TA Cloning

TA Cloning

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

TA Cloning

Abstract

The method of TOPO TA cloning combines the advantages of TA cloning with the ligation activity of topoisomerase 1. In just 5 minutes the direct ligation of PCR products takes place. The key component in TOPO cloning system is the enzyme called topoisomerase 1, this particular enzyme basically works as both restriction enzyme and also as a ligase. The main function of the topoisomerase 1 is to break down and then rejoin the DNA during the replication processes, the penta-sequence is particularly recognized by the vaccinia virus topoisomerase 1 and then it forms a covalent bond with the phosphate group which is then attached to the 3ʹ thymidine . By unwinding the DNA strand it enables the DNA to open up. Once the DA strands are opened then the enzymes relegate the ends of the opened DNA strands and then it releases itself from the DNA. In order to bind the relegating activity of the topoisomerase certain vectors are provided that linearized with the topoisomerase 1 covalently bound with the 3ʹ phosphate group of the DNA. As a result, the vectors are enabled to ligate the DNA sequences at the well-matched ends. The entire process of ligation is completed within 5 minutes at a specific room temperature. The PCR product is produced by following the PCR setup, that contains the DNA template of the sample, PCR Buffer, dNTP mix, primers and sterile water. This is a competent method of producing a cell within the given controlled conditions of the laboratory.

Introduction

Many of the New York graveyards have been flattened for various development over the years. The burial domes at the Spring Street Presbyterian Church were four concealed rooms during the 200 years which passed since the domes were used, the coffins that were made up of woods were stacked within them and they were decayed and collapsed due to which the masses of bones and other objects were exposed during the entire process of diggings. The domes were completely forgotten but the unique history of this church again came into the limelight due to the rediscovery of the vault. The remains that were recovered from this site were the only large collection of human remains that dates back to the 19th century. After identification of the remains, it became clear that approximately 75 of the dead bodies were children and their death occurred due to diseases like rickets and upon morphological identification, it became clear that all the individuals belong to diverse backgrounds and they were buried together in the domes. The DNA samples that were extracted from these bones or bodies helped the scientists to identify some of the main facts about these corpses including how they died and also their ancestors .

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY “Cloning - Cloning Methods - TA and TOPO TA Cloning - EMBL.” Accessed April 19, 2019. https://www.embl.de/pepcore/pepcore_services/cloning/cloning_methods/topo_ta/.

French, Mary. “Spring Street Presbyterian Church Burial Vaults.” New York City Cemetery Project (blog), August 26, 2018. https://nycemetery.wordpress.com/2018/08/26/spring-street-presbyterian-church-burial-vaults/.

Take Home Exam 2:E

Take Home Exam 2: E

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Take Home Exam 2: E

Hypothesis

If Cervical Cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in India, still there would be decreased awareness about its symptoms, risks, and attitude towards cure".

Null Hypothesis

“If Cervical Cancer is prevalent in India, then mothers and daughters should be well educated about the diagnosis, risk factors, and initiatives towards treatment."

Predictions

Several Predictions are made regarding the awareness about the type of cancer and heed towards "risk factors."

If the hypothesis would be correct, then there would be less awareness about cervical cancer and the knowledge about the risk factors because India has a low education rate, especially feminine knowledge. Females residing in rural areas are not well educated; women are too shy and unaware of the facts and figures. So, it can easily be affirmed that lack of education and lack of feminine education especially in rural areas is enough to assert that there would be a decreased ratio of awareness in mothers and their daughters.

If null hypothesis would be correct, cervical cancer is the second highly occurring disease in India so mothers and daughters should be well aware of the prevalence of disease. Taking into account the fact that despite lack of education and feminine education, cancer is something that is dealt with serious attention so there should be a relatively high ratio of awareness regarding the disease and its risk factors.

Experiment

The experiment included a cross-sectional study in which questionnaires were distributed among hundred mothers and daughters. The families with the history of disease were excluded from the experiment group. After collecting the filled questionnaires, comprising information about the risk factors, symptoms and the attitude towards the disease, data was entered into an excel sheet and analyzed by using a software SPSS. The standard deviation and mean was calculated for continuous variables whereas frequencies and proportions were used for categorical variables. In the end, the Chi-squared test was utilized to compare the proportions and qualitative varibales1. The experiment was used to understand the measure of understanding about cervical cancer and awareness about the risk factors.

The results of the experiment ensure a low level of knowledge about cervical cancer in the daughters and their mothers. About 61% of the mothers and 52% of the daughters had heard about the cervical cancer before2. In terms of symptoms, about 50% of mothers and 44% of daughters were aware of the common symptoms (intermenstrual bleeding) while (postmenstrual bleeding) was recognized by 33% of daughters and 47% of mothers, the same population knew about menorrhagia as a symptom of disease3. The most common risk factors recognized by mothers was followed by consumption of tobacco and smoking while genital herpes was the least identified symptom in mothers and daughters, (12% and 13%)4. In a nutshell, there is a low account of the population who was aware of the disease.

Results

The results support the hypothesis taking into account that there would a decreased awareness of cervical cancer, its symptoms, risk factors and basic knowledge about the disease.

Learnings

The article was very helpful and interesting because I found a two-dimensional scope. At one side, I found a practical implication of scientific method, how a step by step logic is used to know the validity of the predictions. I came to know about the further features of a single step, for example, the experiment itself has several steps, and each step paves the way for another avenue of knowledge. I became aware of the stance of cervical cancer, how knowledge and type of knowledge influence our daily life by considering and highlighting that education matters a lot in causing a cure to the disease. I learned about the symptoms, risk factors, and epidemic about cervical cancer, side by side I came to know about the fact that softwares can be used to calculate data and obtain percentiles to know about numeric values.

Part 2: Genetics:a. A TT (tall) plant is crossed with a tt (short plant).

What percentage of the offspring will be tall? ALL TALL

b. A Tt plant is crossed with a Tt plant.

What percentage of the offspring will be short? 25%

c. A heterozygous round seeded plant (Rr) is crossed with a homozygous round seeded plant (RR).

What percentage of the offspring will be homozygous (rr)? 50%

A homozygous round seeded plant is crossed with a homozygous wrinkled seeded plant.

What are the genotypes of the parents? RR x rr

What percentage of the offspring will also be homozygous? _0%______ What is the genotype of all of the offspring? ALL WHITE

d. In pea plants, purple flowers are dominant to white flowers.

If two white flowered plants are crossed, what percentage of their offspring will be white flowered? ALL WHITE

 A white flowered plant is crossed with a plant that is heterozygous for the trait. What percentage of the offspring will have purple flowers? pp×PP, 50%

Two plants, both heterozygous for the gene that controls flower color are crossed.

What percentage of their offspring will have purple flowers? 75%, Pp ×Pp

What percentage will have white flowers? 25% white

e. In guinea pigs, the allele for short hair is dominant.

What genotype would a heterozygous short haired guinea pig have? Hh

What genotype would a purebreeding short haired guinea pig have? Hh

What genotype would a long haired guinea pig have? HH

Show the cross for two heterozygous guinea pigs. (Punnett Square)

What percentage of the offspring will have short hair? 75%

What percentage of the offspring will have long hair? 25%

Part 3: Biochemistry:An enzyme will                          if the pH or temperature is not optimal.

catalyze more reactions

synthesize

denature

become angry and hostile

Which of the following are typically products of photosynthesis?

oxygen and carbon dioxide

glucose and oxygen

carbon dioxide and water

water and glucose

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy is the balanced chemical equation for which of the following?

photosynthesis

glycolysis

cellular respiration

Krebs cycle

The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called the                  .

reaction energy

activation energy

heat energy

lightning

Carbohydrates are hydrophilic and can dissolve in water while                 are hydrophobic and cannot dissolve in water.

proteins

lipids

nucleic acids

enzymes

Which statement describes cellular respiration?

The process of decomposing chemical energy stored in bonds into energy that can be used by the cell

The process of creating food for the cell

The process of combining oxygen and water to produce another substance to be transported

The process of making proteins

What organic compound makes up enzymes and structural parts of the body, such as hair, nails, and muscle?

proteins

nucleic acids

carbohydrates

What are the reactants called in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?

Carbon dioxide and water

Inhibitors

Active sites

Substrates

End Notes

Ahlawat, P., Batra, N., Sharma, P., Kumar, S., & Kumar, A. (2018). Knowledge and attitude of adolescent girls and their mothers regarding cervical cancer: A community-based cross-sectional study. Journal Of Mid-Life Health, 9(3), 145. doi:10.4103/jmh.jmh_45_18 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6166420/

Take Home Exam 4C

Take Home Exam 4C

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Take Home Exam 4C

Carbon footprint

Carbon footprint refers to the number of greenhouse gases produced either indirectly or directly through activities that support human life1. It also includes the total emission through a product, organization and event. It is affirmed that each individual in New York emits 8.61 tons of carbon dioxide each day1. In Chicago 12.9 tons carbon is emitted per capita. In Los Angeles, 10.1 metric tons carbon footprint is recorded per capita2. Amsterdam is recorded with a carbon footprint of 6.6 tonnes per capita while Tokyo has a ratio of 4.3 tonnes carbon footrpints2. Greater the carbon dioxide footprint, greater will be the temperature change that can have a serious impact on humans. It can cause serious consequences on humans and their environment. Chicago has the highest ratio of carbon footprint, taking into account that there is a significant problem of global emission. There is a great threat to droughts and increased storms, on the other hand, countries with lower carbon dioxide footprint have a low ratio of environmental risks.

It is the amount of check and balance that makes the difference. Greater the difference in human activities, greater will be a recorded and calculated ratio of carbon footprints, adhering to balanced environment with bearable environmental conditions. Carbon footprint is important because it is a procedure that can number the emission of greenhouse gases in a particular platform such as an organization2. A carbon print is a major tool for measuring ecological footprint, taking into account the increasing demand of biologically productive space. Cities with high carbon footprint are better because it causes a great benefit to the companies and consumers. It can act as a tool to fight against rapid climate change with reduced greenhouse gases. It can impart a step towards energy saving products and the production of environment-friendly resources.

The comparison is a guide in teaching the understanding of ‘environment and environmental ethics"2. Cities with a large carbon foot prints are predicting future suffering, side by side, major importance is given to the activities that can ensure environmental safety and open avenues towards the production to environmental friendly resources. Countries with least carbon footprint will have a balanced environmental situation taking into account the least assumption towards environmental delimmas2. It would not be wrong to say that carbon footprints act as a balance between environment and individuals, taking into account the facts and figures that can guide humans to synchronize his activities with the global aspects.

Ring Species

In biology and life sciences, ring species refer to a series of species with connecting neighboring populations. Each of the series has the potential to interbreed with other closely related populations3. It is important to note that there is two end population which is too distant to interbreed. In a nutshell, this non-breeding although genetically connected, the two end populations are residing within the same region, thus closing the ring. The species of this ring are called ring species.

Ring species and theory of evolution

Ring Species are a clear depiction of "theory of evolution," adhering to the evidence for evolution that causes the appearance of certain new species. Ring species affirm that small changes can develop into large differences between distinct species. Many of the critics are of the view that evolution can contribute to bringing about a limited variation within the realm of a species and it cannot lead to the revolution of a new species3. Ring species highlight that the critics are wrong and the variations that exist between species is similar in qualitative context but there exists a difference in actual degree and it can also be a variation within species. It is important to know that Ring Species are a tool to empower reconstruction of history and sources of divergence during speciation3. Ring species highlight that speciation can occur even without complete isolation in earthly realms. The end of long chains of the population who are interbreeding can diverge population to appoint where there is no direct interbreed despite travelling of genes through intermediate populations3.

Example

One of the most excellent cases of ring species as a supporter of "theory of evolution" can be found in "Larus Gull." It is an example of ring species that was a circumpolar species "ring," referring to genus Larus. The range of these gulls is capable of forming a ring around the North Pole3. There are further seven populations of this particular population taking into account that each of this population can breed with the previous as well as the next population. However the first and last cannot , but it eventually depicts the theory of evolution promoting diversities3.

Part III

The graph depicts two instances, “an increase in drug resistance among pathogens taking into account different years and variation of the three bacteria such as Klebsiella, Enterobacter and E Coli. Side by side there is a “decreased number of drugs in the market taking into account the falling ratio since 1903- 2007”.

Hypothesis

A possible hypothesis could be

Increased drug resistance among pathogens has decreased the number of drug production in the market.

Observation

It can be observed that there is increased resistance in pathogens over time. However, there is a no constant stance of resistance in a particular drug, there is a variation in strength of each of the pathogen. However, the highest resistance can be observed in Enterobacter in the year 2001. Second highest resistance against drugs have been found in Klebsiella while the lowest resistance is seen in E Coli.

There is a decreased ratio of drug production market and this ratio can be found at a peak in 2003-2007 where there is a comparatively lowest ratio of drug production, referring to about 2.4% of drug production.

Causes

It can be interpreted that the decreased ratio of drug production in the market has a direct relationship with an increased resistance against pathogens. As pathogens are developing more and more resistance, certain drugs become inefficient to treat an ailment, thus mitigating and reducing the production. It is important to note that continuous efforts are made to address a pathogen with great efficiency so the variation in a graph can be understood by different ratio of drug efficiency and steps to introduce a new drug in the market. Side by side, it is also important to note that there is an overall reduction in the production of new drugs in market because of the "increasing resistance". The introduction of new drugs has acted as a platform to balance the emergency while there is a global reduction in drug production because of the increasing resistance.

Reason

The reason of increasing resistance and decreasing production can be traced in the analysis that the pathogens are becoming resistant because of several reasons such as, "overuse of antibiotics”, lack of attention towards health care settings and over prescription of an antibiotic. Overuse of drugs refer to excessive use of medicine taking into account “self-medication”. There is much less attention towards health care settings because of excessive health care platforms and lack of check and balance. Other reasons include, absence of new antibiotics that can break resistance because pathogen are molding themselves inferring resistance and there is a decreased hygiene and sanitation platform.

End Notes

Chen, Shaoqing, and Feiyao Zhu. "Unveiling key drivers of urban embodied and controlled carbon footprints." Applied energy 235 (2019): 835-845.

Moran, Daniel, Keiichiro Kanemoto, Magnus Jiborn, Richard Wood, Johannes Többen, and Karen C. Seto. "Carbon footprints of 13 000 cities." Environmental Research Letters13, no. 6 (2018): 064041.

Pereira, Ricardo J., and David B. Wake. "Ring species as demonstrations of the continuum of species formation." Molecular Ecology 24, no. 21 (2015): 5312-5314.

Take Home EXAM3A

Take Home EXAM3A

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

What was Darwin’s role on the Beagle?

Darwin’s role on the beagle was a naturalist. His job was to analyze, observe, collect, the remains of the animals, plants, fossils and rocks and specimens or anything that he sees on this journey. Darwin always had something about nature that fascinated him so much, he loved to go out on this voyage.

It was a five-year journey and by the time he got back, he was already a famous naturalist because one of his teachers published his work on his account.

What was significant about the new habitats Darwin visited?

He visited tropical rainforests and noticed that there were some so different kind of species that he had never seen before. This impressed him with the fact which was significant and obvious that genetic diversity was seen and observed.

3. What was significant about the rocks Darwin found in the mountains?

He visited rocks that suggested Darwin that once upon a time, they were beaches. The significant thing about the rocks was their abundance of the fossils and the amazement that continents and beaches could change so much over period of time. This change will continue in its dramatic ways in the future too. He found the fossils of extinct gigantic animals.

4. What was significant about the fossils Darwin found?

As per his nature mentioned earlier, he couldn’t live without digging up the rocks. He dug up the rock of a ground sloth, an extinct gigantic animal. As he dug up the rocks, he found in the fossils that living organisms of the past were clearly different. Hence, concluding that over the passage of time, living organisms have a strong tendency to change and show genetic diversity.

5. What did Darwin notice about life on the Galápagos Islands?

The most significant amongst all observation was made by Darwin was on the Galápagos Islands, a small island range with 16 volcanic islands, which were 600 miles (966 kilo meters) away from west coast of the South America.

The island was significant because of the genetic diversity it had shown at the time. Every island was different from the rest in a number of ways. Some were rocky and dry, and others were wet and received a rainfall in the near past days. Not only that, but the plant and the animal life along with the species is also different on every other island. For example, the giant tortoises on one island had saddle-shaped shells, while those on another island had dome-shaped shells. People who lived on the islands could even tell the island a turtle came from by its shell. This started Darwin thinking about the origin of species. He wondered how each island came to have its own type of tortoise.

Explain how a species can evolve through natural selection.

There were observations of rocks, volcanos on the islands which clearly implied with the fact that an organism can show a change over time due to multiple factors involved. New species arise from a pre-existing species, and every specie must have a common ancestor. However, within the set of the natural characters, every specie has its own genetic differences. A series of events which occurred in the past, and now the species have split from one another, still having a link, produces a tree which links to all living organisms. This is called “Evolution” and it is the process by which species change over a dramatic amount of time.

Natural Selection:

However, Darwin didn’t propose or said a word about the evolution of the organism but instead he proposed a mechanism through which the organism evolved. This mechanism was Natural Selection, a mechanism which appeared logical and elegant to the senses. The mechanism shows a better approach on the explanation of how the population evolve and become better to their suited environments.

Following are the several key steps which highlight the Darwin’s concept of Natural Selection:

Heritable Traits:

In living organisms, those traits are called heritable which have the ability to transfer from parents to off springs, or some of the characteristics are passed for example, eye color, walking style, etc. Darwin at the time, knew that this was happening. However, he didn’t know that genes are responsible for this

More production of off springs than their survival:

Organisms have the capability of producing more offs springs than their environment can support. This raises a competition among the species to survive in the toughest conditions among a limited number of resources.

Off springs show variation in their heritable traits:

As many of the features will be heritable as mentioned earlier, but their can be a possibility in the next or any generation that the trails (characters), will be slightly different from one another.

On the basis of these observations, it was concluded that

As many of the traits are heritable and over the number of generation, they show variation in their off springs, which will lead to evolution of the specie.

In a population, some individuals will obviously inherit the traits that will help them to survive and reproduce among an environment where there are limited food sources and a precaution of predators. The individuals which have better traits of survival and reproduction will leave more peers in the community than the lesser ones. This leads to the evolution of that certain species in the terms of survival and having the capability of reproduction even in the toughest environment.

References:

John Damuth. Selection among “species”: A formulation in terms of natural functional units. Evolution. 1985;39:1132-1146. 1146.

Team Conflict Resolution Article Review

Team Conflict Resolution Article Review

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Team Conflict Resolution Article Review

Introduction

One of the most important tasks that have to be performed by the manager is to make sure that conflicts in the team are resolved efficiently. Whenever the team is working in a competitive schedule, there would always be a chance of conflict to evolve. So in these sort of circumstances, how one should handle the conflicts when two people disagree vehemently? Should the boss have to be involved in these sorts of circumstances or allow the two parties to settle their problem themselves? In this article, most of the part that is discussed is related to the disputes that originated as the consequence of misreading other points of view. While in many cases whenever there is competition in the team, the politics is played by either side that makes the main cause of the conflict. In this whole article, this piece is missing in entirety.

Discussion

Whenever there is a conflict that arises between two parties because of the miscommunication in the ideas, the first role of the manager or the boss is to lead them to resolve their conflict without his involvement. The manager should make clear to them that their conflict is not in the interest of the company. Although the suggestion given in this article is that to resolve the conflict you should not act as a boss and play the role as the mediator. It is assumed by the manager to act in neutrality, taking the stakes of the organization into the mind. Some of the methods are described in the article to resolve the conflict is by listening to them combined or asking their perspective in an individual setting. Both these methods have some advantages and some disadvantages that are associated with it. For example in the individual setting, parties would be more communicative and tell you their part of the story that will ease and vent their anger. But on the other side, it has the disadvantage that is associated with it is that it would have an impact on your neutrality because it is often seen that in such settings one shows the empathy with the grief one. While on the other hand if you use the combined setting approach, there is a possibility that you might lose the control of the meeting and it would have a more detrimental effect on the process of conflict resolution.

Although there is no restriction imposed on the use of both the mechanism of individual settings and as well as combined sitting. For example, one can vent the anger in the individual sitting and then use the combined sitting in order to come to the point of resolution. At the first meeting, either the combined or individual, if the role of the mediator is played, one should only listen and make sure that an initial meeting you should show the empathy rather than sympathy. It is suggested by different researchers that using the method of meeting the two parties separately and then call the joint meeting to ask for their concerns is much better to approach conflict resolution.

Also in this article, the way of handling each party is discussed when you are resolving the conflict as a mediator. The main goal of the initial meeting is to make sure that the emotions that are related to the conflict are abated and the two parties would feel respected. Also the method of asking the parties what is the reason behind the conflict so that they can tell you their position and their interest. In my point of view, most of the cases if one party is guilty, it would make the false connotation towards the issue and the process of your investigation would be left flawed.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is said that if the settlement is still not reached, then the role of the mediator that is played by you should be shed and you should act like a boss. As for the last you have to handle the conflict is to use your authority to settle the dispute.

Telemedicine



Biology and Life Sciences

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Telemedicine

Telemedicine refers to the use of IT (Information Technology) through Telecommunication allowing the professionals certainly in the field of health care that will help in the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of the patients that are in critical conditions. It has revolutionized in making the healthcare infrastructure strong and overall; it has improved the certain distance barriers to the rural communities which faced difficulties to access the standardized healthcare services in the past. Its perk is to save the lives in emergency situations and in critical conditions.

It has several benefits, especially to the patients that are living in some sort of isolated communities, who can receive the medical attention of a doctor far away from them without having the need to travelling to them. It is certainly most preferable to the patients that face problems in mobility like patients suffering from Parkinson’s Disease or ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis). In terms of medical education, Telemedicine can pursue medical workers to excel in their practices through the best experts in the field1.

End Notes

Berman, Matthew; Fenaughty, Andrea (June 2005). "Technology and managed care: patient benefits of telemedicine in a rural health care network." Health Economics. Wiley. 14 (6): 559–573. doi:10.1002/hec.952. PMID 15497196.

The Epidemic Of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections: A Call To Action For The Medical Community From The Infectious Diseases Society Of America

The Epidemic of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections

Author name

Affiliations

Today world is facing an emergent crisis of antibiotic resistance for microbial pathogens. These multidrug-resistant microbes are offering a considerable threat to US public health. Antibiotics usage has a critical role in the advanced medical treatment of patients. The development of antibiotics is linked with the development of advances in surgery. Infectious diseases are among the second-leading cause of death worldwide and the third-leading cause of death in the United States. The global spread of microbial resistance is a major cause of the spread of infectious diseases. This epidemic antibiotic resistance can be seen in numerous pathogens such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"I8V1kgvK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). These antibiotic-resistant microbes cause infections that have significant effects on clinicians practicing. The adaptability of these microbes is as diverse as human beings. These literally can inhabit every promising climate on the Earth such as boiling or freezing temperatures, extreme salinity as well as or absence of sunlight. This adaptability has taken nearly 3.5 billion years for microbes to adapt to the numerous atmospheres on planet Earth. The secret of this adaptability is genetic plasticity and rapid replication; bacteria need only 20–30 min to replicate ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cVewox4f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). This diverse adaptability of bacteria is stressing over the need for war with bacteria to save the human population.

Furthermore, this antibiotic resistance threat is requiring the use of new antibiotics that can combat this threat. In a war against microbes, antibiotics can serve as the most effective weapon. However, there is also an equally alarming decline in the research and development of new antibiotics. Reason for the decay of antibiotic development is multifactorial. IDSA, in partnership with the US FDA, circulated the first peer-reviewed data approving the drop in the progress of new antibiotics by pharmaceutical companies. The study was confirming the unquestionable decline of antibiotic development over the past 25 years. In the late 1960s, early antibiotic therapies got extraordinary success. US Surgeon General William H. Stewart at that time upon seeing a tremendous success claimed that there was no more need to continue the war against microbes. Unfortunately, his claim was wrong as genetic analysis of microbial metabolic pathways reveals the development of resistance by bacteria for b-lactam antibiotics and b-lactamase enzymes nearly 12 billion years back ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dc8Fo5Q6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). On the other hand, humans had not discovered antibiotics until the first half of the 20th century. Thus, microbes have nearly a mutual experience of producing and defeating antibiotics for 20 million times longer than Homo sapiens had discovered antibiotics.

Also, drug development is fronting cumulative challenges such as high costs. Moreover, antibiotics development is low as these have a lower relative rate of return on investment as compared to other drugs. Antibiotics are considered as short-course therapies as they are classically given for no more than two weeks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GX2tbvGP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). Conversely, noncurative therapies are used to cure chronic diseases. Sometimes patients are required to take these drugs for the whole of their lives. Thus, venture capitalists and drug companies less wish to produce antibiotics. Another cause of decreasing antibiotic development is appropriate to use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials for public health. The more use of antibiotics make them less effective. However, this unavoidably damagingly sales by decreasing the use of antibiotics. With this, when physicians get new drugs in other classes available, they start using them. Pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies also point out another issue in the context of low antibiotic development. They are compliant about the dearth of accessible guidance documents from the FDA ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ejd8NBTU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). If they have these guidelines available, then it will significantly enhance the company's capacity to conduct antibiotic development.

Accordingly, the major cause of antibiotic resistance is the physician misapplication of antibiotics. The war against microbes can be won if physicians use antibiotics responsibly. For this, firstly, there is a need for suitable guidelines on the usage of antibiotics for viral infections as well as usage of antibiotics to enhance the development of food animals. Nevertheless, if physicians do not follow these guidelines, this can cause more microbial resistance. Society should understand "antimicrobial effectiveness" as a valuable and limited resource ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jY7ceHfi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). This has the same effect as other limited resources, such as different energy sources, clean water, and air. Society has treaded in to guard them when the supply of these resources was susceptible. It should also stepped in and promote the antimicrobial effectiveness to protect this limited resource. Therefore, physicians should strictly use antibiotics only when truthfully specified. Contrariwise, if misuse of antibiotics is continued, then a time will come when using antibiotics appropriately will not halt microbial confrontation. Then the society would have developed resistance to all available antibiotics, and there will be no use of treatment with antibiotics.

To respond to this threat of antibiotic resistance, the Interagency Task Force has issued an "Action Plan to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance; Part 1: Domestic". This action plan has a total 84 action elements, of which 13 are at top priority ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eGaUqs9h","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). Moreover, these elements are divided into four principal areas: surveillance, prevention and control, research, and product development. Regrettably, US federal agencies due to lack of resources have not been successful to satisfactorily implement the surveillance, prevention and control, and research elements of the Action Plan. Besides, the US government has also not proposed any additional measures to fuel research and development (R&D) of new antibiotics.

IDSA leaders during the last three years have taken aggressive strategies to highpoint the drug-resistance issue. They have also highlighted the need for new antibiotic R&D. their efforts include the publishing of major news stories, opinion, and editorial pieces. They had aimed to publicize the issue of antibiotic-resistant infections. The efforts to contest this threat are continued, and in 2004 the IDSA released a report, "Bad Bugs, No Drugs: As Antibiotic Discovery Stagnates, A Public Health Crisis Brews" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UDwOpWWL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). The aim was to publicize the growing crisis of antibiotic-resistant infection and advise the US government on possible resolutions. Conversely, this exertion also failed, and no significant effort was made in response to this report. There is some progress on Capitol Hill that may make a possible improved practice of formerly developed antibiotics.

Moreover, IDSA members David Schlaes and Robert Moellering also in 2002released the public alert to the medical community related to the crisis of antibiotic development. This proved an effective alert and was trailed shortly by follow-up communications from IDSA. Different meetings were also held between the IDSA, the National Institutes of Health and the FDA ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"AVf0MHOf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). Subsequently, this resulted in the establishment of “the Antimicrobial Availability Task Force." Its responsibilities were to develop recommendations for legislative and administrative action in addition to raising public consciousness about the issue. Likewise, IDSA has also motivated Congress and it has created legislation that could have address antimicrobial resistance and stimulate antibiotic R&D. The 110th US Congress has started to identify the stark nature of the antibiotic resistance disaster. In 2007, there came “the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007”. It has an emphasis on refining the FDA’s capability to execute its perilous safety observing part for drugs, food as well as medical devices.

Likewise, the IDSA has established different strategies to check antimicrobial-resistant infections. There must be the establishment of a Federal Office of Antimicrobial Resistance in the Department of Health and Human Services. It should be responsible for synchronizing and funding the work of the Interagency Task Force to reinforce and implement the domestic Action Plan ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4T6BKmaW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). Moreover, a Public Health Antimicrobial Advisory Board must be developed that should include specialists in infectious diseases, hospital and community-based physicians. also, there is a dire need of establishment of an Antimicrobial Resistance Clinical Research and Public Health Network. It would be tracking and confirming the appearance of antibiotic-resistant pathogens in real-time.

The severity of the problem requires the implementation of diverse strategies. Immuno-enhancement is another complementary strategy to address the issue of antibiotic resistance. Different immunotherapies and immunoprophylactic strategies include vaccines and antibody-based therapies, and cytokines or other small molecules. This will lessen the inclusive affliction of infection and infection-related deaths ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"54irstLe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Spellberg et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2504,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/V35KABB9"],"itemData":{"id":2504,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America","container-title":"Clinical infectious diseases","page":"155-164","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Spellberg","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Guidos","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Gilbert","given":"David"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"John"},{"family":"Boucher","given":"Helen W."},{"family":"Scheld","given":"W. Michael"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"John G."},{"family":"Edwards Jr","given":"John"},{"family":"America","given":"Infectious Diseases Society","dropping-particle":"of"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spellberg et al., 2008). With the use of immunological strategies, the need for new antibiotics development can be eliminated from society. However, despite the use of vaccines and immunoglobulins for decades, practically no immune-based treatments are existing for common infections.

The only feasible and long-term solution to the difficulty of microbial resistance is stable development of new antibiotics. We cannot conquest microbial resistance, but we can only keep pace with it. For relevant legislation to be practicable, society must understand the severity of the issue. There must be the placement of suitable restrictions on antibiotic use. If physicians carefully use antibiotics, then they can get more time to make a real resolution to the issue. Antibiotic restoration must be promoted so there must not be further weakening of an already fragile market. Other strategies, such as the use of immunotherapeutic and vaccines must be promoted to enhance targeted therapy effectiveness. It takes years to progress with a new drug, thus, drug development requires careful planning.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Spellberg, B., Guidos, R., Gilbert, D., Bradley, J., Boucher, H. W., Scheld, W. M., … America, I. D. S. of. (2008). The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46(2), 155–164.

The Larynx- Why Is My Voice Different Than Yours? High Vs Low Pitch, Loud Vs Whisper.

The Larynx – Why is my Voice Different than yours?

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

The Larynx – Why is my Voice Different than yours?

Did you ever wonder why your voice is different than other people around you? This is because the source sound generated by your larynx passeing through the vocal tract that alters the characteristic of the sound based upon the position someone's lips, pharynx, mouth, and tongue are in. Let me first tell you what the larynx is? The larynx is a cartilaginous structure that generates sound and then manipulates it to give it a different frequency and volume ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xKKEZ52V","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Seikel, Drumright, & King, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Seikel, Drumright, & King, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"7GgUynHQ/ylYqNErh","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LGdpQbDd/items/G65LUCCN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LGdpQbDd/items/G65LUCCN"],"itemData":{"id":125,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing","publisher":"Cengage Learning","number-of-pages":"882","source":"Google Books","abstract":"ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING, Fifth Edition, provides a solid foundation in anatomical and physiological principles relevant to communication sciences and disorders. Ideal for speech-language pathology and audiology students, as well as practicing clinicians, the text integrates clinical information with everyday experiences to reveal how anatomy and physiology relate to the speech, language, and hearing systems. Combining comprehensive coverage with abundant, full-color illustrations and a strong practical focus, the text makes complex material approachable even for students with little or no background in anatomy and physiology. Thoroughly updated to reflect current trends, techniques, and best practices, the Fifth Edition of this acclaimed text is supported by innovative Anatesse learning software—now accessible online via PC, Mac, and tablet devices—featuring tutorials, interactive quizzes, and other resources to help students of all learning styles master the material and prepare for professional licensing exams.Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the ebook version.","ISBN":"978-1-305-68799-8","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Seikel","given":"J. Anthony"},{"family":"Drumright","given":"David G."},{"family":"King","given":"Douglas W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",1,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Seikel, Drumright, & King, 2015). Therefore, it is often termed as “Voice Box” or an “Adam’s Apple” which can be mainly observed as a small swelling on the neck of males.

In your paper, you have already discussed the cartilages of the larynx and the process of phonation. I would like to add the variation of pitches. It is possible to hold the vocal folds tightly close enough (by adducting the arytenoid cartilages) to vibrate. The degree of opening is adjusted by the muscles connected to the cartilages of the arytenoids. By moving the thyroid cartilage forth and sideways on the cricoid tissue, vocal fold volume and stress is regulated (whether by squeezing cricothyroid directly or indirectly by adjusting the larynx's longitudinal stance), by controlling the muscle tension in the vocal folds, and by adjusting the arytenoids forth or reverse. This triggers the rise or fall of the pitch generated during phonation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"on0L6U93","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Seikel et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Seikel et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"7GgUynHQ/ylYqNErh","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LGdpQbDd/items/G65LUCCN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LGdpQbDd/items/G65LUCCN"],"itemData":{"id":125,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing","publisher":"Cengage Learning","number-of-pages":"882","source":"Google Books","abstract":"ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING, Fifth Edition, provides a solid foundation in anatomical and physiological principles relevant to communication sciences and disorders. Ideal for speech-language pathology and audiology students, as well as practicing clinicians, the text integrates clinical information with everyday experiences to reveal how anatomy and physiology relate to the speech, language, and hearing systems. Combining comprehensive coverage with abundant, full-color illustrations and a strong practical focus, the text makes complex material approachable even for students with little or no background in anatomy and physiology. Thoroughly updated to reflect current trends, techniques, and best practices, the Fifth Edition of this acclaimed text is supported by innovative Anatesse learning software—now accessible online via PC, Mac, and tablet devices—featuring tutorials, interactive quizzes, and other resources to help students of all learning styles master the material and prepare for professional licensing exams.Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the ebook version.","ISBN":"978-1-305-68799-8","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Seikel","given":"J. Anthony"},{"family":"Drumright","given":"David G."},{"family":"King","given":"Douglas W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",1,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Seikel et al., 2015). The method of modifying an origin sound as it moves via the vocal tract filter produces many distinct vowel and syllable sounds of the languages of the world and also tone, other stress experiences, as well as other kinds of language phonology.

Moreover, the loudness and faintness of sound are decided by the strength of expiration through the lungs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CkIBgj9Q","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Seikel et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Seikel et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"7GgUynHQ/ylYqNErh","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LGdpQbDd/items/G65LUCCN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LGdpQbDd/items/G65LUCCN"],"itemData":{"id":125,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing","publisher":"Cengage Learning","number-of-pages":"882","source":"Google Books","abstract":"ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING, Fifth Edition, provides a solid foundation in anatomical and physiological principles relevant to communication sciences and disorders. Ideal for speech-language pathology and audiology students, as well as practicing clinicians, the text integrates clinical information with everyday experiences to reveal how anatomy and physiology relate to the speech, language, and hearing systems. Combining comprehensive coverage with abundant, full-color illustrations and a strong practical focus, the text makes complex material approachable even for students with little or no background in anatomy and physiology. Thoroughly updated to reflect current trends, techniques, and best practices, the Fifth Edition of this acclaimed text is supported by innovative Anatesse learning software—now accessible online via PC, Mac, and tablet devices—featuring tutorials, interactive quizzes, and other resources to help students of all learning styles master the material and prepare for professional licensing exams.Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the ebook version.","ISBN":"978-1-305-68799-8","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Seikel","given":"J. Anthony"},{"family":"Drumright","given":"David G."},{"family":"King","given":"Douglas W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",1,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Seikel et al., 2015). Lesser expiration leads to the production of a whisper while the greater expiration gives the sound a characteristic of loudness.

References ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Seikel, J. A., Drumright, D. G., & King, D. W. (2015). Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing. Cengage Learning.

The Name Of The Neuron Cell Type Chosen

Cone Cells

Present in the retina of vertebrate eye, cone cells are photoreceptor cells responsible for receiving different wavelengths of light and making the colored vision possible at day time (Sloan et. al., 1990)

Its structure consists of synaptic terminal, inner and outer segment, interior nucleus and numerous mitochondria

Synaptic terminal, as the name indicates, is responsible for the process of synapse with other neurons (Oyster, 1999)

Inner segment having organelles and cell nucleus is connected to the outer segment with cilium having light absorbing material (Schwartz, 2000)

Cones are less sensitive to the light as compared to rods in retina and are linked to the perception of colors (Oyster, 1999)

Their response time to stimuli is greater than rods therefore they perceive the details of changing image and scenery more rapidly (Schwartz, 2000)

L-cones, M-cones, and S-cones are the three major types of cones characterized by the sensitivity to long, medium and short wavelengths of light (Sloan et. al., 1990)

If cones do not function properly, one might suffer from color blindness (Sloan et. al., 1990)

References

Oyster, C. W. (1999). The human eye: structure and function. Sinauer Associates.

Sloan, K. R. Curcio, C. A. Kalina, R. E. Hendrickson, A. E. (1990). Human photoreceptor topography. J Comp Neurol., 292 (4), 497–523. doi:10.1002/cne.902920402

Schwartz, J. Kandel, E. R., H., Jessell, T. M. et. al. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill., 507–513.

The Name Of The Neuroscientist

Camillo Golgi

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Title: Camillo Golgi

Fig. 1 Camillo Golgi

(https://corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/GolgiBio.htm)

History

Camilo Ponzi was born on July 17, 1843 in a village Corteno near Bresica in Italy. He received the degree of medicine at the University of Pavia. In 1869, he began his scientific career by working on theories of psychiatry but soon abandoned it because he believed theories must be supported by facts. He started concentrating on experimental research on nervous system. He shared Nobel Prize with Santiago Cajal in Physiology or Medicine in 1906. He died on January 21, 1926.

Accomplishments

Discovery of ‘black reaction’, a staining technique with silver nitrate in 1873.

In 1875, he published first drawings of neural structures. He gave the description of olfactory bulb and protoplasmic processes in olfactory glomeruli ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dhrw8hHh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Da Fano, 1926)","plainCitation":"(Da Fano, 1926)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":44,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/B66AGZMV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/B66AGZMV"],"itemData":{"id":44,"type":"article-journal","title":"Camillo Golgi. 1843–1926","container-title":"The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology","page":"500-514","volume":"29","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Da Fano","given":"C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1926"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Da Fano, 1926).

He described morphological features of glial cells and two types of nerve cells; Golgi type I and Golgi type II neurons ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PJc2eCAY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Camillo Golgi,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.-b)","plainCitation":"(“Camillo Golgi,” n.d.-b)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":49,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/536927QZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/536927QZ"],"itemData":{"id":49,"type":"webpage","title":"Camillo Golgi","container-title":"Palomar","URL":"https://www2.palomar.edu/users/ccarpenter/camillo_golgi.htm","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Camillo Golgi,” n.d.-b).

In 1878, he described tendinous sensory corpuscles; Golgi tendon organs.

In 1885, he published a monograph on anatomy of central nervous organs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IXg7mBwS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bentivoglio, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Bentivoglio, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":47,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/YEZ5IC9D"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/YEZ5IC9D"],"itemData":{"id":47,"type":"webpage","title":"Camillo Golgi","container-title":"NobelPrize.org","URL":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/golgi/article/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Bentivoglio","given":"Marina"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bentivoglio, n.d.).

He determined three forms of malarial parasites and three types of fever and photographed characteristic phases in 1890.

In 1897, he noticed the internal reticular apparatus and officially reported it in 1898. Later, it was named after him as Golgi apparatus ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OQjmXWwy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr\\uc0\\u246{}scher, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Dröscher, 1998)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":43,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/UK8T558T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/UK8T558T"],"itemData":{"id":43,"type":"article-journal","title":"Camillo Golgi and the discovery of the Golgi apparatus","container-title":"Histochemistry and cell biology","page":"425-430","volume":"109","issue":"5-6","author":[{"family":"Dröscher","given":"Ariane"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dröscher, 1998).

He established and headed the Istituto Sieroterapico- Vaccinogeno in the province of Pavia.

He worked as the rector of University of Pavia.He was made the Kingdom of Italy’s senator.

During World War I, he founded a neuro-pathological and mechano-therapeutic center for the treatment of patients with peripheral nervous lesions and recuperation of the injured.

Fig 2. Drawing of Golgi impregnated neurons of cerebral cortex ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2U1KgthX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bentivoglio et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Bentivoglio et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":51,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/Q3WXVYRE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/Q3WXVYRE"],"itemData":{"id":51,"type":"article-journal","title":"The original histological slides of Camillo Golgi and his discoveries on neuronal structure","container-title":"Frontiers in neuroanatomy","page":"3","volume":"13","author":[{"family":"Bentivoglio","given":"Marina"},{"family":"Cotrufo","given":"Tiziana"},{"family":"Ferrari","given":"Sergio"},{"family":"Tesoriero","given":"Chiara"},{"family":"Mariotto","given":"Sara"},{"family":"Bertini","given":"Giuseppe"},{"family":"Berzero","given":"Antonella"},{"family":"Mazzarello","given":"Paolo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bentivoglio et al., 2019)

Fig 3. Hippocampus impregnated by Golgi’s stain ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MkugFq41","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bentivoglio et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Bentivoglio et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":51,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/Q3WXVYRE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/Q3WXVYRE"],"itemData":{"id":51,"type":"article-journal","title":"The original histological slides of Camillo Golgi and his discoveries on neuronal structure","container-title":"Frontiers in neuroanatomy","page":"3","volume":"13","author":[{"family":"Bentivoglio","given":"Marina"},{"family":"Cotrufo","given":"Tiziana"},{"family":"Ferrari","given":"Sergio"},{"family":"Tesoriero","given":"Chiara"},{"family":"Mariotto","given":"Sara"},{"family":"Bertini","given":"Giuseppe"},{"family":"Berzero","given":"Antonella"},{"family":"Mazzarello","given":"Paolo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bentivoglio et al., 2019)

Fig 4. Golgi’s drawing of human cerebellar cortex ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HhIn3F8p","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bentivoglio, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Bentivoglio, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":47,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/YEZ5IC9D"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/YEZ5IC9D"],"itemData":{"id":47,"type":"webpage","title":"Camillo Golgi","container-title":"NobelPrize.org","URL":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/golgi/article/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Bentivoglio","given":"Marina"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bentivoglio, n.d.)

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bentivoglio, M. (n.d.). Camillo Golgi. Retrieved September 3, 2019, from NobelPrize.org website: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/golgi/article/

Bentivoglio, M., Cotrufo, T., Ferrari, S., Tesoriero, C., Mariotto, S., Bertini, G., … Mazzarello, P. (2019). The original histological slides of Camillo Golgi and his discoveries on neuronal structure. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 13, 3.

Camillo Golgi. (n.d.-a). Retrieved September 3, 2019, from https://corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/GolgiBio.htm

Camillo Golgi. (n.d.-b). Retrieved September 3, 2019, from Palomar website: https://www2.palomar.edu/users/ccarpenter/camillo_golgi.htm

Da Fano, C. (1926). Camillo Golgi. 1843–1926. The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 29(4), 500–514.

Dröscher, A. (1998). Camillo Golgi and the discovery of the Golgi apparatus. Histochemistry and Cell Biology, 109(5–6), 425–430.

The Name Of The Neurotoxin Chosen From The List

Last, First Name BIO 309,

Spring 2019

Project # 6 Neurotoxin

-123825264795000Apamin

General Information

Apamin is a natural decapeptide of 18 amino acids collected from western honey bee venom (Apis mellifera).

Apamin is widely known for its ability to block the ion type of channel that facilitates the selective streaming of K+ channels out of the nerves.

Contains primarily alpha-helix and beta-turns

Its extracted from the other components through chromatography and gel filtration.

Honey Bee facts

The bee sting, which leads to infection with apamin has a burning pain with swelling and later leads to the area of bite turning red.

Apamin infection has a high possibility of leading to throat and tongue swelling. Some levels of difficulty in breathing may follow.

Specific effects.

Apamin blocks K+ channel through the allosteric mechanism when apamin binds away the channel pore resulting in a change in the channel shape, hence leading to a block.

Neuronal excitability is experienced due to the K+ channel blockade affecting the brain and the spinal cord. The neurotoxic effects recorded leads to convulsion in rats.

The K+ channel flow is selectively affected due to the permeability of the different membranes with smooth muscles being more vulnerable.

Facilitates the transition of the hyperpolarizing membrane into a calcium-dependent depolarization by blocking the K+ channel and allowing Ca2+ ions channel through the membrane.

There are peripheral dysfunctions of the nerves, especially in human beings.

References

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804239-7.00049-4

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100709130831.htm

https://www.uniprot.org/citations/2013287

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3630120/

The Respiratory System

The Respiratory System

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Respiratory System

Respiratory System

The Respiratory System is a series of organs that is responsible to take in the oxygen and expel CO2. The main and primary organs of Respiratory System are Lungs that carry out gases exchange as a human breathes.

Parts of the Respiratory System

There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system;

Airway

Lungs

Muscles

Each of these parts further includes the following ones;

Airway

The Airway includes the nose, mouth, larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles (that carries air between the exterior of the body and the lungs). In the system, the nasal cavity and nose shapes the main external opening for the respiratory system and are the very initial and firs section of the airway to the body- the respiratory tract by that the air moves. The mouth that is also known as the oral cavity is the secondary external opening for the tract of respiratory. Through this, most of the normal breathings place while it could be used to replace the functions of the nasal cavity as needed. Further, the pharynx is the muscular funnel which is extended from the posterior end of the nasal cavity to the oesophagus superior end and larynx which is divided into three main regions which are nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The trachea is the long tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows the air to pass through the neck and then into the thorax. The last is the bronchi and bronchioles that are mainly used to carry out the air between the body exterior and lungs where the airway is split into two branches.

Lungs

Lungs are the pair of large, spongy organs that are found in the thorax lateral to the human heart and superior to the diaphragm. Each one (each lung) is surrounded by the pleural membrane which provides the lung with enough space to expand while ensures negative pressure gap that is relative to the body’s exterior. Additionally, the left and right lungs are different in shapes.

Muscles of Respiration

Surrounding the lungs are the sets of muscles which able to cause air to get exhaled or inhaled from the lungs. The principle muscle of respiration is the diaphragm that shapes the floor of the thorax. Further, these muscles are divided into two main groups that are external intercostal muscles and internal intercostal muscles.

End Notes

Roussos, Charis, and Peter T. Macklem. "The Respiratory Muscles." New England Journal of Medicine 307, no. 13 (1982): 786-797.

Tim Barclay. "Respiratory System | Interactive Anatomy Guide". 2020. Innerbody. https://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/respiratory#continued.

Zimmerman, K. "Respiratory System: Facts, Function, and Diseases." (2013): 1.

The Respiratory System And Lungs

The Respiratory System and Lungs

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Respiratory System and Lungs

The human respiratory system consists of a series of organs which are responsible for taking in oxygen and also exhaling carbon dioxide. Among all the organs of the respiratory system, the primary and major organs of the respiratory system are the lungs which are mainly responsible for this exchange of gas when an individual breathes. The red blood cells are the cells that collect the oxygen from the lungs and then transport it to all that part of the body where it is required. During this process, the red blood cells also collect carbon dioxide from other various body parts and transport it back to the lungs where it is released from the body when the individual exhales. The lungs as mentioned earlier are the main part of the respiratory system that are located in the chest behind the rib cage on either side of the heart ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2dkMkdSs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}22.2 The Lungs \\uc0\\u8211{} Anatomy and Physiology,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1583,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/PK7WA666"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/PK7WA666"],"itemData":{"id":1583,"type":"webpage","title":"22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology","URL":"https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-2-the-lungs/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology,” n.d.).

The anatomy of the lungs is different from other body parts. Lungs are basically pyramid shaped and they have paired organs which are mainly attached with the trachea with the help of right and left bronchi, the lungs are then bordered by the diaphragm. The lungs are presently closed by pleurae which are further connected with the mediastinum. These are spongy and pinkish in color and they look like two upside-down cones in the chest of an individual. The lung which is present on the right side is shorter and also wider than the one at the left side, and the left side lung occupies smaller volume than the one at the right side ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sdAvD9bB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}22.2 The Lungs \\uc0\\u8211{} Anatomy and Physiology,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1583,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/PK7WA666"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/PK7WA666"],"itemData":{"id":1583,"type":"webpage","title":"22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology","URL":"https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-2-the-lungs/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology,” n.d.).

The lungs are composed of different types of specialized cells and tissues. On the lining of the lungs, epithelial cells are present with particular hairs also called cilia. Below these specialized cells, a basement membrane is present which basically a variety of many epithelial cells and under this membrane, a looser tissue is present which is basically full of mucous glands and other specialized cells like eosinophils, lymphocytes, mast cells and other white blood cells that are also called polys. Apart from these there are certain other functional respiratory units are also present which are known as alveoli, these are connected with the trachea with the help of bronchioles. There is also a thin layer of cells that are present between the alveoli that are known as interstitial which has all the blood vessels. Further, the lungs are covered with a thin layer of tissues that are known as pleura, this type of tissue layer is also present inside the chest cavity this provides smoothness to the lungs when breathing ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4B6GG6QA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}What are the lungs made of? | Functions of the Lungs - Sharecare,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“What are the lungs made of? | Functions of the Lungs - Sharecare,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1587,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/KGKEDWI9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/KGKEDWI9"],"itemData":{"id":1587,"type":"webpage","title":"What are the lungs made of? | Functions of the Lungs - Sharecare","URL":"https://www.sharecare.com/health/functions-of-the-lungs/what-are-lungs-made-of","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“What are the lungs made of? | Functions of the Lungs - Sharecare,” n.d.).

The most important function of the lungs is to help in the process of the gas exchange called respiration. During the process of respiration Oxygen from the inhaled air enters and mixes with blood and carbon dioxide is exhaled from the body. Lungs help in the process of breathing by inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CWQ9HTkv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Lung function: What do the lungs do?,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Lung function: What do the lungs do?,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1589,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5XFEXW8N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5XFEXW8N"],"itemData":{"id":1589,"type":"webpage","title":"Lung function: What do the lungs do?","URL":"https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/305190.php","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} ("Lung function: What do the lungs do?" n.d.).

The gas exchange that happens because of the lungs is one of the most important ways through which the respiratory system helps in maintaining homeostatic. A gas exchange that takes place in the alveoli of the lungs is one of the most important processes of the body. When the blood passes through the small capillaries in the sacs of alveoli, which changes the pressure gradient that further helps to exchanges oxygen in and out of the blood. Homeostasis is about the right balance and also maintaining the right equilibrium which plays an essential role in the survival of the body. Therefore, lungs and the overall respiratory system helps in this maintenance by exchanging gases between the body and the outer environment ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"C1EPtkvp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}How Does the Respiratory System Maintain Homeostasis | Biology Dictionary,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“How Does the Respiratory System Maintain Homeostasis | Biology Dictionary,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1591,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/R5B8BDS9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/R5B8BDS9"],"itemData":{"id":1591,"type":"webpage","title":"How Does the Respiratory System Maintain Homeostasis | Biology Dictionary","URL":"https://biologydictionary.net/how-does-the-respiratory-system-maintain-homeostasis/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“How Does the Respiratory System Maintain Homeostasis | Biology Dictionary,” n.d.).

Hypoxia is a condition of the body that occurs if the lungs are unable to maintain a homeostatic balance in the body. The blood gas homeostasis is an important part which helps in the maintenance of tissue oxygenation and also in the prevention of acidosis from CO2 accumulation. If the lungs stop playing their role in maintaining homeostasis that is if they stop exchanging gases then carbon dioxide will start accumulating in the body and the temperature in the body will start fluctuating which will further create an additional health problem called hypothermia ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qUAhg0sq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Hypoxia as a failure of respiratory homeostasis. - PubMed - NCBI,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Hypoxia as a failure of respiratory homeostasis. - PubMed - NCBI,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1593,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/M8U82W5D"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/M8U82W5D"],"itemData":{"id":1593,"type":"webpage","title":"Hypoxia as a failure of respiratory homeostasis. - PubMed - NCBI","URL":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9052047","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Hypoxia as a failure of respiratory homeostasis. - PubMed - NCBI,” n.d.).

Asthma is one of the most common disorders of the lungs in which the airways of the lungs get inflamed and it may cause occasion spasm. The structural changes in the lungs that occur because of Asthma are numerous and epithelial fragility is one of the most common structural change that occurs in the lungs. Apart from this, the sub-muscular mucus gland gets enlarged, in the walls of the airway, growing airway smooth muscle mass and also thickening of the overall walls of the lungs along with abnormalities of the elastin are some of the prominent structural changes of the lungs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UfW4CLq0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(KNIGHT, 2005)","plainCitation":"(KNIGHT, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1597,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/ISRC2IWC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/ISRC2IWC"],"itemData":{"id":1597,"type":"article-journal","title":"Structural changes in the airways in asthma: observations and consequences","container-title":"Clinical science","page":"463-477","volume":"108","issue":"6","author":[{"family":"KNIGHT","given":"Darryl A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (KNIGHT, 2005). Asthma is a common breathing problem in which the airways of the individual get smaller with each passing day. Due to these small airways it becomes difficult for the lungs to exchange gases by inhaling and exhaling so one of the main functional change that happens because of asthma is the change in the intake or exchange of gases ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WFLZ9L6w","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Asthma | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI),\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Asthma | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI),” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1598,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/LC8BSDQA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/LC8BSDQA"],"itemData":{"id":1598,"type":"webpage","title":"Asthma | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)","URL":"https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/asthma","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Asthma | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI),” n.d.).

The circulatory and the respiratory systems are closely related to each other. The circulatory system is basically responsible to carry blood to all parts of the body, this helps in the transferring of oxygen, chemical energy and also nutrients to nearly all parts of the body while carrying away carbon dioxide from these organs to the lungs. The respiratory system is a system that is composed of living cells which are required to be supplied by the circulatory system. It is safe to say here that the respiratory system is basically the interface where the circulatory system is able to receive oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide from the body. The most important interface occurs in the lung tissues where the membranes that are covered with capillaries get involved in the gaseous exchange. Therefore, the respiratory system would never be able to perform its functions it is not nourished by the circulatory system, which means that there is a very close relationship between respiratory and circulatory system ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JOUcANZh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}11.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems \\uc0\\u8211{} Concepts of Biology-1st Canadian Edition,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“11.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems – Concepts of Biology-1st Canadian Edition,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1600,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5E5IFNIV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5E5IFNIV"],"itemData":{"id":1600,"type":"webpage","title":"11.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems – Concepts of Biology-1st Canadian Edition","URL":"https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/11-3-circulatory-and-respiratory-systems/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“11.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems – Concepts of Biology-1st Canadian Edition,” n.d.).

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY 11.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems – Concepts of Biology-1st Canadian Edition. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/11-3-circulatory-and-respiratory-systems/

22.2 The Lungs – Anatomy and Physiology. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-2-the-lungs/

Asthma | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/asthma

How Does the Respiratory System Maintain Homeostasis | Biology Dictionary? (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://biologydictionary.net/how-does-the-respiratory-system-maintain-homeostasis/

Hypoxia as a failure of respiratory homeostasis. - PubMed - NCBI. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9052047

KNIGHT, D. A. (2005). Structural changes in the airways in asthma: observations and consequences. Clinical Science, 108(6), 463–477.

Lung function: What do the lungs do? (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/305190.php

What are the lungs made of? | Functions of the Lungs - Sharecare. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2019, from https://www.sharecare.com/health/functions-of-the-lungs/what-are-lungs-made-of

The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method

Joseph Modica

[Name of the Institution]

The Scientific Method

Part 1.

IDENTIFY THE HYPOTHESIS. Make sure you STATE the hypothesis as clearly and correctly as possible. This is worth a lot of points.

The most reliable hypothesis of the research was that elsewhere 1–2 h/day, in both girls and boys, there was a direct upsurge in the commonness of depressing indications with growing sitting time, and this was regardless of physical movement levels. Amongst boys, 1–2 h/day of sitting behavior was meaningfully connected with an inferior odd of cheerless symptoms associated with < 1 h/day. Country-wise examination displayed that sitting behavior of ≥3 h/day was connected with miserable indications in 26 of the 30 involved republics and solitary a fat level of between-country heterogeneity was noticed with the general guess grounded on a meta-analysis.

One hypothesis is that further than one hour consumed inactive, for instance watching TV, may be a measure of proxy for a developed socioeconomic position in LMICs. Those shorn of access to a TV may be less inactive; however, they may have a lower socioeconomic position, which is a recognized risk element for hopelessness in youngsters.

Null hypothesis

Depression is communal and troublesome in teenagers. However, there are multiple reasons for depression and anxiety.

What predictions do the authors make based on their prediction (in other words, if their hypothesis is correct, what will happen…if the null hypothesis is correct, what another thing will happen)?

The paper delivers multi-national signs of an association amongst inactive conduct and cheerless indications in teenagers, and this was regardless of physical action levels. The constancy of these relations perceived, at least outside 1–2 h/day of inactive conduct, across the encompassed nations, adds additional weight to the mounting indication for a construction amongst inactive conduct and poor psychological health in youths. Succeeding forthcoming longitudinal researches, these predictions could offer significant new marks and approaches for interferences to grab the depression-sedentary performance relation at its exact initial phases.

Do their results support or refute their hypothesis?

The results support their hypothesis. The results show the symptoms of depression amongst youth. Accustomed investigates in the complete sample displayed that associated to < 1 h/day of inactive behavior, three hours were connected with important cumulative odds for depressing indications.

What did you learn from this article? Was it interesting to you?

The article is quite interesting. The leading cause of depression amongst youth is discussed in great details. It is also stated that depression is the main cause of other viral and dangerous disease like heart problems and many mental disorders. The rate of depression is high among school girls and boys.

Part 2. Label the figure.

Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies receive materials from the ER, packages them, and sends them to other parts of the cell.

Chloroplasts

It grabs energy from sunlight and stores it in molecules.

Lysosome

It contains chemicals that break down food particles and worn-out cell parts.

Cytoskeleton

It gives the cell its shape and provides strength.

Cell membrane

It separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment. It permits some material to pass in and out of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

It is a network of passageways that carry materials from one part of the cell to another part of the cell.

Nucleus

It controls activities of the cell and contains the hereditary material.

Ribosomes

They are the protein factories of the cell.

Mitochondria

It produces most of the cell energy.

Cell Wall

It surrounds the cell membrane and provides a rigid structure.

Central Vacuole

It stores food, water, and wastes. It also provides support for the cell when full.

Part 3. Describe IN YOUR OWN words what the “endosymbiotic theory” is. What evidence supports this hypothesis?

Endosymbiotic theory is amalgamated and extensively acknowledged theory of how organelles ascended in creatures, opposing prokaryotic creatures from eukaryotic creatures. In endosymbiotic theory, constant with overall evolutionary philosophy, all creatures ascended from a single mutual antecedent. This antecedent possibly looks like a bacteria or prokaryote with a solo constituent of DNA enclosed by a plasma sheath. Through time, these microorganisms deviated in function as well as form. Certain bacteria developed the capability to process vitality from the atmosphere in different conducts. Photosynthetic microorganisms industrialized the trails that permitted the manufacture of sugar from sunbeams. Other creatures established innovative techniques to use this sugar is oxidative phosphorylation. It fashioned ATP from the collapse of sugar with oxygen. ATP might then be used to source vigor to other responses in the cell.

Meanwhile, the symbiotic hypothesis declares that chloroplasts and mitochondria raised from bacteria inflowing a eukaryotic cell to create a symbiotic connection, correspondences amongst bacteria and these semiautonomous organelles indicate sturdy proof that this hypothesis is precise.

Function

Mitochondria stake very parallel physiognomies with purple-aerobic microorganisms. They both consume oxygen in the manufacture of ATP, and they both do this by using the oxidative phosphorylation and Kreb’s Cycle and. Chloroplasts are very analogous to photosynthetic bacteria in that they both have very analogous chlorophyll that hitches light dynamism to alter into chemical vitality. Though there are numerous resemblances amongst mitochondria and intricate chloroplast and aerobic bacteria and photosynthetic microorganisms, they seem to be minor and to have ascended via progression.

Size

The size of chloroplast and mitochondria in contrast to bacteria is an additional meek reflection that funds the endosymbiotic hypothesis. Chloroplasts, Mitochondria, and prokaryotes (bacteria) vary from around one to ten microns in size. This appears very rudimentary; however, if there was a huge variance in sizes amongst these three constituents, the hypothesis would seem to be untrue.

RNA, DNA, Proteins Synthesis and Ribosomes

The first portion of indication that wanted to be initiating the provision to endosymbiotic supposition was whether or not chloroplast and mitochondria require their own DNA and if this DNA is analogous to DNA of bacteria. This was advanced recognized to be accurate for RNA, DNA, chlorophyll, ribosomes, and protein amalgamation. This delivered the first considerable indication for the endosymbiotic supposition. It was also strong-minded that chloroplasts and mitochondria divide self-sufficiently of the cell they live in.

Mitochondria devouring their own DNA and separating autonomously of the cell is what eventually outcomes in only mitochondrial DNA being hereditary by the mother of one since only an egg cell has DNA while a sperm cell does not.

Part 4. Label the diagram.

The process is called The Cell Cycle. In stage 1, interphase amongst cell division takes place. In stage 2 cell growths take place in 12 hours. In stage 3 DNA syntheses takes place in 6 hours. Stage 4 is the rest interval before the start of mitosis. It took 6 hours. Stage 5 is the start of mitosis that takes place in half hour. Stage 6 is for Cytokinesis in which mitosis finishes and results in the formation of two daughter cells.

End Notes

The Strengths And Weaknesses Of Citizen Science

The Strengths and Weaknesses of Citizen Science

Tamara Idir

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

The Strengths and Weaknesses of Citizen Science

Citizen science is about conducting scientific research, in an amateur manner. Some people refer to citizen science as public participation in science and technology. The critics however, claim that citizen science limits or disrupts well-acknowledged concepts, which otherwise would have been beneficial ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QLMw0FtB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bonney et al. 2014)","plainCitation":"(Bonney et al. 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":428,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/FCZJR865"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/FCZJR865"],"itemData":{"id":428,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Science","issue":"6178","page":"1436–1437","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Next steps for citizen science","volume":"343","author":[{"family":"Bonney","given":"Rick"},{"family":"Shirk","given":"Jennifer L."},{"family":"Phillips","given":"Tina B."},{"family":"Wiggins","given":"Andrea"},{"family":"Ballard","given":"Heidi L."},{"family":"Miller-Rushing","given":"Abraham J."},{"family":"Parrish","given":"Julia K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bonney et al. 2014). They view this concept as not participatory, but rather, unnecessary. Contrary to the critic’s viewpoints, a large number of people have started recognizing that citizen science is becoming helpful in many ways. For example, they view this with a perception of increasing participation of information technology ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MpRImsLj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bonney et al. 2014)","plainCitation":"(Bonney et al. 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":428,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/FCZJR865"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/FCZJR865"],"itemData":{"id":428,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Science","issue":"6178","page":"1436–1437","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Next steps for citizen science","volume":"343","author":[{"family":"Bonney","given":"Rick"},{"family":"Shirk","given":"Jennifer L."},{"family":"Phillips","given":"Tina B."},{"family":"Wiggins","given":"Andrea"},{"family":"Ballard","given":"Heidi L."},{"family":"Miller-Rushing","given":"Abraham J."},{"family":"Parrish","given":"Julia K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bonney et al. 2014). Citizen science contrarily is a newer concept and had remained unable to grasp the attention of the wider community. Irwin believes that citizen science employs limited resources and is carried by people who have less understanding, therefore it is restricted to limited areas, such as natural sciences ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Q430sE6H","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Irwin 2002)","plainCitation":"(Irwin 2002)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":427,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/68K57S9G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/68K57S9G"],"itemData":{"id":427,"type":"book","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science: A study of people, expertise and sustainable development","title-short":"Citizen science","author":[{"family":"Irwin","given":"Alan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Irwin 2002). Though people have been exploring nature in many different ways, therefore, citizen science in this domain is considered traditional.

Pros and Cons of Citizen Science

Similar to the contending views of scientists, the pros and cons of citizen science are not very clear. However, Cohn has attempted to view citizen science in a holistic manner ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oc3pJk8M","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cohn 2008)","plainCitation":"(Cohn 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":430,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/QD7Q2C38"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/QD7Q2C38"],"itemData":{"id":430,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"BioScience","issue":"3","page":"192–197","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science: Can volunteers do real research?","title-short":"Citizen science","volume":"58","author":[{"family":"Cohn","given":"Jeffrey P."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cohn 2008). According to him, some of the pros and cons of citizen science are as follows.

Pros: Citizen Science creates an environment conducive of the inputs from the general public about science-related aspects. It relates the small findings or general concepts with the concepts being worked over at a global level ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"iTDm65C1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cohn 2008)","plainCitation":"(Cohn 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":430,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/QD7Q2C38"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/QD7Q2C38"],"itemData":{"id":430,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"BioScience","issue":"3","page":"192–197","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science: Can volunteers do real research?","title-short":"Citizen science","volume":"58","author":[{"family":"Cohn","given":"Jeffrey P."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cohn 2008). It also helps in gathering data. People who conduct research about a certain aspect post it online which aids data collection as well. Silvertown believes that citizen research has helped to bridge the gap between people and scientists as many surveys are there, about many different concepts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"61WOHrjC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Silvertown 2009)","plainCitation":"(Silvertown 2009)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":429,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/WUQJ8UXL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/WUQJ8UXL"],"itemData":{"id":429,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Trends in ecology & evolution","issue":"9","page":"467–471","source":"Google Scholar","title":"A new dawn for citizen science","volume":"24","author":[{"family":"Silvertown","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Silvertown 2009).

Cons: citizen sciences methodology is restricted, it cannot answer each aspect. Similarly, Silvertown believes that it is more random, and no findings could be based on the inputs through such methodologies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Mr88kN6V","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Silvertown 2009)","plainCitation":"(Silvertown 2009)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":429,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/WUQJ8UXL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/WUQJ8UXL"],"itemData":{"id":429,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Trends in ecology & evolution","issue":"9","page":"467–471","source":"Google Scholar","title":"A new dawn for citizen science","volume":"24","author":[{"family":"Silvertown","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Silvertown 2009). Community engagement through citizen science is also not planned, and modern research requires planned and more coherent community engagement. Another important and negative aspect attributed to citizen science is data biases, which can disrupt the research result ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GK4YC0qZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Louv and Fitzpatrick 2012)","plainCitation":"(Louv and Fitzpatrick 2012)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":431,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/44Q3ZURC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/44Q3ZURC"],"itemData":{"id":431,"type":"book","publisher":"Cornell University Press","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science: Public participation in environmental research","title-short":"Citizen science","author":[{"family":"Louv","given":"Richard"},{"family":"Fitzpatrick","given":"John W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Louv and Fitzpatrick 2012).

Citizen Science and Dog research

The dog is one of the most commonly kept pet animals. From early times, people have kept this animal as a pet and it has also served humans at times of crisis and relief. It is a bit related to the naturalist aspect of citizen science, but the findings of citizen science differ massively. The one reason why these findings differ are the different perspectives involve in examining dog behavior. Those who own dogs are the best audience to conduct any experiment over dog abilities since they had been much aware of dog cognition ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"N72R6Y74","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stewart et al. 2015)","plainCitation":"(Stewart et al. 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":433,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/U9CBPTTL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/U9CBPTTL"],"itemData":{"id":433,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"PLoS One","issue":"9","page":"e0135176","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science as a new tool in dog cognition research","volume":"10","author":[{"family":"Stewart","given":"Laughlin"},{"family":"MacLean","given":"Evan L."},{"family":"Ivy","given":"David"},{"family":"Woods","given":"Vanessa"},{"family":"Cohen","given":"Eliot"},{"family":"Rodriguez","given":"Kerri"},{"family":"McIntyre","given":"Matthew"},{"family":"Mukherjee","given":"Sayan"},{"family":"Call","given":"Josep"},{"family":"Kaminski","given":"Juliane"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stewart et al. 2015). There had been many different types of researches about dogs that are based on citizen science findings and they had been much support for it as well. But the general scientific manners that are applied in qualitative research about studying dog behavior remains absent in citizen science ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EudqQhza","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stewart et al. 2015)","plainCitation":"(Stewart et al. 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":433,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/U9CBPTTL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/U9CBPTTL"],"itemData":{"id":433,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"PLoS One","issue":"9","page":"e0135176","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science as a new tool in dog cognition research","volume":"10","author":[{"family":"Stewart","given":"Laughlin"},{"family":"MacLean","given":"Evan L."},{"family":"Ivy","given":"David"},{"family":"Woods","given":"Vanessa"},{"family":"Cohen","given":"Eliot"},{"family":"Rodriguez","given":"Kerri"},{"family":"McIntyre","given":"Matthew"},{"family":"Mukherjee","given":"Sayan"},{"family":"Call","given":"Josep"},{"family":"Kaminski","given":"Juliane"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stewart et al. 2015).

Hecht and Rice believe that dogs, being a widely kept animal, have resulted in the emergence of different perceptions about their behaviors ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5d4XLmyA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hecht and Rice 2015)","plainCitation":"(Hecht and Rice 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":434,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/EZ68JAJI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/EZ68JAJI"],"itemData":{"id":434,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Behavioural processes","page":"125–132","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science: A new direction in canine behavior research","title-short":"Citizen science","volume":"110","author":[{"family":"Hecht","given":"Julie"},{"family":"Rice","given":"Eleanor Spicer"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hecht and Rice 2015). Some of these perceptions conform to the findings of qualitative research over dogs and some do not. In order to discuss the findings of citizen science about dogs, it remains imprinted to synchronize the basic data collection techniques or at least create a common ground for research. Similarly, Hecht and Rice believe that as like different disciplines of science, citizen science has also remained unsuccessful in providing substantial inputs about dog behavior and cognition ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4EvACqb5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hecht and Rice 2015)","plainCitation":"(Hecht and Rice 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":434,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/EZ68JAJI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/EZ68JAJI"],"itemData":{"id":434,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Behavioural processes","page":"125–132","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Citizen science: A new direction in canine behavior research","title-short":"Citizen science","volume":"110","author":[{"family":"Hecht","given":"Julie"},{"family":"Rice","given":"Eleanor Spicer"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hecht and Rice 2015).

References:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bonney, Rick, et al. 2014. “Next Steps for Citizen Science.” Science 343(6178): 1436–1437.

Cohn, Jeffrey P. 2008. “Citizen Science: Can Volunteers Do Real Research?” BioScience 58(3): 192–197.

Hecht, Julie, and Eleanor Spicer Rice. 2015. “Citizen Science: A New Direction in Canine Behavior Research.” Behavioral processes 110: 125–132.

Irwin, Alan. 2002. Citizen Science: A Study of People, Expertise and Sustainable Development. Routledge.

Louv, Richard, and John W. Fitzpatrick. 2012. Citizen Science: Public Participation in Environmental Research. Cornell University Press.

Silvertown, Jonathan. 2009. “A New Dawn for Citizen Science.” Trends in ecology & evolution 24(9): 467–471.

Stewart, Laughlin, et al. 2015. “Citizen Science as a New Tool in Dog Cognition Research.” PLoS One 10(9): e0135176.

Thorax - Bones Of The Thorax, Ribs Types, Bony Landmarks

Thorax - Bones of the Thorax, Ribs Types, Bony Landmarks

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Thorax

Thorax of a body is formed by the thoracic cage. It constitutes 12 pairs of ribs along with their cartilages and a sternum. These pairs of ribs are supported at the posterior of a body to the thoracic vertebrae. Heart and lungs are mainly protected by the thoracic cage. One of the bones of the thorax is described as sternum which supports the inner part of a thoracic cage. It mainly constitutes 3 parts i.e. the manubrium, body and the xiphoid process. The tip of the sternum is marked by the xiphoid process. The xiphoid process is thought to exist as the cartilage in early life while it develops into the bone in middle age ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uK7de4zA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Saladin, 2004)","plainCitation":"(Saladin, 2004)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":188,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/2M5RTWLV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/2M5RTWLV"],"itemData":{"id":188,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function","publisher":"McGraw-Hill Higher Education","number-of-pages":"1187","source":"Google Books","abstract":"Aimed to motivate and enable students to understand and appreciate the wonders of anatomy and physiology, this work requires no prior knowledge of college chemistry or cell biology. It is designed for a two-semester college course.","ISBN":"978-0-07-121423-0","note":"Google-Books-ID: pTaRNgAACAAJ","title-short":"Anatomy & Physiology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Saladin","given":"Kenneth S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Saladin, 2004). Corresponding to the sternum, cartilage is present, which is so obvious that it is mainly used as a starting point from where ribs emerge. Ribs are categorized into two types; true ribs (1-7) and false ribs (8-12). The function and structure of a thoracic cage are highly connected ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hmUVta9P","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Graeber & Nazim, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Graeber & Nazim, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":186,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/SDDLWJFR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/SDDLWJFR"],"itemData":{"id":186,"type":"article-journal","title":"The anatomy of the ribs and the sternum and their relationship to chest wall structure and function","container-title":"Thoracic Surgery Clinics","page":"473-489, vi","volume":"17","issue":"4","source":"PubMed","abstract":"As with all parts of the body, the anatomy and physiology of the chest wall are intimately intertwined. To carry out the unique functions performed by the chest wall, the anatomic structures are formed precisely for maximal efficiency. This article focuses on the unique structural characteristics in the internal thoracic diameters. It discusses the specific anatomy of the ribs and costal cartilages, along with the sternum. How these parts interrelate through joints is described also. Finally, it describes the muscles that cause the motion in the chest wall.","DOI":"10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.010","ISSN":"1547-4127","note":"PMID: 18271162","journalAbbreviation":"Thorac Surg Clin","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Graeber","given":"Geoffrey M."},{"family":"Nazim","given":"Muhammad"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Graeber & Nazim, 2007).

Ribs are thought to attach to the sternum otherwise, how they would be able to support the individual of a huge mass. Thorax and Thoracic cage play a huge role in the breathing process ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5JGJXiRE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Graeber & Nazim, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Graeber & Nazim, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":186,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/SDDLWJFR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/SDDLWJFR"],"itemData":{"id":186,"type":"article-journal","title":"The anatomy of the ribs and the sternum and their relationship to chest wall structure and function","container-title":"Thoracic Surgery Clinics","page":"473-489, vi","volume":"17","issue":"4","source":"PubMed","abstract":"As with all parts of the body, the anatomy and physiology of the chest wall are intimately intertwined. To carry out the unique functions performed by the chest wall, the anatomic structures are formed precisely for maximal efficiency. This article focuses on the unique structural characteristics in the internal thoracic diameters. It discusses the specific anatomy of the ribs and costal cartilages, along with the sternum. How these parts interrelate through joints is described also. Finally, it describes the muscles that cause the motion in the chest wall.","DOI":"10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.010","ISSN":"1547-4127","note":"PMID: 18271162","journalAbbreviation":"Thorac Surg Clin","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Graeber","given":"Geoffrey M."},{"family":"Nazim","given":"Muhammad"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Graeber & Nazim, 2007). During the process of inhalation, the chest cavity expands which allows lungs to expand which are the key organs of a respiratory system. The thoracic cage is pulled upward and forward which helps the lung to incorporate the inhaled air. It is also thought to protect the muscles which contract to reorient the ribcage. Likewise, these structures play an important role in facilitating the process of respiration along with the lungs. Lungs would be at greater risk of rupture due to their sensitive nature therefore, thoracic cage gives necessary protection to this organ. The anatomy and physiology of thorax are well suited to provide extra care to the internal body organs and muscles associated with it.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Graeber, G. M., & Nazim, M. (2007). The anatomy of the ribs and the sternum and their relationship to chest wall structure and function. Thoracic Surgery Clinics, 17(4), 473–489, vi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.010

Saladin, K. S. (2004). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Traditional Vs Modern Agriculture

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

Biology and Life Sciences

[Date]

Traditional vs Modern Agriculture

Berry has aptly sketched a picture of future American society in his book published in 1977. Berry was right in pointing out that people in the future would be fed by farms-of-the-future (Estabrook, 2012). The farms of today have the best modern equipment and tools that help to yield enough produce to feed society. Moreover, Berry said people in the future would live far from the farms (Estabrook, 2012). Berry sketched the beauty that was in sharing, laughing, talking with each other. Certainly, people in modern society are far away from this thing. Instead, people have relied on technology to connect with people far away from them and are missing on the joy of human interaction. Another thing that Berry predicted was that the fields of the future will be dangerous. Berry was right, considering the severity of pesticides being used to preserve the product can bear significant harm if an individual is exposed to them. Moreover, Berry said that the land will be controlled by only a handful of influencing individuals. Berry was spot on once again because in the capitalist society we are living in have large corporations and enterprises owning most the lands from where our food comes from. Another thing Berry highlighted was that society would have no stake about the use of those lands. Certainly, considering the fact that our lands are losing nutrients repeatedly makes the prediction with accuracy. There is little society can do make its lands return to a position where they were nutrients rich.

I am completely astounded by the extent of accuracy Berry had in his predictions. People have become machines due to the nature of their lifestyles. The lifestyles are increasingly dependent on technology and machines. Most of the people in society have no idea how their food is grown.

Works Cited

Estabrook, B. (2012). Tomatoland: How modern industrial agriculture destroyed our most alluring fruit. Andrews McMeel Publishing.

Tuberculosis

Name

Name of Professor

Tuberculosis

9 April 2019

Tuberculosis

Taxonomy:

Binomial name of tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the species of pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic bacteria classified into the family known as Mycobacteriaceae. Tuberculosis was first discovered by Robert Koch in 1882. Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria form colonies and clusters. There are four species in total collectively regarded as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The four species are named as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium bovis, and Mycobacterium microti. All four species grouped into Mycobacterium tuberculosis based on 88 characteristics ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ENJyw4UY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Organization, {\\i{}Global Tuberculosis Report 2018})}","plainCitation":"(Organization, Global Tuberculosis Report 2018)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2340,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/8BNXCJQE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/8BNXCJQE"],"itemData":{"id":2340,"type":"book","title":"Global tuberculosis report 2018","publisher":"World Health Organization","ISBN":"92-4-156564-0","author":[{"family":"Organization","given":"World Health"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Organization, Global Tuberculosis Report 2018). Due to no clear differences between the four species they are placed into a single cluster known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The following table shows the scientific classification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis;

Kingdom

Bacteria

Subkingdom

Posibacteria

Phylum

Actinobacteria

Subclass

Actinobacteridae

Order

Actinomycetales

Suborder

Corynebaterineae

Family

Mycobacteriaceae

Genus

Mycobacterium

Species

Mycobacterium Tuberculosis

There are 159 strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Two subclusters are formed within the main cluster, where some strains are not entirely belonging to the single subcluster. One subcluster contains only Mycobacterium tuberculosis except two of its strains. The second subcluster contains Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium africanum strains only. The sub-cluster classifications are also known as subspecies respectively named as subspecies tuberculosis and bovis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lKN57af9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Organization, {\\i{}WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis})}","plainCitation":"(Organization, WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2346,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/PU8ENLTL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/PU8ENLTL"],"itemData":{"id":2346,"type":"book","title":"WHO treatment guidelines for drug-resistant tuberculosis","publisher":"World Health Organization","ISBN":"92-4-154963-7","author":[{"family":"Organization","given":"World Health"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Organization, WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis). An intermediate subcluster or subspecies group was also observed by the researchers that contain strains of tuberculosis not relevant to any of the subspecies. Isolated strains of tuberculosis discovered in 1970 to 1985 were found to have lower resistance to thiophene-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide as compared to the tuberculosis strains discovered earlier ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Jhur90QM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Getahun et al.)","plainCitation":"(Getahun et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2343,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/J79ZXN7N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/J79ZXN7N"],"itemData":{"id":2343,"type":"article-journal","title":"Latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection","container-title":"New England Journal of Medicine","page":"2127-2135","volume":"372","issue":"22","author":[{"family":"Getahun","given":"Haileyesus"},{"family":"Matteelli","given":"Alberto"},{"family":"Chaisson","given":"Richard E."},{"family":"Raviglione","given":"Mario"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Getahun et al.). These isolated strains of tuberculosis also found to have a stronger arylsulfatase activity as compared to the previously discovered stains of the same subcluster. In earlier classifications, all of the three subspecies of tuberculosis were considered to be distinct species. However, on serological basis all of the three groups unified into single species known as tuberculosis or Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Main Characteristics:

Tuberculosis is a well-known infection that is caused by the aerobic bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis which is a rod-shaped and non-spore forming bacteria. Mycobacteria have a typical measure of 0.5 micrometers by 3 micrometers. They are classified as acid-fast bacilli. Structure of their cell wall is unique in many ways and is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions. Mycolic acid is found to be present in the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in considerable amounts along with other fatty acids ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rYEWWEWu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (L\\uc0\\u246{}nnroth et al.)}","plainCitation":"(Lönnroth et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2349,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/W7HXDUFZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/W7HXDUFZ"],"itemData":{"id":2349,"type":"article-journal","title":"Towards tuberculosis elimination: an action framework for low-incidence countries","container-title":"European Respiratory Journal","page":"928-952","volume":"45","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Lönnroth","given":"Knut"},{"family":"Migliori","given":"Giovanni Battista"},{"family":"Abubakar","given":"Ibrahim"},{"family":"D'Ambrosio","given":"Lia"},{"family":"De Vries","given":"Gérard"},{"family":"Diel","given":"Roland"},{"family":"Douglas","given":"Paul"},{"family":"Falzon","given":"Dennis"},{"family":"Gaudreau","given":"Marc-Andre"},{"family":"Goletti","given":"Delia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lönnroth et al.). Mycolic fatty acid is covalently attached to the peptidoglycan-bound polysaccharide arabinogalactan. The layer form a lipid barrier in the cell that is responsible for special characteristics of tuberculosis bacteria. The lipoid barrier formed in cell wall is considered to be responsible for physiologically challenging characteristics of tuberculosis. Resistance to the antibiotics and formation of host defense mechanisms are subject to the presence of this lipid within cell wall structure.

Composition and quantity of various fatty acids and other components information of cell wall of the bacteria affect the virulence and growth of the bacteria as well. Peptidoglycan polymer is responsible for the rigidity of the cell wall that is only external to bacteria. A carbohydrate structural antigen known as lipoarabinomannan is present external to the cell wall. It is responsible for survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages. Primarily tuberculosis spread by small airborne droplets that are generated by coughing or sneezing of a person having pulmonary or laryngeal tuberculosis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tcG6Wi7f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cadena et al.)","plainCitation":"(Cadena et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2352,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/N8J9HPIZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/N8J9HPIZ"],"itemData":{"id":2352,"type":"article-journal","title":"Heterogeneity in tuberculosis","container-title":"Nature reviews Immunology","page":"691","volume":"17","issue":"11","author":[{"family":"Cadena","given":"Anthony M."},{"family":"Fortune","given":"Sarah M."},{"family":"Flynn","given":"JoAnne L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cadena et al.). These microdroplets can stay in the atmosphere for minutes to hours depending on various conditions. The factor influencing the transmission of tuberculosis bacteria are known as the number of bacilli in the droplet released, exposure of the bacilli to ultraviolet light sources, virulence of the bacilli, etc. Presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis into the lungs leads to severe infections in the respiratory system. When a person inhales the droplets they settle usually in upper parts of the airway. Majority of tuberculosis bacteria is trapped in the mucus-secreting goblet cells ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aqvlM38e","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Houben and Dodd)","plainCitation":"(Houben and Dodd)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2355,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/8GZPNVCD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/8GZPNVCD"],"itemData":{"id":2355,"type":"article-journal","title":"The global burden of latent tuberculosis infection: a re-estimation using mathematical modelling","container-title":"PLoS medicine","page":"e1002152","volume":"13","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Houben","given":"Rein MGJ"},{"family":"Dodd","given":"Peter J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Houben and Dodd). However, the bacilli can spread to other organs as well such as lymphatic, pleura, meninges, and can cause extra-pulmonary tuberculosis.

Pathogenicity:

Tuberculosis infection transfer happens when a person inhales droplet nuclei that contain the bacilli of tuberculosis. After inhaling the infected droplet the bacilli reaches the alveoli of the lungs. After reaching the alveoli the tubercle bacilli then ingested by the alveolar macrophages. Most of the tubercle bacilli are destroyed in the macrophages but a small number of bacilli can multiply intracellularly. Which are released when the macrophages die. If they are able to survive the lifetime of macrophages then they are free to infect lymphatic channels or body level spreading with bloodstream ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yrppYnLi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Walters et al.)","plainCitation":"(Walters et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2358,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/RGDGZEP3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/RGDGZEP3"],"itemData":{"id":2358,"type":"article-journal","title":"Molecular detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from stools in young children by use of a novel centrifugation-free processing method","container-title":"Journal of clinical microbiology","page":"e00781-18","volume":"56","issue":"9","author":[{"family":"Walters","given":"Elisabetta"},{"family":"Scott","given":"Lesley"},{"family":"Nabeta","given":"Pamela"},{"family":"Demers","given":"Anne-Marie"},{"family":"Reubenson","given":"Gary"},{"family":"Bosch","given":"Corné"},{"family":"David","given":"Anura"},{"family":"Zalm","given":"Marieke","non-dropping-particle":"van der"},{"family":"Havumaki","given":"Joshua"},{"family":"Palmer","given":"Megan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Walters et al.). Tuberculosis bacilli prefer to infect the parts of the body more prone to the development of tuberculosis disease. Within two to eight weeks of their release from macrophages of alveoli, the reaction from the immune system is triggered against the tubercle bacilli.

As the immune system reaction increases, the tubercle bacilli then surrounded by the macrophages forming a shell around them. The barrier shell formed by macrophages to contain tubercle bacilli is also known as granuloma. The granuloma is responsible to keep the tubercle bacilli under control. However, due to various supporting factors and medical conditions if the immune system is unable to contain and keep the tubercle bacilli under control then they begin to multiply rapidly. The process can occur in different parts of the body including bones, brain, and lungs. Such spread of the tubercle bacilli is known as the extrapulmonary spread. An extrapulmonary spread of tubercle bacilli happens due to the ability of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis to survive within mononuclear phagocytes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SPcUlVx6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Zak et al.)","plainCitation":"(Zak et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2361,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/SL29P7QG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/SL29P7QG"],"itemData":{"id":2361,"type":"article-journal","title":"A blood RNA signature for tuberculosis disease risk: a prospective cohort study","container-title":"The Lancet","page":"2312-2322","volume":"387","issue":"10035","author":[{"family":"Zak","given":"Daniel E."},{"family":"Penn-Nicholson","given":"Adam"},{"family":"Scriba","given":"Thomas J."},{"family":"Thompson","given":"Ethan"},{"family":"Suliman","given":"Sara"},{"family":"Amon","given":"Lynn M."},{"family":"Mahomed","given":"Hassan"},{"family":"Erasmus","given":"Mzwandile"},{"family":"Whatney","given":"Wendy"},{"family":"Hussey","given":"Gregory D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Zak et al.). Mycobacterium tuberculosis is capable of invading lymph nodes and spread to other parts of the body such as brain, bone marrow, kidneys via hematogenous routes.

People having tubercle bacilli in contained form present in their bodies are not considered to have a tuberculosis disease until they are able to conation the tubercle bacilli. Once, the immune system is failed to contain tubercle bacilli, then cases of tuberculosis develop complications. That is also known as the transformation of the bacteria from LTBI stage to the TB stage. The transition of LTBI to TB can occur at any stage. It may happen immediately if the person is suffering from immune deficiency or can take years to spread in the body. The persons having tuberculosis (TB) can spread the disease to other persons through coughing and sneezing.

Epidemiology:

Tuberculosis disease was considered to be an epidemic in earlier medical history. With the improvement in living standards and healthcare facilities, the disease is not that much fatal at all. In 1940, effective medical treatment of the disease was introduced known as streptomycin. After the introduction of streptomycin and its adoption in medical treatment facilities helped in reduction of tuberculosis patients in the United States. There was a decline in the number of people affected with tubercle bacilli from 126,000 to 22,000 during 1944 to 2004, despite the enormous growth in population from 140 million to 226 million as well ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"N3iT91Y5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Glaziou et al.)","plainCitation":"(Glaziou et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2364,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/B9YZGXAH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/B9YZGXAH"],"itemData":{"id":2364,"type":"article-journal","title":"Global epidemiology of tuberculosis","container-title":"Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine","page":"a017798","volume":"5","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Glaziou","given":"Philippe"},{"family":"Sismanidis","given":"Charalambos"},{"family":"Floyd","given":"Katherine"},{"family":"Raviglione","given":"Mario"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Glaziou et al.). Currently, the tuberculosis is of an all-time low in the United States of America. Healthcare providers and designated bodies have reported an annual decrease of 61 percent in the prevalence of tuberculosis disease.

During the year 2011, it was observed that only 3.4 cases of tuberculosis were reported per 100,000 persons that shows a 5.8 percent decrease in an overall number of tuberculosis cases as compared to the situation in 2010. The states of Florida, California, New York, and Texas were responsible for half of the tuberculosis cases reported during 2011. Registered foreigners residing in the United States constituted 62 percent of the total cases in 2011. Based on the ethnic and racial groups’ classifications the largest affected population was of Asian origin that accounted for 30% ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EAFLoCxe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wallis and Hafner)","plainCitation":"(Wallis and Hafner)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2367,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/6MFD27SQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/6MFD27SQ"],"itemData":{"id":2367,"type":"article-journal","title":"Advancing host-directed therapy for tuberculosis","container-title":"Nature Reviews Immunology","page":"255","volume":"15","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Wallis","given":"Robert S."},{"family":"Hafner","given":"Richard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wallis and Hafner). African Americans, on the other hand, accounted for 39% for United States origin population. According to the world health organization, there were more than one out of every three individuals infected with tuberculosis bacteria.

As per the data collected and made available by the world health organization, there were 8.8 million cases of tuberculosis worldwide during 2010. There were almost 1.1 million deaths from tuberculosis with human immune deficiency virus tested negative and 0.35 million deaths from tuberculosis with human immune deficiency virus tested positive. The data further revealed that during 2009, almost 10 million children across the globe suffered orphanage due to the deaths of their parents from tuberculosis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1jWIqopt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lu et al.)","plainCitation":"(Lu et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2373,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/3D56FT2B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/3D56FT2B"],"itemData":{"id":2373,"type":"article-journal","title":"A functional role for antibodies in tuberculosis","container-title":"Cell","page":"433-443. e14","volume":"167","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Lu","given":"Lenette L."},{"family":"Chung","given":"Amy W."},{"family":"Rosebrock","given":"Tracy R."},{"family":"Ghebremichael","given":"Musie"},{"family":"Yu","given":"Wen Han"},{"family":"Grace","given":"Patricia S."},{"family":"Schoen","given":"Matthew K."},{"family":"Tafesse","given":"Fikadu"},{"family":"Martin","given":"Constance"},{"family":"Leung","given":"Vivian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lu et al.). The countries most affected by the tuberculosis disease were Pakistan, India, China, Indonesia, and South Africa. It is a fact that the prevalence of tuberculosis has declined in both genders across the globe. However, it has been observed that tuberculosis rates decline in women with age but an increase in men with age. In some countries, it has been observed that men have more positive results in tuberculin skin test as compared to women. The reasons for such anomalies may be social or regional rather than biological.

Diseases and treatments:

Tuberculosis disease is caused by the bacteria known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis can be fatal if not treated appropriately. According to the world health organization, almost 13 million people are suffering from tuberculosis and 1.5 million people die of tuberculosis every year. TB usually affects the lungs and respiratory systems. However, in some cases, the bacterial infection can also spread in extrapulmonary systems such as bones and genitourinary systems. When a person suffering from TB coughs the bacteria can be transferred to a healthy person through small droplets having the bacteria ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9YFrn3Vv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mishra et al.)","plainCitation":"(Mishra et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2376,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/3I2DH4PD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/3I2DH4PD"],"itemData":{"id":2376,"type":"article-journal","title":"Nitric oxide prevents a pathogen-permissive granulocytic inflammation during tuberculosis","container-title":"Nature microbiology","page":"17072","volume":"2","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"Mishra","given":"Bibhuti B."},{"family":"Lovewell","given":"Rustin R."},{"family":"Olive","given":"Andrew J."},{"family":"Zhang","given":"Guoliang"},{"family":"Wang","given":"Wenfei"},{"family":"Eugenin","given":"Eliseo"},{"family":"Smith","given":"Clare M."},{"family":"Phuah","given":"Jia Yao"},{"family":"Long","given":"Jarukit E."},{"family":"Dubuke","given":"Michelle L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mishra et al.). Most of the time single contact with the droplet containing the tubercle bacilli do not cause the disease because a small fraction of it can be effectively contained by the immune system of the body. However, repeated contact with the person already sick with tuberculosis can infect the healthy person as well.

The initial symptoms of pulmonary TB are vague in nature. Therefore, a person having active tubercle bacilli in respiratory system may not notice anything wrong at first and may suffer severe conditions later in time. Symptoms can include weight loss, coughs, sneezes, and fever, etc. Although the bacteria transmits to healthy persons through microscopic droplets some people are at greater risk of catching the disease ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jbTG7E2P","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Skoura et al.)","plainCitation":"(Skoura et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2379,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/ZFGXFH95"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/gITejLE9/items/ZFGXFH95"],"itemData":{"id":2379,"type":"article-journal","title":"Imaging in tuberculosis","container-title":"International Journal of Infectious Diseases","page":"87-93","volume":"32","author":[{"family":"Skoura","given":"Evangelia"},{"family":"Zumla","given":"Alimuddin"},{"family":"Bomanji","given":"Jamshed"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Skoura et al.). People having direct or repeated contact with the patient, people with human immune deficiency virus, diabetes patients, and malnourished people are at high risk of getting infected with tuberculosis. Purified protein derivative test or the abnormal chest x-ray may reveal a TB infection.

As the tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism the treatment of TB requires a combination of medicines for a long time. Appropriate antibiotic treatment can cure TB. A combination of antibiotic drugs is used to cure the TB and continued for at least six months. Some strains of the tuberculosis are resistant to antibiotics and complicate the treatment of the disease. Multidrug-resistant TB is not curable through most effective antibiotic drugs as well and requires extensive chemotherapy for complete treatment. Second-line anti TB drugs are used for chemotherapy in such cases. In recent years a new form of extensive drug-resistant TB has emerged that can turn into a fatal stage within a few weeks. TB is a completely preventable disease. The spread of TB can be controlled by isolating the patients from the rest of the people and appropriate ventilation. In countries with high rates of TB the infants are required for BCG vaccine by the world health organization.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cadena, Anthony M., et al. “Heterogeneity in Tuberculosis.” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 17, no. 11, 2017, p. 691.

Getahun, Haileyesus, et al. “Latent Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection.” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 372, no. 22, 2015, pp. 2127–35.

Glaziou, Philippe, et al. “Global Epidemiology of Tuberculosis.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, vol. 5, no. 2, 2015, p. a017798.

Houben, Rein MGJ, and Peter J. Dodd. “The Global Burden of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: A Re-Estimation Using Mathematical Modelling.” PLoS Medicine, vol. 13, no. 10, 2016, p. e1002152.

Lönnroth, Knut, et al. “Towards Tuberculosis Elimination: An Action Framework for Low-Incidence Countries.” European Respiratory Journal, vol. 45, no. 4, 2015, pp. 928–52.

Lu, Lenette L., et al. “A Functional Role for Antibodies in Tuberculosis.” Cell, vol. 167, no. 2, 2016, p. 433–443. e14.

Mishra, Bibhuti B., et al. “Nitric Oxide Prevents a Pathogen-Permissive Granulocytic Inflammation during Tuberculosis.” Nature Microbiology, vol. 2, no. 7, 2017, p. 17072.

Organization, World Health. Global Tuberculosis Report 2018. World Health Organization, 2018.

---. WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. World Health Organization, 2016.

Skoura, Evangelia, et al. “Imaging in Tuberculosis.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 32, 2015, pp. 87–93.

Wallis, Robert S., and Richard Hafner. “Advancing Host-Directed Therapy for Tuberculosis.” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 15, no. 4, 2015, p. 255.

Walters, Elisabetta, et al. “Molecular Detection of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis from Stools in Young Children by Use of a Novel Centrifugation-Free Processing Method.” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 56, no. 9, 2018, pp. e00781-18.

Zak, Daniel E., et al. “A Blood RNA Signature for Tuberculosis Disease Risk: A Prospective Cohort Study.” The Lancet, vol. 387, no. 10035, 2016, pp. 2312–22.