been written brilliantly over these topics. Both these articles provide deep knowledge and insight over the topic of the relationship between the mental condition and the prisoners.

The first article has been written by Björn Hofvander and his associates with the title of “Mental health among young adults in prison: the importance of childhood onset conduct disorder.” The second article under discussion is the research work of V. Harrington under the title of “Assessing the prevalence of intellectual disability among young male prisoners”.

Discussion

As per many experts, any mental illness or psychological issue causes certain disabilities in the normal functioning of the brain. The psychological disorder interferes with the normal functioning of the brain and causes it to not function properly, creating a disability in the individual suffering from it. This disability may be temporary nature or can be permanent depending upon the severity of the psychological disorder.

One of the most common and possibly the most dangerous disability caused by the abnormal functioning of the brain is the intellectual disability (Herrington, 2009). The person or the prisoner is not able to think properly and perform even the normal everyday functions of life. Intellectual disability mostly occurs as a result of stress and depression. Excessive stress and prolonged depression have shown strong links to damage brain cells. Researchers have come across May cases in which prolonged depression has resulted in the deterioration of the brain cells, which has ultimately caused further damage in the form of intellectual disabilities.

The side-effects of these intellectual disabilities have found out to be severe. A patient suffering from this issue feels problem in resolving even the simplest of questions related to any subject. This disability interferes with their daily life and routine, causing them to face many issues on a daily basis. These patients face great problem while making decisions and their decision-making ability is also significantly affected,

Mental illness may be caused due to a number of causes; it may be due to some shock or trauma, any major loss in life or even genetic. The traces of mental illness like depression may be carried in the inheritance or genetic code of the individual, which may be carried on till many generations. This mental illness may not look so big or serious, but many patients inside the prisons and such deformational facilities commit suicide due to continuous stress and depression.

Researchers also doubt to a great extent that the prisoners suffering from any sort of mental disorder are at a higher risk of repeating the offensive behavior or reoffending (Hofvander, 2017). Researchers have performed various types of studies over the topic from different aspects and found positive relationships between mental illness and re-offending.

Many experts are of the view that having a mental disorder increases the chances of an individual to indulge or participate in criminal activity. The state of mental disorder makes the crime, or even any illegal or wrong activity, look more attractive and an individual is more inclined towards it. A person with a psychological disorder is expected to have a larger tendency to not listen to his good side and act upon the urge to behave abnormally.

The chances for an individual, or to be more precise, an inmate to indulge in criminal activities increases by many folds, if that individual has already done any crime and is already serving his time in any prison facility. Scientists are completely agreed upon over the fact that the chances of reoffending increase many times if the prisoner is suffering from even a mild form of mental illness.

Conclusion

In short, it can be clearly seen that individuals, especially prisoners, suffering from any kind of mental disorder are more likely to indulge in deviant behavior as compared to any other normal human being. These prisoners have also a high chance of reoffending and repeat the action, as a response to his or her impulse, Moreover, mental illnesses have been proven to be harmful to the intellectual capabilities of a person. It affects the brain cells and their functioning causing one of the major issues of disability, intellectual disability.

References

Herrington, V. (2009). Assessing the prevalence of intellectual disability among young male prisoners. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 53(5), 397-410.

Hofvander, B., Anckarsäter, H., Wallinius, M., & Billstedt, E. (2017). Mental health among young adults in prison: the importance of childhood-onset conduct disorder. BJPsych open, 3(2), 78-84.

Discipline

Research Proposal

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research Proposal

The relationship between parents and children is unique as well as important to shape a positive pattern of society. The way people behave and react in different circumstances highly depends on the parenting and discipline towards children. Through discipline, parents observe the behavior and activities of their child to make them more positive and healthy in terms of both physical and psychological aspects. The main purpose of this paper is to understand the impact of discipline in the life of children and its link with their activities. It is crucial because the lack of discipline affects the psychological behavior of juveniles that can result into the involvement of criminal activities.

The lifestyle of the people and family structure has been changed as compared to the people living in the 1950s. At that time, parents were the main members of the families where they had to obey the decisions. Father played role of head of the family and role model for their parents while mother used to look after their diet pattern, studies, behavior, and various other activities. The most important thing that can be observed in the discipline toward children in the 1950s was that parents never showed the soft side even though they loved their children the most. It means they provided them good food, studies, playing stuff but in return expected them to behave in a certain manner. Parents were the ones who decided what their children should do and how. There was no question on the decision of parents as the mindset of our society was made in such a manner that everyone believed that parents would make the best decision for their children.

If we observe the contemporary discipline toward children it can be observed that it is almost different from the 1950s. Parents are not the main member of the families anymore. Yes, they do guide their children what to do and what to not but if the children will follow these decisions or not is totally up to them. At a certain age, parents can make their children obey their decision but after that parents play the role of advisor more than the one who commands. It cannot be said that this discipline toward children is wrong as today's parents are able to understand the point of view and mindset of their children more than the parents in the 1950s who were supposed to give the final decision. However, one thing which is disturbing is the discipline that can be affected by the children's point of view as they are not able to make efficient decisions most of the time. The strategy of the 1950s parents was to protect their children from uncertainties while parents today welcomes the mistakes and believe that these experiences will make their children more wise and sensible.

In 1950s children were like the satellites revolving around the orbit (parents). They were given a specific social circle as a limitation where they were supposed to live their life. Married women are more able to keep their eyes on children activities, actions, thoughts, and emotions than the single parents (teen women). This pattern of discipline made children of that time more responsible and productive which ultimately resulted in positive change in the social, political and economic aspects of the society. However, in contemporary time this discipline toward children is totally changed. Children are the orbit while parents revolve around them as satellites. This enables parents to make more understanding and productive communication with their children so that children can share their problems and thoughts with their parents. This communication also enables parents to provide the best parenting to their children and make them able to move in society successfully ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EvlMBpDB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(ROSEMOND, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(ROSEMOND, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":925,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/V8NFTTH3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/V8NFTTH3"],"itemData":{"id":925,"type":"webpage","title":"Raising Kids In 1950s Households Vs. Today's","container-title":"courant.com","abstract":"Sometimes people accuse me of what's called \"Golden Age\" thinking. I \"idealize\" the 1950s, they say. I disagree. I only say what is statistically verifiable: The 1950s was a better time for kids.","URL":"https://www.courant.com/ctnow/family/hc-back-in-the-day-parenting-rosemond-20130508-story.html","language":"English (United States), en-US","author":[{"family":"ROSEMOND","given":"By JOHN"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,10]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (ROSEMOND, n.d.).

Lack of discipline increases the chances of involvement of children in criminal activities. In addition, discipline by a single parent is different from discipline by both the parents. Researches indicates that discipline by single parents especially single teen mothers increase the risk of criminal behavior in children. This is because single parent monitors their children less than the older married mother in terms of observing their actions and reaction in different circumstances. In addition, a single parent approach shows extremities which means they either do too much humble parenting or sometimes too much aggressive approach to discipline their children. In both cases, children can be spoilt. For instance, too much humble and loving behavior can increase the demand of the children for the things that can be harmful to his/her physical or psychological development. Same with the aggressive approach children become unable to show their wish and desire which can be efficient for their growth. Therefore, a balanced approached is necessary to understand the behavior of the children. The inability of monitoring or controlling the behavior of the children decreases the hospitality between children and parents which increases the gap within the family.

The criminal history of juveniles indicates that most of them belongs to the broken families or the parents who were unable to monitor their behavior. Lack of discipline results in poor social skills of the children and their antisocial behavior makes them aggressive, isolated or part of the company that can be dangerous for their future. For instance, parents who spend their time in providing necessities to their children through job and looking home more than the social circle and behavior of the children, these children can easily be dragged toward the criminal activities or in the company of the people who have a criminal mindset. Lack of monitoring reduces the chance of their recovery and in later life, these children show criminal behavior ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JgCYR2Ih","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Effects of Parental Discipline on Juvenile Crime Rates [Marripedia],\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Effects of Parental Discipline on Juvenile Crime Rates [Marripedia],” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":923,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/QX2RAHUW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/QX2RAHUW"],"itemData":{"id":923,"type":"webpage","title":"Effects of Parental Discipline on Juvenile Crime Rates [Marripedia]","URL":"http://www.marripedia.org/effects_of_parental_discipline_on_juvenile_crime_rates","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,10]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Effects of Parental Discipline on Juvenile Crime Rates [Marripedia],” n.d.).

Another discipline toward children that is excessively harsh punishment can also result in the negative psychological development of the children. This can be observed through the report which shows that criminal history indicates that they experience the harsh past live domestic violence, child abuse, physical abuse, and negligence in their childhood. Therefore, negligence can lead to criminal behavior in the future. Just like negligence, child abuse or harsh punishment also affect the psychological behavior of the children. Children feel emotions of fear, isolation, and helplessness in the early stage which changes into aggression and feeling of revenge in adulthood and this is how parent discipline decides the future behavior of the children. For this reason, the psychological and physical health of the parents should be positive. Parents who acquire aggressive and abusing nature are more likely to punish their children harshly which increases the risk of criminal behavior in them. Harsh punishment is a crucial factor for parental rejection and the probability of delinquency irrespective of parental attachments. The punishment given in aggression increases the chance of violent behavior that children show either on the spot in front of the parents while some keep their anger hidden and show when no one sees them. The second type of children acquires more chances of criminal activities as a lack of monitoring and discipline gives them more chance to show their violent side to other people.

The bottom line is that discipline toward children had been changed than it was in the 1950s. Parents today have a stronger bond with their children and they pay attention to their desires and point of view. On the other hand, in 1950s parents discipline was a little rigid but acceptable where children obey their parents' decisions without question. The role of discipline is vital as it shapes the psychological behavior of the children. Lack of discipline increases the chances of being aggressive and violent which results in criminal activities in later life.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Effects of Parental Discipline on Juvenile Crime Rates [Marripedia]. (n.d.). Retrieved November 10, 2019, from http://www.marripedia.org/effects_of_parental_discipline_on_juvenile_crime_rates

ROSEMOND, B. J. (n.d.). Raising Kids In 1950s Households Vs. Today’s. Retrieved November 10, 2019, from courant.com website: https://www.courant.com/ctnow/family/hc-back-in-the-day-parenting-rosemond-20130508-story.html

Discusion Board Spycholoy Of Exeptioanl Children

Discusion board spycholoy of exeptioanl children

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

A disability is a condition which prevents the daily life activities of a person. It is a physical or mental disorder which hinders one’s motion, sensation or other tasks.

According to World Health Organization a “Disability” refers to all the disorders, which restraint one’s involvement in mental or physical activity. It might be any situation that prevents a person from performing.

So disability is a complicated subject that encompasses a person’s relation to the environment. For the disabled people to act as mainstream members of the society, it is important to make adjustments. In America, there are about 15% of the students who suffer from a developmental disability with Autism and ADHD inclusive (Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).

Facilitating the disabled students can affect the results as a study carried out by Won Kim shows. The research looks for the influence of facilities on the performance of the students by taking 1,248 students at the Pennsylvania State University and found that the facilitation, mainly enhancing time and varying of study material or assignment adjustments, has an impact on GPA (kind of disability and elements of demography are controlled) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NmnQeikK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kim & Lee, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Kim & Lee, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":10,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/N2XE3GQZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/N2XE3GQZ"],"itemData":{"id":10,"type":"article-journal","title":"The effect of accommodation on academic performance of college students with disabilities","container-title":"Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin","page":"40-50","volume":"60","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Kim","given":"Won Ho"},{"family":"Lee","given":"Juyoung"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kim & Lee, 2016).

Another study revealed disabled children show traits which are hindrances in higher education. Inclusion and facilitating the disabled students are related to their promotion from their first to second year in school ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FdNafjaZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/AD28T6F8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/AD28T6F8"],"itemData":{"id":2,"type":"article-journal","title":"First-to-second-year persistence of students with disabilities in postsecondary institutions in the United States","container-title":"Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin","page":"93-105","volume":"54","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Mamiseishvili","given":"Ketevan"},{"family":"Koch","given":"Lynn C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2011).

So in the light of these studies it is evident that special children need special arrangements to perform in par with their non-disabled peers. So, adjustments should be made for them and afterwards they should be expected to perform to the bar. If there is an enabling environment, they can excel. Without the required adjustments, the education system should not expect them to perform as good as the normal students.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Kim, W. H., & Lee, J. (2016). The effect of accommodation on academic performance of college students with disabilities. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 60(1), 40–50.

Mamiseishvili, K., & Koch, L. C. (2011). First-to-second-year persistence of students with disabilities in postsecondary institutions in the United States. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 54(2), 93–105.

Discuss The History And Etiological Models Of Addiction/Identify One Of The Professional Issues In Addiction Counseling; How Can That Issue Impact Therapeutic Outcome?

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

The Psycho-dynamic Model

The Psycho-dynamic model suggests the common interpretations that aim to explain the etiology of addiction. This model was introduced by Sigmund Freud who aimed to study psychological factors including human behaviors and the relationship of unconscious and conscious functions of human beings. The reason for the development of this model by Freud was his interest in the theory of thermodynamics. The psycho-dynamic model includes cognitive behavioral patterns and individualistic learning approaches. Furthermore, it also based on the varying personality traits of individuals as a result of the external and internal environment. This model also emphasizes the basic attachment problems relating it to pathology and this is considered to be a symptom of basic pathology. Individuals get addicted to the drug to avoid distress and sometimes for their pleasure and entertainment. Due to these actions, there are likely chances that an individual may get physically independent.

To treat such mental disorders, psychologists or psychiatrists are approached. However, during the counseling of a person suffering from mental disorders, there may occur some professional issues. One such issue may be the privacy concern of individuals. For the treatment of mental disorders, there has to be a detailed knowledge of the patients or individuals. During the counseling sessions of individuals, there are likely chances that they may not answer the questions because of their privacy concerns and feel threatened. There has to be appropriate communication between individuals and professionals to ensure quality care and recommendations. If not treated properly, individuals may develop some other problem. Moreover, there are likely chances of adverse outcomes. Lack of communication can hinder the treatment of individuals because of unknown reasons that the professional does not know. A professional, during counseling, has to know about the medical and family backgrounds of individuals coming for the sessions for the purpose of quality care and counseling.

Discussion

week 8 chapter 11

OPTION 1: The Chapters of Your Life

I and my family lived in Virginia two years ago. Once, I and my family were going somewhere. My father was driving a car and I didn’t wear a belt. I always do not care about wearing a tie. When my husband took the turn, I suddenly get off the car My husband stopped and I screamed in pain and the fear of this incident. People stopped behind us and my son was screaming in the car with great fear. A policeman came to us on the road, thinking that it was my husband who did it. He shouted and raised his pistol. My husband kept away from him. People around us looked scared and my child was still screaming in the car. I was tried to stand up. Everyone asks me not to move.

I felt not well and they ask me to wait for the ambulance. I was thinking about my baby crying inside the car. When the ambulance and the police arrived, my friend came to the place to take my son. I went to the hospital. In the hospital, I had some tests. My doctor checked and found some wounds. I asked the police for my husband who went with the policemen for investigation. I asked the embassy's lawyer to intervene and talk to them. They asked us to close the case. I have a medical report proving that I have no doubt about any psychiatric illness and I do not want to commit suicide. They also asked for a check from the car company. I got the papers required to close the case. It was a miserable day. I cannot forget it. I was a new life for me.

Week 8 Chapter 12

My parents are like all parents that always want the best for our children, seeking to be successful in what they propose, because we assume their achievements as if they were ours, which fills us with satisfaction. Being this, more than evident, when we talk about professional choice, since once reached adulthood, success will be in the socio-labor world.

But this does not come by itself, because for them to achieve their goals, they have to be safe, independent and clearly in their objectives; then we could get confused in our role, believing that we should be behind them all the time, when in reality our strongest work is in childhood, where our main role will be to provide solid foundations for the construction of their personality: love, autonomy , responsibility and limits that are the best gifts we can give them, and showing them all the time how much we love them, celebrating their achievements, allowing and encouraging them to make their own decisions, while at the same time inculcating their responsibility and assuming the important role of being who put the limits for their care.

Week 10/11 Chapter 13

social learning theory, culture, and gender

The concept of social learning has become the most important theoretical approach to studying the influence that the image of violent behavior has in the media, which is seen as a model for learning through observation (Bandura, & Walters 1977). The theory of social learning emphasizes the role of the inner circle, which stimulates the development in a man of a person who is prone to violence. This theory was developed in the works of M. Kaufman. Exploring the origin of violence in modern society, he opposes the radical feminist theory put forward by S. Braumiller in the 70s of the last century. This theory reduced the origin of violence mainly to the peculiarities of male psychology.

Kaufman believes that there is no reason to argue that the human being as a whole, regardless of gender, cannot be aggressive. In his opinion, male violence begins with violence towards oneself (prohibiting boys from crying, showing their feelings), then goes to the level of relationships with women (the so-called adolescent aggression), and then begins to threaten society as a whole. Violence in this case is a compensation for the sense of powerlessness and helplessness experienced by a man at work or in society, as well as a desire to subjugate a woman to his power by means of control

 Week 10/11 Chapter 14

self-efficacy and outcome expectations

The expectation of result that refers to the belief that a behavior will produce certain results. The expectation of self-efficacy or perceived self-efficacy, which is the belief that a person has the ability to perform the necessary actions that allow you to obtain the desired results. Therefore, self-efficacy can increase or decrease motivation, for example, a person with high self-efficacy prefers to perform more challenging tasks and poses higher goals, is more persistent and has greater commitment to their goals in the face of difficulties (Desharnais, Bouillon, & Godin, 1986). It seems clear then that the expectation of self-efficacy is key to motivational processes, but how do these expectations arise. For example, a person with high self-efficacy prefers to perform more challenging tasks and poses higher goals, is more persistent and has greater commitment to their goals in the face of difficulties.

week 12 chapter 15

Spiritual approach, Calling, and Culture

Spiritual approach to career decision making apply to people with different cultural backgrounds. Spirituality and self-knowledge is an exploration of the personal state of spiritual health and its influence on professional practice. Spirituality is the condition and nature of spirituality. This adjective (spiritual) refers to the belonging or relative to the spirit. The notion of spirit, on the other hand, is linked to a non-corporeal entity, to the soul, to the virtue that encourages the body to act or to the supernatural gift that God grants to certain creatures.

References

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-hall.

Desharnais, R., Bouillon, J., & Godin, G. (1986). Self-efficacy and outcome expectations as determinants of exercise adherence. Psychological Reports, 59(3), 1155-1159.

Discussion

Personality based on Freud’s Psychodynamic perspective

Student’s Name

Institution affiliated

Personality based on Freud’s Psychodynamic perspective

Sigmund Freud was the first psychologist to derive the theory of personality called psychodynamic theory. It postulates that human behavior is shaped by unconscious interactions of the id, ego, and superego. Sigmund’s psychodynamic perspective places great emphasis on unconscious psychological conflicts that influence personality and behavior. Sigmund believed that personality develops around id, ego, and superego. The id is primitive and operates entirely unconsciously. It is a concern with gratification for urges and basic necessities. Superego is a concern with moral values and social rules. Superego overrules the desires of the id. Ego balances the demands of id and superego based on specific contexts and is partly conscious, rational, and pragmatic (Ewen, 2014).

Sigmund thought that continuous conflicts between these structures plus efforts to balance them determine personality and approach to the world. Sigmund noted that people’s personality grows from two conflicting forces; one relates to biological and pleasure-seeking drives, and another is moral or social control of pleasure drives. People who have strong or healthy personalities have strong egos, which amicably balance the desires of id and superego and rationally satisfy the id without making a person feel guilty (Temba, 2015). People with dominant superegos are controlled by guilt and consistently deny themselves socially acceptable pleasures. Conversely, a weak superego makes a person psychopath because they harbor feelings of entitlement to everything within the social context hence narcissistic and impulsive (Temba, 2015). Overly dominant superego is undesirable as it creates neurosis, which brings anxiety disorders and makes people unaware of emotional needs. In conclusion, Sigmund’s three psychodynamic perspectives explain different personalities. The relentless conflicts between id and superego, and how a person responds to them create different personalities.References

References

Ewen, R (2014) An Introduction to Theories of Personalit: 7th ed. New York: Psychology Press

Temba, M (2015) Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory. The origins of aggression. London: Psychology Press

Discussion

Theories of Dreams

Student’s Name:

University Affiliations:

Professor’s Name:

Course Title:

Theories of Dreams

Dreams can be termed as the pictured that our brain tends to paint while we are mostly asleep that tend to evoke a certain type of feelings to a human being (Fonagy, 2018). Groups of psychologists have tried to study dreams and from that, a series of theories have been created. The most renowned theory is the psychoanalytic dream created by Sigmund Freud. According to the latter, human beings, have dreams that are repressed from one’s conscious awareness. Freud states that dreams tend to be repressed wishes that a human being hopes to fulfill. Another popular theory is that of the ‘Activation-Synthesis Model’ of dreams (Fonagy, 2018). Robert McCarley and Allan Hobson developed the model. According to the theory, dreams are just a subjective interpretation of brain generated signals during one’s sleep. Although psychologists believe that the dreams are just brain signals, they do not have the notion that dreams are meaningless. The theorists claim that during dreaming, the brain is normally on its most creative conscious state. Other theories include; information-processing theories, contemporary models of dreaming, supernatural theory, physiological dream theories and the stimulus-response theory of dreams.

The most important theory of dreams when compared to others is the Psychoanalytic theory of dream. This theory stands out to be valid and well researched when compared to the rest. The psychoanalytic theory is quite fundamental to the extent that psychologists have changed less in the theory. A classic book entitled “Interpretation of Dreams” by Sigmund Freud backs up the dream theory (Gale, 2018). The rest of the developed theories of dreams, do not have enough evidence to illustrate why they are valid and that is why the Psychoanalytic theory of dream stands out.

Sources

Fonagy, P. (2018). The significance of dreams: bridging clinical and extraclinical research in psychoanalysis. Routledge.

Gale, C. L. (2016). A Study Guide for Sigmund Freud's" The Interpretation of Dreams". Gale, Cengage Learning.

Discussion

Discussion

Roseline Auguste

Discussion

I agree with the views of the authors as they demonstrate the factors which influence attachment among parents and children. Meins suggests that the attachment among parents and children can be maintained only through goal-corrected partnership, the children can signify and act in response to someone's standpoint at a very young age (Meins, Bureau, & Fernyhough, 2018). According to the research of Ainsworth and Bell showed the presence of mother inspired the exploratory actions in children while absence suppressed such behavior. While the mother was not in sight of a child, crying and searching by the child was observed (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). There are typically two types of family patterns. One of them is the nuclear family, which consists of parents and their children. The second type is extended family, where other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins live with the nuclear family. Both family types differ in the extent of freedom, responsibility, and other advantages or disadvantages. The attachment among parents and children is stronger as compared to attachment with relatives. However, the attachment between parents and children is based upon the parenting style. More attachment of children with family is observed in the extended family as compared to the nuclear family. When children interact with another relative than the parent, they avail more opportunities to grow attachment. In this way, communication and understanding among family members improve ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Hp8f0J0C","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berk, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Berk, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":757,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/K6IJTFA8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/K6IJTFA8"],"itemData":{"id":757,"type":"book","abstract":"For courses in Human Development Unparalleled Among Human Development Texts — In a Class by Itself With its seamless integration of up-to-date research, strong multicultural and cross-cultural focus, and clear, engaging narrative, Development Through the Lifespan has established itself as the market’s leading text. The dramatically revised Seventh Edition presents the newest, most relevant research and applications in the field of human development today. Featuring compelling topics, rich examples, and author Laura Berk’s signature storytelling style, this new edition is the most current and engaging text available. Available to package with Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition, MyLab™ Human Development is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program designed to work with this text to further engage students and improve learning. MyLab Human Development is ideal for courses requiring robust assessments. Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition is also available via Revel™, an interactive digital learning environment that is a less expensive alternative to the print textbook, enabling students to read, practice, and study in one continuous experience. Revel’s new mobile app lets students access and interact with their text anywhere, anytime, on any device, giving students the flexibility of toggling between their phone, tablet, and laptop as they move through their day. Note: You are purchasing a standalone product; MyLab does not come packaged with this content. Students, if interested in purchasing this title with MyLab, ask your instructor for the correct package ISBN and Course ID. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information. 0134488970 / 9780134488974   Development Through the Lifespan plus MyLab Human Development with eText – Access Card Package, 7/e Package consists of: 0134419693 / 9780134419695  Development Through the Lifespan, 7/e 0205909744 / 9780205909742  MyLab Human Development with eText Access Card","edition":"7 edition","event-place":"Hoboken, New Jersey","ISBN":"978-0-13-441969-5","language":"English","number-of-pages":"864","publisher":"Pearson","publisher-place":"Hoboken, New Jersey","source":"Amazon","title":"Development Through the Lifespan","author":[{"family":"Berk","given":"Laura E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",1,11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Berk, 2017). The children learn that other than parents, in difficult times, they can rely on their family members too. The strong attachment between children and relatives can strengthen or, in some cases, weaken the attachment of children with parents.

The children are inexperienced due to which they lose confidence or get terrified easily. To develop secure attachment, consistent and affectionate boundaries setting is vital. Through this intervention, the child will understand the expectation of caregiver or parent and also be aware of penalties resulting from undesired behavior. It is important to develop realistic expectations from children and not impose an additional burden. Support of a child with attachment issues and development of secure attachment, both processes are extensive and require great effort. So, it is important to consider only manageable targets, while every phase requires focus. Celebrating every achievement or improvement also plays a significant role.

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, Exploration, and Separation: Illustrated by the Behavior of One-Year-Olds in a Strange Situation. Child Development, 41(1), 49–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127388

BIBLIOGRAPHY ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Berk, L. E. (2017). Development Through the Lifespan (7 edition). Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson.

Meins, E., Bureau, J.-F., & Fernyhough, C. (2018). Mother-Child Attachment From Infancy to the Preschool Years: Predicting Security and Stability. Child Development, 89(3), 1022–1038. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12778

Discussion

Discussion

Roseline Auguste

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Discussion

According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children go through four sequenced phases of mental growth. The theory encompasses the understanding of gaining knowledge and the nature of intelligence (Hugar et al., 2017). The assessment programs are developed in such a way that they can improve cognitive health and nutritional level of young children, and transform their lives (Grigorenko, 1999). The plan for assessing the cognitive skills of a three-year-old includes multiple activities. These activities include the practice of alphabet and counting, identification of shapes, colors, noises, and questioning about everyday items. A variety of games will encourage them to develop creativity and skills in problem-solving. These outcomes will be analyzed to detect any learning delays.

A childhood specialist can help modify the parenting practice for better academic and improved emotional functioning. According to the experts, the young kids require a lot of help from a parent but are capable of performing simple tasks on their own. As a childhood specialist, I will first evaluate the cognitive and mental development of a child and then advise the parents accordingly. I will guide the parents to let children do simple chores and easier tasks which will help children gain confidence and a sense of responsibility. I will provide parents with the activities and plans through which the children will develop problem-solving skills.

There are two fundamental types of cultures adopted worldwide which include collectivist and individualistic cultures. The American culture typically follows the individualistic approach which focuses on self-sufficiency (Bernstein, 2016). The researchers concluded that American parents adopt an individualistic culture to develop independence and self-reliance in their children. Based on Erickson’s theory, the psychosocial development of children is spread throughout eight stages. Through these different stages, the child learns from social relations and interactions. The individualistic culture lets the children explore and gain social experience on their own. The children will learn about social values and gain confidence. Rather than just being taught, they will look for new ways to learn. This practice focuses primarily on the lack of imposing agendas and promoting personal freedom. The parents who follow this trend long to raise children better than how they were raised. They adopt parenting mechanisms which are based on the objective to make the children self-supporting and independent.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bernstein, R. (2016, July 19). Child-Rearing Practices in Different Cultures. Retrieved December 20, 2019, from Touro University WorldWide website: https://www.tuw.edu/health/child-rearing-practices-different-cultures/

Grigorenko, E. L. *Sternberg. (1999). Assessing cognitive development in early childhood (No. 22927; p. 1). Retrieved from The World Bank website: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/795861468740141859/Assessing-cognitive-development-in-early-childhood

Hugar, S. M., Kukreja, P., Assudani, H. G., & Gokhale, N. (2017). Evaluation of the Relevance of Piaget’s Cognitive Principles among Parented and Orphan Children in Belagavi City, Karnataka, India: A Comparative Study. International Journal of Clinical Pediatric Dentistry, 10(4), 346–350. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1463

Discussion

Discussion

Roseline Auguste

Discussion

The fourth stage of Erickson’s theory, Industry vs. Inferiority, encompasses the psychosocial development of middle-aged children. This is the age where children learn from their peers and develop the urge to gain sanction of others by performing up to the standards that are valued by society. They find pleasure in personal achievements (Issawi & Dauphin, 2017). According to Erickson’s theory, when children are appreciated for their accomplishments, they gain confidence and self-satisfaction. They tend to improve their skills even further. However, if they are underappreciated by their peers and elders or their efforts go unnoticed, they begin to doubt themselves and lose the courage to reach their true potential. They may also think that society exerts unrealistic pressure. In addition to this, a balance between competence and modesty is required for success.

To initiate the development of social skills, parents and teachers should teach children proper responses and greetings (Lawson, 2003). For some children, socialization and new interactions may be difficult. They may also face problems while expressing their views and issues. Numerous activities should be conducted to enhance their exposure and improve their ability of expression. Starting from simpler activities and then leading to comparatively complex tasks can help the children become comfortable with new situations. Adopting healthy hobbies and participating in school plays and competitions will provide them opportunities to interact with others and learn from them. In this way, children will develop effective communication skills with their elders and classmates. The children should be encouraged to look in the eye of the person they are communicating with and convey their message or opinions with full confidence. However, this intervention will require practice and time. Another helpful intervention is to organize activities where the family can work and spend time together. On any occasion, the chores can be divided among everyone. Children can be assigned manageable chores which seem interesting to them. This will result in children learning about teamwork and practicing cooperation.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Issawi, S., & Dauphin, B. (2017). Industry Versus Inferiority. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_593-1

Lawson, C. (2003, January 1). Social Skills and School | Center for Development and Learning. Retrieved December 20, 2019, from https://www.cdl.org/articles/social-skills-and-school/

Discussion

Discussion

[Name of the Student]

[Name of the Institution]

Discussion

Manny’s Main Problems

Manny’s family is incomplete as he lives with his grandmother only. The housing facility does not meet the requirements for lodging as per the standard criteria. He feels himself not to be convincing in respect of his physical appearance. He is possibly not getting a sufficient amount of nutrition since no history of his parents or grandparents is available to suggest any genetic factors involved. He is also not a quick learner, which can affect his self-confidence. This also points toward cultural differences affecting his learning. He pursues unusual ways to assert his identity and prove his individuality. He demonstrates dual thinking (Berk, 2017). His perception of self urges him to behave in a different way than do the teenagers of his age usually do. His alcoholic abuse can be explained based on abstract problem behavior theory (Jessor, 2017). He does not seem to acknowledge his faults and not pay heed to any advice related to his behavior. He fears several things: returning to the class, predicting the future of his peers, etc. Interventions are needed to eliminate his fear that can bring disappointing results in his future.

Advice for Manny

Psychologist: “You should not let your fears become overwhelming.”

Manny: “But, I am helpless in fighting my fears.”

Psychologist: “You are good at taking risks in some ways, though I’ll not recommend that.”

Manny: (Remains silent; looking here and there)

Psychologist: “I believe you can do really well if you study in a group with one or more of your friends.”

Manny: “Life is difficult to …”

Psychologist: “You are right, but good people around us make our life easy. Your grandmother loves you, and your true friends will stand by you.”

Manny: “Will it be good in the end?”

Psychologist: “Think logically, and plan your steps.”

Manny: “I am afraid of my studies, I find them difficult.”

Psychologist: “Your studies are not more difficult than the risks you take to prove yourself.”

References

Berk, L. E. (2017). Development through the lifespan.

Jessor, R. (2017). Problem Drinking and Psychosocial Development in Adolescence. In Problem Behavior Theory and Adolescent Health (pp. 105–121). Springer.

Discussion

Discussion

[Name of the Student]

[Name of the Institution]

Discussion

Erikson’s theory of adult personality development deals with the psychological conflict of intimacy versus isolation. A young adult finds this conflict in developing close friendships or a long-term intimate relationship. Developing relationships in early adulthood is important according to Erikson’s theory because the individual will suffer from a decreased sense of self and isolation otherwise (Berk, 2018). Mostly, young adults find it difficult to develop long-term relationships because an intimate relationship demands for giving some of the independent self and then redefine the identity to adjust other person in one’s life. An individual’s personality remains incomplete without developing essential relationships. Isolated individuals cannot learn to cooperate with others, and they do not undertake many of the social responsibilities that give a feeling of accomplishment.

A study conducted on loneliness among older adults living in subsidized housing in urban areas revealed that almost half of the total explained variance in depression due to loneliness. It is generally understood that depression is acquired by mostly low-income older adults with certain disabilities. However, the mental health of aging adults residing in subsidized, urban housing has still not been studied thoroughly. Aim: The objective of the study was to focus on the role of loneliness while exploring the occurrence and correlates of depression in the selected sample of individuals. Method: Primary research was conducted in the form of interviews to collect necessary data for analysis. Out of the total 216 residents of subsidized urban housing in their late adulthood, 50 percent were Black and 45 percent were Latino. Results: Around twenty-six percent of the study participants showed enough symptoms of depression. It was observed that 49 percent of the individuals suffered from depression due to their experience of loneliness. Discussion: Social risk factors need to be addressed with the use of care models (Gonyea et al., 2018).

The information generated in the aforementioned research suggests that enhanced social support can reduce loneliness in older subsidized housing residents to ultimately eliminate depression. In view of other (classmates’) discussions, effective interventions in this issue can be to improve social skills of such lonely, depressed, older adults; increase opportunities for social contact; address maladaptive social cognition.

References

Berk, L. E. (2018). Development through the lifespan. Pearson.

Gonyea, J. G., Curley, A., Melekis, K., Levine, N., & Lee, Y. (2018). Loneliness and Depression among Older Adults in Urban Subsidized Housing. Journal of Aging and Health, 30(3), 458–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264316682908

Discussion

Discussion

[Name of the Student]

[Name of the Institution]

Discussion

Erikson’s proposed psychosocial stage of generativity versus stagnation motivates decision-making in the midlife of adults. Individuals are more self-centered in their early adulthood. This approach transforms into a broader thinking by developing concerns for others. Middle-aged adults become committed to their family, community, and society. They care for the wellbeing of a larger group of people around them. The need for self-expression becomes combined with the need for communion (Berk, 2018). The term ‘generativity’ coined by Erikson entails every action that extends the boundaries of self and ensures betterment of the outer-world including family, community, products, ideas, and artwork.

Self-concept is the midlife undergoes changes due to the increased awareness and added responsibilities. Individuals tend towards enhanced generativity, delivering more value to the community and others. They usually start caring more about their health because the body is more prone to acquiring diseases and obesity. Psychologically, they are more stable and make use of the life experiences they have had until this stage. Their social connections increase and they influence more on the younger individuals and affairs of the community and society. Middle-aged adults hold important positions in their professional life with increased responsibilities.

The sandwich generation refers to the middle-aged adults who have young children as well as old parents. They have to care for both generations. Some adults feel stressed due to the dual responsibility but others only feel squeezed and not stressed (Lachman, 2004). To overcome psychological and physical problems, adults in their middle adulthood should be given social support to reduce the negative effects of caregiving. Certain cultures impose responsibilities on such adults to provide care to their aging parents. Motivation based on moral values can help them cope with the stress they feel. Grown-up children and close relatives can lend a helping hand to such adults to perform their responsibilities well.

References

Berk, L. E. (2018). Development through the lifespan. Pearson.

Lachman, M. E. (2004). Development in Midlife. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 305–331. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141521