Types Of Skin Cancer, Cells Of Origin

Types of Skin Cancer

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Types of Skin Cancer

Among one million people suffering from a disease in America, most of them are reported to have Skin Cancer. Cancer develops when normal body cells undergo unnecessary division and growth. According to recent studies, cases of Skin Cancer are developing at a rapid rate. This has resulted in amplified awareness among Americans regarding the treatment and avoidance of Skin Cancer ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2Sidfv5v","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Diepgen & Mahler, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Diepgen & Mahler, 2002)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":181,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/93TFDZD2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/93TFDZD2"],"itemData":{"id":181,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemiology of skin cancer","container-title":"British Journal of Dermatology","page":"1-6","volume":"146","issue":"s61","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"Melanoma and non-melanoma (basal and squamous cell carcinoma) skin cancer (NMSC) are now the most common types of cancer in the white populations and the incidence of skin cancer has reached epidemic proportions. According to recent population-based studies from Australia the incidence rate is over 2% for basal cell carcinoma in males and 1% for squamous cell carcinoma, and there are over 50 new cases of melanoma per 100 000.","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2133.146.s61.2.x","ISSN":"1365-2133","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Diepgen","given":"T. L."},{"family":"Mahler","given":"V."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Diepgen & Mahler, 2002).

Skin Cancer is characterized by three foremost kinds of cancer Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC), Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) and Melanoma. I want to add that BCC and SCC are both non-melanoma Skin Cancers.  Merkel cell Tumore and dermatofibrosarcoma protruberans are other sorts of skin cancer that are less likely to occur.

BCC and SCC are malignant tumors and do not usually extent to the additional parts of the body while Melanoma is the most dangerous type and often spreads to other peripheral body parts. If not treated, they can be life-threatening.

Skin Cancers develop at a site of precancerous lesions. These are known to grow at the skin and later develop into a tumor. These are mainly called dysplasia. Initially, the skin is marked with red scaly appearance Actinic Keratosis which eventually develops into SSC. It is most likely to appear as a red bump or smooth spot that develops slowly. BCC appears on a sun-uncovered body as a glowing bump, smooth flesh-colored spot or bluish path on the back. Melanoma is characterized by the initial development of dysplastic nevi but it does not always develop into Skin Cancer. These moles usually appear as a cluster of shiny bumps with the round borders, which may sometimes bleed.

It is known that Skin Cancer is caused by excessive exposure to UV light ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"98sME7nX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Armstrong & Kricker, 2001)","plainCitation":"(Armstrong & Kricker, 2001)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":183,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/ZHRVLSUZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/ZHRVLSUZ"],"itemData":{"id":183,"type":"article-journal","title":"The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer","container-title":"Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology","collection-title":"Consequences of exposure to sunlight:elements to assess protection","page":"8-18","volume":"63","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"There is persuasive evidence that each of the three main types of skin cancer, basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and melanoma, is caused by sun exposure. The incidence rate of each is higher in fairer skinned, sun-sensitive rather than darker skinned, less sun-sensitive people; risk increases with increasing ambient solar radiation; the highest densities are on the most sun exposed parts of the body and the lowest on the least exposed; and they are associated in individuals with total (mainly SCC), occupational (mainly SCC) and non-occupational or recreational sun exposure (mainly melanoma and BCC) and a history of sunburn and presence of benign sun damage in the skin. That UV radiation specifically causes these skin cancers depends on indirect inferences from the action spectrum of solar radiation for skin cancer from studies in animals and the action spectrum for dipyrimidine dimers and evidence that presumed causative mutations for skin cancer arise most commonly at dipyrimidine sites. Sun protection is essential if skin cancer incidence is to be reduced. The epidemiological data suggest that in implementing sun protection an increase in intermittency of exposure should be avoided, that sun protection will have the greatest impact if achieved as early as possible in life and that it will probably have an impact later in life, especially in those who had high childhood exposure to solar radiation.","DOI":"10.1016/S1011-1344(01)00198-1","ISSN":"1011-1344","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Armstrong","given":"Bruce K"},{"family":"Kricker","given":"Anne"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001",10,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Armstrong & Kricker, 2001). However, there are other risk factors of skin malignancy such as the use of tanning booths, immunosuppression, exposure to X-rays and other toxic chemicals such as tars and oils.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Armstrong, B. K., & Kricker, A. (2001). The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 63(1), 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1011-1344(01)00198-1

Diepgen, T. L., & Mahler, V. (2002). The epidemiology of skin cancer. British Journal of Dermatology, 146(s61), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.146.s61.2.x

Unit 1

Unit 1

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Unit 1

Introduction

Water is one of the basic necessities required for the survival and maintenance of life on planet Earth. It is a colorless and odorless substance, which is found in liquid form and can be obtained from various sources like lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, seas, and oceans. It constitutes almost 71% of the surface of the Earth and is continuously recycled in the system by the water cycle, which includes evaporation, precipitation, transpiration, condensation and runoff (Polubarinova-Koch, 2015). Although the ratio of water found on the Earth's surface is very high only 2.5% out of it is fresh and drinkable, and the rest of it is saline, which is found in large water bodies like oceans and seas. The unique chemical structure of water assigns its valuable properties which makes it exclusive and different from other liquids and prove it essential for the existence of life.

Chemical Makeup of Water

Water is a chemical compound, which contains polar molecules. If placed at standard temperature, it is in liquid form. The solid state of water is known as ice and its gaseous state is called water vapor. The chemical composition of water is pretty simple and a single molecule of water consists of only 3 atoms of two substances, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. These three atoms of Hydrogen and Oxygen are combined together through a covalent bond. There are two Hydrogen atoms and one single Oxygen atom present in a water molecule.

The above diagram shows the arrangement of Oxygen and Hydrogen atoms in a water molecule.

The Oxygen atom present in the water molecule is more electron greedy than Hydrogen, which is why it carries a partial negative charge, whereas the Hydrogen atoms present in the molecule carry a positive charge (Collins, Neilson, & Enderby, 2007). Due to this polarity, the water molecule is referred to as a polar molecule. This phenomenon has been depicted in the above diagram.

Properties of Water

It has already been established that the unique chemical structure of water molecules is ideal and very much essential for supporting life on Earth or anywhere. In fact, it is the only liquid that has the ability to initiate and support various forms of life (Eisenberg, & Kauzmann, 2005). Some of the unique properties of this colorless liquid that enable it to carry on important functions of life have been listed below:

Water as a Solvent:

It is most probably the most important and useful property of water. Water acts as a very useful solvent and this specific property of this liquid makes it perfect for supporting life, as almost all the activities of initiating, sustaining and carrying on of life take place in an aqueous medium.

Water Cohesion:

Cohesion refers to the attraction of one water molecule to the other water molecules. This unique property of water allows the substance to remain in a liquid form at room temperature. It also allows various species like Water Striders, to walk on water.

Water Adhesion:

The ability or attraction of water molecules to other substances is known as adhesion. This property causes capillary action, which is very useful in the process of photosynthesis in plants.

References

Collins, K. D., Neilson, G. W., & Enderby, J. E. (2007). Ions in water: characterizing the forces that control chemical processes and biological structure. Biophysical chemistry, 128(2-3), 95-104.

Eisenberg, D., & Kauzmann, W. (2005). The structure and properties of water. Oxford University Press on Demand.

Polubarinova-Koch, P. I. (2015). Theory of ground water movement. Princeton University Press.

Unit 2

Structure and function of the cell

Name

Institution

Structure and function of the cell

Cell: it is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Cell is a living and distinctive entity that is capable of replication and combining to form a new organism; a new life. Biologists agree upon various size and shapes of the cell that are highly function specific in nature however a generalized living cell; found in all the humans seems like this:

Image: labeled diagram of the human cell structure

Following parts of the cell, with their primitive functions are defined below:

Cell membrane: it is the outer layer of the cell that separates inner matrix of the cell from outside medium or extracellular fluid. It is semi- permeable in nature and acts as a barrier for passing and rejecting desired molecules.

Nucleus: Nucleus is termed as the brain of cell, as it controls all the functions happening in the cell. It contains Nucleolus that consists of DNA strands which is the basic heredity material carrying genetic information from ancestors; responsible for producing structural and functional genetic tendencies in the individuals.

Cytoplasm it is a fluid- like material containing 90% of water and acts as a medium for all the cell components i.e., nucleus and other cell organelles. All types of chemical reactions take place within the cytoplasm.

Organelles: organelles are in fact little organs present in the cytoplasm and perform various primitive functions. These organelles include endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes and lysosomes. These organelles take active part in the metabolism of food, cellular oxidation, cell division, generation of energy and formation of proteins and enzymes.

References

Cells, tissues and membranes (2018). SEER Training Module. Retrieved from https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cells_tissues_membranes/

Unit 2 Paper

Title

Name

Institution

Cellular transportation

Cell membrane acts as a barrier between the cytoplasm and outside medium of the cell; various metabolic activities taking place in the cell lead to the production of useful and waste substance. Both of these are taken to the outside environment for their further utilization or removal. Following mechanisms of transportation allow substances to move from one cell to another (Friedman, 2008).

Simple diffusion:

In simple diffusion, molecules or substances move from an area of higher concentration to the area where there concentration is low. This process continues till the concentration of molecules become equal on both the sides. It must be noted that diffusion is a passive process; it starts by itself. Diffusion occurs both in gases and liquids (Pratt et. al., 2002).

Image: movement of water molecules from extracellular fluid to cytoplasm

Osmosis

Osmosis is referred to as the movement of water molecules from an area where solute concentration is low to an area where there is higher solute concentration. This type of transportation involves both solutes and solvents; where solvent is always water and solutes are mainly dissolves salts (Pratt et. al., 2002).

Image: purple dots indicate solute whereas pink liquid is water. Water moves to the area with less concentration of solute molecules until concentration of both the molecules becomes equal

Facilitated diffusion:

Facilitated diffusion is similar to the simple diffusion in terms of the movement of gas or water molecules from higher to lower concentration however this transportation is facilitated by special proteins that pump molecules inside or outside the membrane in order to equalize their concentration. This process does not happen passively rather specialized membrane proteins are required to initiate and carry facilitated diffusion (Friedman, 2008). It does not require energy to pump the molecules; rather proteins carry this function thorough changing their shaped after bonding with the molecules that they are willing to transport. It either happens via channel proteins or carrier proteins (Pratt et. al., 2002).

Image: molecules moving from higher to lower concentration through specified protein channels either through carrier mechanism or channel mechanism

Active transport

Active transport is similar to the facilitated diffusion in terms of the movement of gas or water molecules from higher to lower concentration however this transportation is facilitated by special proteins that pump molecules inside or outside the membrane in order to equalize their concentration with the help of energy. This process does not happen without ATP involvement because some molecules are larger and cannot bind with the proteins. This is the basic difference between both types of transportation as well (Friedman, 2008).

Image: sodium potassium pump (specialized proteins) pumping potassium ions outside the cell and sodium ions inside the cell where there concentration is lower—with the help of ATP

Hence, all the modes of transportation perform similar functions but differ in the ways through which they perform their functions and the nature of transportation they carry. Some use specialized proteins, some do not, some use proteins with energy and some do it without energy. Some transport both gas and water molecules whereas some transport only water.

References

Pratt, C. A., Voet, D., Voet, J. G. (2002). Fundamentals of biochemistry upgrade. New York: Wiley. pp. 264–266

Friedman, M. (2008). Principles and models of biological transport. Springer.

Unit 3

Unit 3

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is defined as a series of reactions that refers to the extraction of energy from a molecule of glucose by splitting it into two or three molecules of carbon. The broken-down molecules are also called pyruvates. (Kondoh, et, al. 2005). It is a process that is found in a number of organisms today.

Reaction

Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of the cell, and it can be broken down into two major phases. These two phases are termed as Energy Requiring step and the energy releasing steps.

Energy Requiring Step

In this half of glycolysis, two adenosine triphosphate molecules are utilized in the phosphorylation of the glucose molecules. It involves a systematic procedure. In the first step, glycolysis is catalyzed by an enzyme called hexokinase which phosphorylates glucose by using ATP as a major source of phosphate. As a result, glucose 6 phosphate is produced that is the most reactive form of glucose. After that their glucose 6 phosphates is converted into an isomer named as Fructose 6 phosphate. Isomerase is the enzyme that facilitates this reaction. In the third step, phosphorylation of fructose 6 phosphate occurs which is then catalyzed by enzyme phosphofructokinase. (Lin, et, al. 2018). Fructose 1-6 bisphosphate is generated by the donation of high energy phosphate to fructose phosphate. Fructose 1-6 bisphosphate is then further desterilized by the addition of high energy phosphates taking into account that an enzyme aldolase cleaves 1-6 bisphosphate into two three carbon isomers named as, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone-phosphate. In the last step, an isomerase transforms dihydroxyacetone phosphate into its isomer named as, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. It is the pathway in which there an investment of energy to ATP molecules, facilitating the breakdown of one glucose molecule. (Kondoh, et, al. 2005).

Energy Releasing Step

It is the second step of glycolysis in which energy is released in the form of 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules. This process involves the product of the first phase, taking into account that two three carbon sugar molecules will proceed where sufficient energy will be extracted in order to pay back two ATP molecules that are then used to produce high energy NADH molecules. (Kondoh, et, al. 2005). In this step, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized by the extraction of high energy molecules which are then picked by NAD + electron carriers leading to the formation of NADH. After that, another phosphate group is added. In the next step, phosphoglycerate kinase donates a high energy phosphate group to ADP, formulating ATP. The remaining phosphate groups in 3-phosphoglycerate produces 2-phosphoglycerate and then the enzyme Enolase allows 2 phosphoglycerates to lose water from its structure. In the end, glycolysis is catalyzed by the pyruvate kinase enzyme, formulating the ATP molecule. (Kim, et, al. 2005).

References

Kim, J. W., & Dang, C. V. (2005). Multifaceted roles of glycolytic enzymes. Trends in biochemical sciences, 30(3), 142-150.

Kondoh, H., Lleonart, M. E., Gil, J., Wang, J., Degan, P., Peters, G., ... & Beach, D. (2005). Glycolytic enzymes can modulate cellular life span. Cancer research, 65(1), 177-185.

Lin, P. P., Jaeger, A. J., Wu, T. Y., Xu, S. C., Lee, A. S., Gao, F., ... & Liao, J. C. (2018). Construction and evolution of an Escherichia coli strain relying on nonoxidative glycolysis for sugar catabolism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(14), 3538-3546.

Unit 3

Fermentation commercial usage

Name

Affiliation

Alcohol fermentation takes place in microorganism for instance yeast that converts sugar to energy with the release of carbon dioxide. It can be aerobic or anaerobic with ethanol as a by-product. Commercially it has a use in cheese, yogurt, and in pickled foods.Yogurt is the result of fermented milk that is created through the joint act of the bacteria Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. These bacteria ingest the sugar in the milk and produce lactic acid and acetaldehyde that give yogurt the specific taste. The same process is used to produce cheese. The texture of the cheese is due to the release of the carbon dioxide. Moreover, pickle manufacturers also ferment their cucumbers using this chemical reaction. Bacteria in these cucumbers break down their sugar and produce lactic acid. On the other hand, lactic acid fermentation takes place in specific bacteria, yeast as well as in muscle cells. It also converts sugar to energy and its by-product is lactate. This fermentation has been extensively used in the food industry such as wine, beer, fermented drinks, bread as well as sausages ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pz6ErOJR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Chavez, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Chavez, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2018,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/MQZPPJY2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/MQZPPJY2"],"itemData":{"id":2018,"type":"webpage","title":"5 Uses of Fermentation","URL":"https://sciencing.com/5-uses-fermentation-10015326.html","author":[{"family":"Chavez","given":"Frank B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Chavez, 2018). For bread making, yeast and sugar are added to the dough. Yeast consumes sugar and generates carbon dioxide that gives the bread bulk and texture. In addition, lactic acid fermentation is also used to produce alcoholic beverages commercially. During the process, yeast produces ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide after consuming sugar ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tzw3gpLR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Chavez, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Chavez, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2018,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/MQZPPJY2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/MQZPPJY2"],"itemData":{"id":2018,"type":"webpage","title":"5 Uses of Fermentation","URL":"https://sciencing.com/5-uses-fermentation-10015326.html","author":[{"family":"Chavez","given":"Frank B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Chavez, 2018). For sugar, different sources are used such as grains, grapes as well as berries.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Chavez, F. B. (2018). 5 Uses of Fermentation. Retrieved from https://sciencing.com/5-uses-fermentation-10015326.html

Unit 4

Unit 4

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Eugenics

It is one of the most important social and philosophical movements. It claims that reproduction of desired population should be encouraged while undesired traits should be discouraged. These desired traits are known as the positive eugenics. This practice is promoted by some scientists, biologists, politicians, social reforms and businessmen. Mostly people who are considered to be inferior intellectually and physically are targeted for sterilization. Traits (poverty, criminality and shiftlessness) that make a society unpleasant for living must be eliminated by using eugenic.

Use of eugenics for removing past mistakes

Benefits from both medical procedures and scientific researchers could be achieved both humanely and ethically. In United States, government assures before implementing a scientific procedure whether it is ethically acceptable or not. By making use of the latest technologies mistake of past could eliminated by screening the embryos. This fact cannot be denied that one of the main purposes of this movement is to stop the reproduction of all those individuals who are becoming burden for the society (Camporesi,et,al,2018). Screening of the embryos would indicate if there would be any physical problem. Genetic technologies could be used for selecting and producing the superior beings and would check production of undesired individuals. It would help in making this society a better place to live. It is the best way of controlling a gender and producing better individuals. Mistakes of past could be avoided or eliminated when a society is filled with individuals with desired traits.

References

Camporesi, S., & Cavaliere, G. (2018). Eugenics and enhancement in contemporary genomics. Routledge Handbook of Genomics, Health and Society, 195-202.

Unit 4

Unit 04

Author Name

Institution

Unit 04

Mitosis and Meiosis are the processes of cell division, where the purpose of mitosis is vegetative growth and purpose of Meiosis plays its part in sexual reproduction. Following are the table which compare both types of cell division.

Comparison b/w Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis

Meiosis

Cell production

Two

Four (Tetrad)

Location

Vascular cambium, root meristem and apical of plants

Megasporangia and microsporangia of plants

Objective

Play it role in vegetative growth

Plays it role in sexual reproduction; start the generation of gametophyte owing to the production of spores. It can also yield directly sex cell (gametes) in animal mostly.

Set of Chromosome

1n to 1n; 2n to 2n

2n to 1n

Cell Divisions

Only “one” division

“Two” cell divisions

Phases

Mitosis

Meiosis

Prophase I

Duplication of chromosome

(Chromatids)

Pairing of chromosomes do not take place.

Duplication of chromosome

(Chromatids)

Pairing of chromosomes takes place

Metaphase I

Lining up of two chromatids (unpaired chromosome) happens at the equatorial plate.

Lining up of four chromatids (paired chromosome) happens at the equatorial plate

Anaphase I

Separation of chromatids takes place.

Chromatids do no separate from each other but chromosome pairs get separated from each other.

Telophase I

Formation of two identical cells takes place.

Formation of 2 nuclei takes place and each of the nuclei take a set of chromosomes in the form of paired chromatids.

Prophase II

N/A

Condensation of chromosomes as paired chromatids takes place.

Metaphase II

N/A

Paired chromatids are placed at equatorial plate.

Anaphase II

N/A

Chromatids get separate from each other.

Telophase II

N/A

Finally, four nuclei or cells are formed; each haploid (1n)

In Meiosis and Mitosis, genetic material is distributed among the daughter cells in a varying manner. Mitosis is actually eukaryotic cell division, whereas Mitosis yields two identical cells daughter cells following the cell division. The number of chromosomes remains the same in daughter cells. As opposed to Mitosis, in Meiosis, reproductive cell (Gametes) are produced following the cell division. Owing to the production of reproductive cells, chromosome numbers are half in daughter cells as compare to parent cells ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"r7hESQ6P","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ohkura, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Ohkura, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":465,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/IHUDVJLB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/IHUDVJLB"],"itemData":{"id":465,"type":"article-journal","title":"Meiosis: an overview of key differences from mitosis","container-title":"Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology","page":"a015859","volume":"7","issue":"5","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Meiosis","author":[{"family":"Ohkura","given":"Hiroyuki"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ohkura, 2015). The lessening of chromosome number in Meiosis is important because this process yields reproductive cells called gametes. Had there been a same number of chromosomes after in Meiosis, daughter cells would have chromosomes twice that of the parent cell.

Genetic Variation

Meiosis renders genetic variation. Zygote formation during the fertilization yields 1 gamete from each parent cell. Owing to recombination and independent collection in Meiosis, variation in DNA sets is experienced. Such variation yields an inimitable blend of genes in a zygote. Independent assortment of the chromosome plays a vital role in the genetic variation. Owing to such a process chromosome will move arbitrarily to distinct poles. Albeit, gamete, following the Meiosis, yields 23 chromosomes. Independent assortment implies that each reproductive daughter cell (gamete) possess wide range of blends of chromosomes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pC6JtG1X","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Riley & Law, 1965)","plainCitation":"(Riley & Law, 1965)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":468,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/5G5DDSHH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/5G5DDSHH"],"itemData":{"id":468,"type":"chapter","title":"Genetic variation in chromosome pairing","container-title":"Advances in genetics","publisher":"Elsevier","page":"57–114","volume":"13","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Riley","given":"Ralph"},{"family":"Law","given":"C. N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1965"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Riley & Law, 1965).

Owing to such a rearrangement of genes into inimitable blends expands the hereditary variety in a populace and elucidates the diversity we see between offspring with same parents. As in Mitosis there is no independent assortment and distinction in the genes’ combination, no genetic variation is experienced there.

Mendel’s Law in Meiosis

It has been stated in the Mendel’s law of assortment that genes do not have any impact on each other concerning the organization alleles into reproductive cells called gametes. Law of Independent assortment further delineates that the manner in which an allele pair gets isolated yielding two daughter cells amid the second division of Meiosis do not have any effect on the segregation of other allele pairs. The qualities acquired through one gene will be acquired freely of the characteristics acquired through another quality in light of the fact that the genes live on various chromosomes that are autonomously grouped into daughter cells amid meiosis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UvWvJNbZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(MacLeod et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(MacLeod et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":470,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/6433XN62"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/6433XN62"],"itemData":{"id":470,"type":"article-journal","title":"Allelic segregation and independent assortment in T. brucei crosses: proof that the genetic system is Mendelian and involves meiosis","container-title":"Molecular and biochemical parasitology","page":"12–19","volume":"143","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Allelic segregation and independent assortment in T. brucei crosses","author":[{"family":"MacLeod","given":"Annette"},{"family":"Tweedie","given":"Alison"},{"family":"McLellan","given":"Sarah"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Sonya"},{"family":"Cooper","given":"Anneli"},{"family":"Sweeney","given":"Lindsay"},{"family":"Turner","given":"C. Michael R."},{"family":"Tait","given":"Andy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (MacLeod et al., 2005). There is no independent assortment in Mitosis so neither is there any genetic variation in Mitosis nor the Mendel’s law is explained by Mitosis. Meiosis follows the independent assortment of gametes which explains the law of Mendel in the context of independent assortment.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY MacLeod, A., Tweedie, A., McLellan, S., Taylor, S., Cooper, A., Sweeney, L., … Tait, A. (2005). Allelic segregation and independent assortment in T. brucei crosses: proof that the genetic system is Mendelian and involves meiosis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 143(1), 12–19.

Ohkura, H. (2015). Meiosis: an overview of key differences from mitosis. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 7(5), a015859.

Riley, R., & Law, C. N. (1965). Genetic variation in chromosome pairing. In Advances in genetics (Vol. 13, pp. 57–114). Elsevier.

Unit 5

Genetically Modified Organisms Labeling

Name

Institution

Genetically Modified Organisms Labeling

The living organisms whose genetic material i.e., DNA is maneuvered artificially in the laboratory through the process of genetic engineering is known as a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO). In other words, the genetic material of animals, plants, viruses and bacteria is combined through traditional crossbreeding mechanisms that do not occur in nature (Non-GMO Project, 2019). The most exclusive reason behind GMOs is to develop such plants who could withstand the forthright implementation of herbicides or the production of an insecticide. However, new technologies offer much more than this primitive cause; developing desired characteristics and taste in the plants.

Labeling of GMOs has always been a central debate in biological world. Estimations indicate that approximately 64 countries require genetic materials to be labeled however Canada and USA are two prominent exceptions yet. In my view if genetically modified food differs from the other non- genetically modified counterparts, it must be labeled as “genetically engineered”, “genetically modified” or “bioengineered” because consumers must be aware of the products that they are consuming. Labeling is irrefutably significant act to address the differences that GMO possesses form its non- genetically modified counterparts (Non-GMO Project, 2019).

An example that I would like to quote stands by this case in the most justifiable manner. For instance, if canola beans are engineered genetically and it is found that oil obtained from these beans is enriched more with lauric acid content as compared to the oil obtained from simple canola beans, it must be labeled as “laurate canola oil” (FDA, 2019). In this way, consumers would be fully knowledgeable about the products they are using which might affect the extent of their consumption.

References

Labeling of Foods Derived From Genetically Engineered Plants (2019). Food and Drug Administration Authority (FDA). Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov/food/food-genetically-engineered-plants/labeling-foods-derived-genetically-engineered-plants

GMO facts (2019). Non GMO Project. Retrieved from https://www.nongmoproject.org/gmo-facts/

Unit 5

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology was established by Francis (Li & Xie, 2011), depicts the directional procedures of transformation. This sequence of nucleotidetic material fills in as the data stockpiling forever, a word reference of sorts that gives the majority of the fundamental instruments for a living being to make the segments of itself. Amid the procedure of transcription, the DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID molecule is utilized to make mRNA, which conveys a particular case of the DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID directions to the hardware that will make gene. Genes are integrated amid translation utilizing the mRNA molecule as a guide. Sequence of nucleotide is a deterministic procedure amid which every molecule is made utilizing the result of the previous advance. The final product is a change from the sequence of nucleotidetic code into a practical unit which can be utilized to play out crafted by the cell. As you can envision, this procedure must be constrained by a living being so as to utilize assets, react to natural changes, and separate cells inside the body. Sequence of nucleotide guideline, as it is here and there called, happens at all phases en route from DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID to gene.

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID methylation happens on the nucleic acid cytosine. Arginine and lysine are the most ordinarily methylated amino acids. At the point when genes called histones contain certain methylated deposits, these genes can repress or actuate sequence of nucleotide. Regularly this happens on the transcriptional level, and accordingly prevents the phone from assembling mRNA, the precursor to genes. Genes are regularly alluded to as the workhorse of the cell and are in charge of everything from catalyzing substance responses to giving the structure squares to skeletal muscles (Bussard, 2005). A few genes, called transcription elements, help to up-or down-control sequence of nucleotide levels. These genes can act alone or related to other transcription elements and tie to DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID bases close sequence of nucleotide coding locales.

Around a definitive objective of achieving a more profound comprehension of how nucleic acid-restricting genes facilitate the guideline of sequence of nucleotide inside the cell, the exploration depicted here spotlights on three specific parts of this issue. The studies start by looking at the nucleic acid-restricting genes themselves, both on the gene and buildup levels. Next, the studies turn our consideration toward gene restricting locales on DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID molecules and a specific sort of change of DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID that can influence gene official (Shapiro, 2009). The studies at that point take a worldwide viewpoint and concentrate human molecular systems with regards to ailment, concentrating on administrative and gene-gene cooperation systems. The studies look at the quantity of association cooperations between transcription elements and how it scales with the quantity of target sequence of nucleotides managed. In a few model living beings, the studies find that the dispersion of the quantity of accomplices versus the quantity of target sequence of nucleotides seems to pursue an exponential immersion bend. The studies additionally find that our sequence of nucleotiderative transcriptional system model pursues a comparative appropriation in this correlation. The studies demonstrate that malignant growth and other malady related sequence of nucleotides preferentially possess specific positions in monitored themes and locate that all the more universally expressed infection sequence of nucleotides have more ailment affiliations.

References

Li, G. W., & Xie, X. S. (2011). Central dogma at the single-molecule level in living cells. Nature, 475(7356), 308.

Bussard, A. E. (2005). A scientific revolution?: The prion anomaly may challenge the central dogma of molecular biology. EMBO reports, 6(8), 691-694.

Shapiro, J. A. (2009). Revisiting the central dogma in the 21st century. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1178(1), 6-28.

Unit 6

Theory of evolution—natural selection

Theory of evolution states that current form of life came into being due to the alterations in the previous form under the influence of environmental changes; this change mainly encapsulates alterations in the inheritable characteristics over successive generations. Contemplating through the lens of molecular biology, these variations are actually the expressions of genes transferred to the off springs from parents particularly when they undergo mutation and genetic recombination. This theory was presented by Charles Darwin in 1859 in his book the origin of species. He was in view that in response to the environmental adversities, parents transfer such characteristics to their off-springs that enable them overcome these adversities and develop adaptations accordingly. Natural selection is the mechanism through which evolution operates; referring to the idea that genetic mutation is done by the nature which is solely responsible for the genetic mutations. The basic rationale behind natural selection is the development of adaptive attributes in the individuals in response to the environmental stimuli. For example, polar bear population was first living in the areas where there was no ice at all; they had no fur to protect them from cold. With the passing time, the area where they lived started having frequent ice storms and a substantial fall in temperature; genetic mutations allowed them to develop fur in response to the changing outside temperature in order to adapt their environmental conditions. Those who render successful in adapting fur remained alive whereas the other ones vanished from the society. Hence, natural selection is the crux of environmental adaptations and ultimate survival. Another striking example of natural selection is the extinction of light pale colored peppered moths that were once very populous because they excellently hid themselves from predators through camouflaging their pale colored skin with the pale bark of tress. With the industrial revolution, pale colored trees became dark colored enriched with black soot and dark colored peppered moths became comparatively more populous. What happened with the pale colored moths is quite obvious; they failed to develop adaptation and got eaten by predators more frequently.

References

What is evolution (2016). Society and Behavior (S&B). Retrieved from

Universal Precausions Of A Laboratory

Universal Precautions of a Laboratory

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Universal Precautions of a Laboratory

Universal precautions, especially in laboratories, are designed to protect all the workers from any mishap in the laboratory and also to protect the workers against any infectious disease which spread from blood and other body fluid. There are some universal precautions in a laboratory to protect us against any accident which are as follow:

Whenever working in a scientific laboratory and working with various scientific equipment, any hazardous material, glassware and also chemicals the user must make sure to wear glasses and also face shields or masks.

The chemicals that are used in the lab are mostly harmful they are either carcinogenic or they cause various skin problems, so in order to avoid that the user must make sure to wear gloves ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kuxDDA6x","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Universal Precautions,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.-a)","plainCitation":"(“Universal Precautions,” n.d.-a)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1219,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/RVVKZGWV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/RVVKZGWV"],"itemData":{"id":1219,"type":"webpage","title":"Universal Precautions","URL":"https://www.osstf.on.ca/en-CA/services/health-safety/information-bulletins/universal-precautions.aspx","language":"en-CA","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Universal Precautions,” n.d.-a).

Whenever performing an experiment in the lab it is very important to wear either a smock or lab coat ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4dG5QPaV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Universal Precautions,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.-b)","plainCitation":"(“Universal Precautions,” n.d.-b)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/VNRHEXBP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/VNRHEXBP"],"itemData":{"id":1217,"type":"webpage","title":"Universal Precautions","URL":"https://www.uth.edu/safety/chemical-safety/universal-precautions.htm","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Universal Precautions,” n.d.-b).

It is significant to wash hands before leaving the laboratory or eating something

Once an experiment is done it is important to wash hands with water or soap because if any traces are left on the hand they will be washed away ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5E0cM5rd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sadoh, Fawole, Sadoh, Oladimeji, & Sotiloye, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Sadoh, Fawole, Sadoh, Oladimeji, & Sotiloye, 2006)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1214,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/A3BFMK4W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/A3BFMK4W"],"itemData":{"id":1214,"type":"article-journal","title":"Practice of universal precautions among healthcare workers.","container-title":"Journal of the National Medical Association","page":"722-726","volume":"98","issue":"5","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"INTRODUCTION: Healthcare workers (HCWs) are exposed to bloodborne infections by pathogens, such as HIV, and hepatitis B and C viruses, as they perform their clinical activities in the hospital. Compliance with universal precautions has been shown to reduce the risk of exposure to blood and body fluids. This study was aimed at assessing the observance of universal precautions by HCWs in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The study was conducted in September 2003 in Abeokuta metropolis, Ogun State, Nigeria. The respondents were doctors, trained and auxiliary nurses, laboratory scientists and domestic staff. They were selected through a multistage sampling technique from public and private healthcare facilities within the metropolis. The instrument was an interviewer-administered, semistructured questionnaire that assessed the practice of recapping and disposal of used needles, use of barrier equipment, handwashing and screening of transfused blood. RESULTS: There were 433 respondents, 211 (48.7%) of which were trained nurses. About a third of all respondents always recapped used needles. Compliance with nonrecapping of used needles was highest among trained nurses and worst with doctors. Less than two-thirds of respondents (63.8%) always used personal protective equipment, and more than half of all respondents (56.5%) had never worn goggles during deliveries and at surgeries. The provision of sharps containers and screening of transfused blood by the institutions studied was uniformly high. A high percentage (94.6%) of HCWs observed handwashing after handling patients. The use of barrier equipment was variable in the institutions studied. CONCLUSION: Recapping of used needles is prevalent in the health facilities studied. Noncompliance with universal precautions place Nigerian HCWs at significant health risks. Training programs and other relevant measures should be put in place to promote the appropriate use of protective barrier equipment by HCWs at all times.","ISSN":"0027-9684","note":"PMID: 16749647\nPMCID: PMC2569287","journalAbbreviation":"J Natl Med Assoc","author":[{"family":"Sadoh","given":"Wilson E."},{"family":"Fawole","given":"Adeniran O."},{"family":"Sadoh","given":"Ayebo E."},{"family":"Oladimeji","given":"Ayo O."},{"family":"Sotiloye","given":"Oladapo S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sadoh, Fawole, Sadoh, Oladimeji, & Sotiloye, 2006).

While handling any needles or any sharp objects in the lab never break, bow or even directly manipulate used needles. Recapping any of these used needles is not recommended, if recapping is necessary then it is recommended to use a one-handed scoop technique only. While discarding the harp objects it is recommended to use proper puncture-resistant containers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sVoxRRyf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Broussard & Kahwaji, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Broussard & Kahwaji, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1211,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/38UGYJ4P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/38UGYJ4P"],"itemData":{"id":1211,"type":"chapter","title":"Universal Precautions","container-title":"StatPearls","publisher":"StatPearls Publishing","publisher-place":"Treasure Island (FL)","source":"PubMed","event-place":"Treasure Island (FL)","abstract":"Universal precautions were introduced by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in 1985, mostly in response to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic. Universal precautions are a standard set of guidelines aimed at preventing the transmission of bloodborne pathogens from exposure to blood and other potentially infectious materials (OPIM). OPIM is defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as: The following human body fluids: semen, vaginal secretions, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, amniotic fluid, saliva in dental procedures, any body fluid that is visibly contaminated with blood, and all body fluids in situations where it is difficult or impossible to differentiate between body fluids; Any unfixed tissue or organ (other than intact skin) from a human (living or dead); and HIV-containing cell or tissue cultures, organ cultures, and HIV- or HBV-containing culture medium or other solutions; and blood, organs, or other tissues from experimental animals infected with HIV or HBV. Universal precautions do not apply to sputum, feces, sweat, vomit, tears, urine, or nasal secretions unless they are visibly contaminated with blood because their transmission of Hepatitis B or HIV is extremely low or non-existent. In 1987, the CDC introduced another set of guidelines termed Body Substance Isolation. These guidelines advocated the avoidance of direct physical contact with “all moist and potentially infectious body substances,” even if blood is not visible. A limitation of this guideline was that it emphasized handwashing after removal of gloves only if the hands were visibly soiled. In 1996, the CDC Guideline for Isolation Precautions in Hospitals, prepared by the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), combined the major features for Universal Precaution and Body Substance Isolation into what is now referred to as Standard Precautions. These guidelines also introduced three transmission-based precautions: airborne, droplet, and contact. All transmission-based precautions are to be used in conjunction with standard precautions.","URL":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470223/","call-number":"NBK470223","note":"PMID: 29262198","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Broussard","given":"Ian M."},{"family":"Kahwaji","given":"Chadi I."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Broussard & Kahwaji, 2019)

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Broussard, I. M., & Kahwaji, C. I. (2019). Universal Precautions. In StatPearls. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470223/

Sadoh, W. E., Fawole, A. O., Sadoh, A. E., Oladimeji, A. O., & Sotiloye, O. S. (2006). The practice of universal precautions among healthcare workers. Journal of the National Medical Association, 98(5), 722–726.

Universal Precautions. (n.d.-a). Retrieved March 30, 2019, from https://www.osstf.on.ca/en-CA/services/health-safety/information-bulletins/universal-precautions.aspx

Universal Precautions. (n.d.-b). Retrieved March 30, 2019, from https://www.uth.edu/safety/chemical-safety/universal-precautions.htm

Upto The Writer

Smoking and Vaping Cigarettes

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Smoking and Vaping Cigarettes

Public health aims at improving and enhancing the well-being of people and the communities. This objective is achieved by creating awareness and promoting healthy lifestyles along with employing the techniques of detecting, preventing, and responding to diseases. Overall, it seeks to protect public health through policies, programs, and recommendations. This research paper seeks to obtain information about one of the major public health issues. To facilitate this project, I chose smoking and vaping cigarettes with its focus on the local context. The rationale for choosing this topic is because it is a very common public health. The smoke of the cigarette is poisonous to human tissues it touches when it enters the human body. In addition, smoking in public extends its harmful impacts beyond the smoker to different environmental, pubic, and social issues. Considering its destructive impacts and increasing ratio of smokers, smoking is becoming a major public health concern that needs to be addressed.

Background and History of Smoking and Vaping

Smoking can be defined as the inhaling and exhaling of smoke from the tobacco of other drugs. Smoking is a method used to smoke different plant-based materials, but smoking is most commonly related to tobacco ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HGnWn3i4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":697,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"itemData":{"id":697,"type":"webpage","title":"A Brief History of Tobacco in America","container-title":"JSTOR Daily","abstract":"Over the past 50 years, the portion of Americans who smoke dropped has dropped from 42 to 15 percent. The precipitous decline could mean the end of the fasc","URL":"https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-america/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Gershon","given":"Livia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gershon, 2016). Tobacco has nicotine an alkaloid that is addictive in nature, and it holds both tranquilizing psychoactive and exciting properties. Smoking tobacco and plans have a very long history. Various Native American used tobacco for different medical and ceremonial purposes. According to a study from 1718 shares that tobacco has the properties of cleansing the human brain, and it resists poison ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yNKEaWX9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":697,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"itemData":{"id":697,"type":"webpage","title":"A Brief History of Tobacco in America","container-title":"JSTOR Daily","abstract":"Over the past 50 years, the portion of Americans who smoke dropped has dropped from 42 to 15 percent. The precipitous decline could mean the end of the fasc","URL":"https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-america/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Gershon","given":"Livia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gershon, 2016). It was also used to treat toothaches and to beautify the skin. The early methods of consuming tobacco in America was chewing it by mixing molasses with the leaves.

The act of smoking was introduced to Europe by explorers such as Columbus and Americans began to adopt the cigarettes which were first prevalent in Europe only. In 1881, smoking was turned into a major domestic industry with the introduction of cigarettes rolling machine. As tobacco and cigarettes started to become very common, medical science started to relate it with medical issues and different types of cancers. In 1963, cigarette consumption was at its peak ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MUzMTMgP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":697,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"itemData":{"id":697,"type":"webpage","title":"A Brief History of Tobacco in America","container-title":"JSTOR Daily","abstract":"Over the past 50 years, the portion of Americans who smoke dropped has dropped from 42 to 15 percent. The precipitous decline could mean the end of the fasc","URL":"https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-america/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Gershon","given":"Livia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gershon, 2016). As an outcome of the highly publicized medical findings, anti-smoking forces started to come out. Americans have started to move towards vaping, seeing it less harm-full as compared to the original cigarettes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7fvGUzFY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":697,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"itemData":{"id":697,"type":"webpage","title":"A Brief History of Tobacco in America","container-title":"JSTOR Daily","abstract":"Over the past 50 years, the portion of Americans who smoke dropped has dropped from 42 to 15 percent. The precipitous decline could mean the end of the fasc","URL":"https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-america/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Gershon","given":"Livia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gershon, 2016).

Vaping is the process of huffing and exhaling the vapors created by an electronic cigarette or a device similar to that. Like the simple cigarettes, the e-cigarette generates an inhaled vaporizer of ultrafine elements that transfer the nicotine to the human brain, creating an impact of smoking a cigarette. People use e-cigarette as an alternative to the simple cigarette and considering the fact that it is less harmful as compared to the simple cigarette ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XCvVrPI5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Gershon, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":697,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/XWU9EUYZ"],"itemData":{"id":697,"type":"webpage","title":"A Brief History of Tobacco in America","container-title":"JSTOR Daily","abstract":"Over the past 50 years, the portion of Americans who smoke dropped has dropped from 42 to 15 percent. The precipitous decline could mean the end of the fasc","URL":"https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-america/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Gershon","given":"Livia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gershon, 2016). In addition, it is adopted as a way of cessation of smoking, and it is utilized as a replacement to nicotine. Some other reasons for a smoking e-cigarette are to do smoking in the zones where it is prohibited to do traditional smoking.

Cigarette smoking comes with various medical health issues that have been identified by numerous studies since cigarettes popularized in the US. Smoking cigarettes harms nearly every organ of the human body, and it is highly linked with the unavoidable causes of death. Studies reveal that in the US, it causes more than 480,000 deaths combined with the other causes such as Alcohol use, Motor vehicle injuries, illegal drug use, etc. Smoking causes different types of cancers which become the cause of death ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lBeO8Nmo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(CDCTobaccoFree, 2019)","plainCitation":"(CDCTobaccoFree, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":700,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/NSKEBIBU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/NSKEBIBU"],"itemData":{"id":700,"type":"webpage","title":"Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking","container-title":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","abstract":"See the data and statistical information on health effects of cigarette smoking.","URL":"https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/index.htm","language":"en-us","author":[{"family":"CDCTobaccoFree","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,4]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (CDCTobaccoFree, 2019). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) causes about 80% of deaths resulting from smoking. The risk of death of smoking has risen in the US from the past 50 years.

Furthermore, smokers are at a higher risk of developing various diseases as compared to non-smokers. For instance, it increases the chance of coronary heart disease by 2 to 4 times, the chance of lung cancer by 25 times and stroke by 2 to 4 times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oGL1LUGU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(CDCTobaccoFree, 2019)","plainCitation":"(CDCTobaccoFree, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":700,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/NSKEBIBU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/NSKEBIBU"],"itemData":{"id":700,"type":"webpage","title":"Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking","container-title":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","abstract":"See the data and statistical information on health effects of cigarette smoking.","URL":"https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/index.htm","language":"en-us","author":[{"family":"CDCTobaccoFree","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,4]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (CDCTobaccoFree, 2019). Smoking is also associated with Cardiovascular Disease since smoking damages blood vessels that results in high blood pressure and also forms blood clots. Moreover, studies reveal that smoking causes lung cancer because by damaging the airways in the lungs. Different lung diseases associated with smoking are COPD, and it also worsens the asthma attacks.

Smoking makes a person vulnerable to 14 different types of risks including mouth, liver, larynx, stomach, pancreas and kidney. Other simple health risks associated with smoking include preterm delivery, ectopic pregnancy, low birth weight and orofacial clefts in infants ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XfJIL2Lf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(CDCTobaccoFree, 2019)","plainCitation":"(CDCTobaccoFree, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":700,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/NSKEBIBU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/NSKEBIBU"],"itemData":{"id":700,"type":"webpage","title":"Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking","container-title":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","abstract":"See the data and statistical information on health effects of cigarette smoking.","URL":"https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/index.htm","language":"en-us","author":[{"family":"CDCTobaccoFree","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,4]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (CDCTobaccoFree, 2019). Though e-cigarettes transfer low level of carcinogens and hence it has fewer risks for the smoker but they still expose various health dangers to its consumers owing to the high level of fine particles of toxins. Different similarities have been found in the health effects of e-cigarettes and conventional cigarettes including the long-term cardiovascular risk which prove that the e-cigarettes impose almost half of the long-term risks as compared to the conventional cigarettes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"seHko3xh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Glantz & Bareham, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Glantz & Bareham, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":699,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/WH9N8U38"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/WH9N8U38"],"itemData":{"id":699,"type":"article-journal","title":"E-cigarettes: use, effects on smoking, risks, and policy implications","container-title":"Annual review of public health","page":"215-235","volume":"39","author":[{"family":"Glantz","given":"Stanton A."},{"family":"Bareham","given":"David W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Glantz & Bareham, 2018).

Local Impact

Smoking and vaping have become a common public health issue in Canada. Statistics reveal that most of the conventional smokers have adopted vaping as a way to quit conventional smoking. According to the statistics of Public Health Sudbury & Districts, 25% of the adults nearly 20 years old were smokers according to the survey of 2013/14. The rate of current smokers in Sudbury and districts is higher than that of Ontario overall. The current smokers mean the number of people who smoke at present. This rate has shown no significant variation as compared to the previous survey of 2007/08 (“Adult Current Smokers,” n.d.). This survey also indicates that the rate of current smokers is no different for male and female smokers in Sudbury and districts. This prevalence rate by sex has also not varied from 2007 to 2014. The statistics by age group indicate that the occurrence rate of current smokers was lower for the adults of age 65 and older. Moreover, the individuals belonging to households having less income showed a significantly high rate of current smokers as compared to other income quintiles. Considering the factor of education, statistics indicate that the university degree holders showed a relatively low rate of current smokers as compared to another level of education.

Statistics expose no significant change in the rate of current smokers from the year 2007 to 2014 with respect to the factors of age, education, and sex. There is no specific rise or fall in the rate of current smokers. The good news is that there is no increase in the average number of smokers. While the sad news is, despite some preventive measures and raising awareness of health issues associated with smoking, the average number of current smokers has shown no decline in Sudbury and districts. If the statistics of non-smokers in Sudbury and districts are analyzed, it is noteworthy to mention that 76% of youth has never smoked a cigarette in their whole life. The survey also discloses no difference between males and females in terms of the prevalence rate of non-smoker youth. Overall no significant difference was found in the prevalence rate of non-smoker youth concerning education, and household income.

Smoking not only impacts the individual, but the environment is also exposed to tobacco smoke resulting in passive smoking of non-smokers. The same survey discloses the fact that almost 4% of the population of age 12 years are exposed to tobacco smoke ("Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at home,” n.d.). However, this rate has shown a decline from 2007 to 2014. The district was also rated as poor in terms of health in the year 2015 due to the high prevalence of smoking and diseases like diabetes, asthma, and cancer. Overall, the statistics of Ontario show an increasing ratio of smokers in 2017 as compared to 2015. Nevertheless, the smoking prevalence rate of Ontario is below the national rate, and the average daily consumption is also reduced.

The e-cigarette has also gained popularity in Sudbury as an alternative to the conventional cigarette. Since e-cigarettes can also be consumed in the non-smoking zones, and smokers are even happy consuming e-cigarettes. According to these statistics about the ratio of smokers in Sudbury, no significant progress has been observed resulting from the laws to control smoking and vaping. In this regard, laws and regulations have been made by the policymakers to control the ratio of current smokers and prevent the trade of related products. The Smoke-Free Ontario Act, 2017 (SFOA, 2017) bans smoking of tobacco, cannabis, and e-cigarettes in public and workplaces. Individuals breaking these laws are subjected to heavy penalties. With regard to vaping, the Electronic Cigarettes Act prohibits the exhibition, advertisement, and sale of electronic cigarette products to youngsters, aged lower than 19 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XSPE6rEo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Electronic Cigarettes Act, 2015, S.O. 2015, c. 7, Sched. 3,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Electronic Cigarettes Act, 2015, S.O. 2015, c. 7, Sched. 3,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":709,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/S76N26M8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/S76N26M8"],"itemData":{"id":709,"type":"webpage","title":"Electronic Cigarettes Act, 2015, S.O. 2015, c. 7, Sched. 3","URL":"https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/15e07","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Electronic Cigarettes Act, 2015, S.O. 2015, c. 7, Sched. 3,” n.d.).

Overall, the nationwide statistics about vaping cigarettes found that youth vaping has increased for about 74%, exposed in a study available in the British Medical Journal. This study shows the latest statistics as it was once conducted in 2017 and later in 2018. The comparison of two years shows an increase in smoking among the youth aged 16-19 years. Owing to these facts and figures, the Canadian Cancer Society (CCS) is seeking national regulations to address the issue of the rising rate of youth vaping in Canada.

Public Health Efforts, Then and Now

Public health is a powerful resource to promote change and increase health opportunities for the people of a community. Previous events have demonstrated how public health concerns are raised, and public health organizations take steps to protect the public health of the whole community. Different community and public health organizations are playing their part in reducing the abuse of tobacco consumption and smoking, along with the various other health concerns in Sudbury. Studies reveal that public health organizations and measures can reduce the rate of smoking prevalence and eventually, several deaths as a result of smoking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zHlKOdLx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lewis, Arnott, Godfrey, & Britton, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Lewis, Arnott, Godfrey, & Britton, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":713,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/DUBUKIIB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/DUBUKIIB"],"itemData":{"id":713,"type":"article-journal","title":"Public health measures to reduce smoking prevalence in the UK: how many lives could be saved?","container-title":"Tobacco control","page":"251-254","volume":"14","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Lewis","given":"S."},{"family":"Arnott","given":"D."},{"family":"Godfrey","given":"C."},{"family":"Britton","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lewis, Arnott, Godfrey, & Britton, 2005).

Looking at the public health system of Ontario, 36 non-profit public health units are working to deliver standardized public health services for maintenance of public health law. These health units work in collaboration with provincial ministries and agencies. Sudbury & District Health Unit (SDHU) is the local arm of the Ontario public health system. A snapshot of programs done by Sudbury & District Board of Health demonstrates a wide range of services done by SDHU to guard the health of its communities. These services range from Recreational Water and Safe Water, Drinking Water, Health Hazards, Control of Infectious Diseases, Sexual Health Program, and especially Smoke-Free Ontario Act Enforcement, and much more. For the sake of tobacco and smoking control, the SDHU conducted 26 youth access inspections, three high school inspections, 13 display, and advertising checks, one charge on smoking in the school area and two sales charges. In order to increase prevention of tobacco consumption, SDHU delivered four presentations on smoking cessation. It continues efforts to support and promote a smoke-free living throughout the district of Sudbury.

The statistics shared in the previous section demonstrates not a major change and improvement in the rate of current smokers. This is maybe due to the fact that youth is increasing and despite these initiatives, no significant change was observed according to the survey of 2014 in Sudbury and districts. Public health organizations are providing support and services to assist youth in quitting smoking. Such steps include tobacco examination and enforcement, and helping in the development of smoke-free policies. Public Health Sudbury & Districts have likewise initiated a program in collaboration with Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centre, named as "This Is My Tobacco." The program aims at enlightening community and youth about the conventional uses of sacred tobacco ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pInkibvl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Public Health Sudbury & Districts\\uc0\\u226{}\\uc0\\u128{}\\uc0\\u148{}Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Public Health Sudbury & Districts—Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":711,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6MAA8UM6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6MAA8UM6"],"itemData":{"id":711,"type":"webpage","title":"Public Health Sudbury & Districts - Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes","URL":"https://www.phsd.ca/health-topics-programs/tobacco","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Public Health Sudbury & Districts-Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes,” n.d.). Such an initiative can help people making better decisions about the use of sacred tobacco.

Public health organizations also pay an immense role in the enforcement of laws and regulations. Public Health Sudbury & Districts made a significant contribution to the implementation of the Electronic Cigarettes Act and the Smoke-Free Ontario Act. In addition, the organization is responsible for preventing the sale of tobacco to minors and ensures that legislation regarding tobacco and smoking is followed. It helps individuals, employers, and workplaces in creating smoke-free policies and laws by providing them comprehensive guidance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GC8xRI6Z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Public Health Sudbury & Districts\\uc0\\u226{}\\uc0\\u128{}\\uc0\\u148{}Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Public Health Sudbury & Districts—Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":711,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6MAA8UM6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6MAA8UM6"],"itemData":{"id":711,"type":"webpage","title":"Public Health Sudbury & Districts - Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes","URL":"https://www.phsd.ca/health-topics-programs/tobacco","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,21]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Public Health Sudbury & Districts-Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes,” n.d.). Moreover, a wide range of services is provided to the smokers, which help them to reduce the tendency and ratio of smoking. For instance, quit smoking clinic has highly trained professionals that help people in quitting smoking. They create an assessment and based on that, offer a personal quit smoking plan along with the therapies such as nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) to the smokers in Sudbury.

On the provincial level Government of Ontario, Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care has initiated various programs each intending to reduce smoking prevalence and create a smoke-free Ontario. These programs comprise Pharmacy Smoking Cessation Program, Smoke-Free Ontario programs, and Act to help Ontarians. Ontario has achieved various milestones in reducing the rate of smoking from 2000 to 2016. These milestones included Smoke-Free Ontario Act (SFOA) in 2006, banned the sale of flavored cigarettes in 2010, Electronic Cigarettes Act (ECA) in 2015, banned the sale of menthol and 100 percent smoke-free hospitals in 2018.

Conclusion

To sum up the discussion, Public and community health organizations play a significant role in promoting public health initiatives and programs. Smoking and Vaping is a major public health issue that has deadly impacts on the community if remained unresolved. This research paper has shared findings on the statistics of current smokers (conventional and e-cigarette smokers) on both district and provincial level. The study also deliberated various initiatives and public health programs on both levels. On the provincial level, significant progress has been observed in the past 16 years, but the district level requires the latest study to examine the results of programs initiated by SDHU. Strict implementation of Electronic Cigarettes Act and Smoke-Free Ontario Act is needed to reduce smoking and vaping. Public health organizations must join hands with the government organizations and private agencies to re-enforce the programs to create a smoke-free Ontario and eventually smoke-free Canada.

References

Adult Current Smokers. (n.d.). Retrieved July 21, 2019, from Public Health Sudbury & Districts website: https://www.phsd.ca/resources/research-statistics/health-statistics/public-health-sudbury-districts-population-health-profile/health-behaviours/smoking-2/adult-current-smokers

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY CDCTobaccoFree. (2019, March 4). Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking. Retrieved July 21, 2019, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/index.htm

Electronic Cigarettes Act, 2015, S.O. 2015, c. 7, Sched. 3. (n.d.). Retrieved July 21, 2019, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/15e07

Effects of Cigarette Smoking. Retrieved July 21, 2019, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/index.htm

Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at home. (n.d.). Retrieved July 21, 2019, from Public Health Sudbury & Districts website: https://www.phsd.ca/resources/research-statistics/health-statistics/public-health-sudbury-districts-population-health-profile/health-behaviours/smoking-2/exposure-to-environmental-tobacco-smoke-at-home

Gershon, L. (2016, June 10). A Brief History of Tobacco in America. Retrieved July 21, 2019, from JSTOR Daily website: https://daily.jstor.org/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-america/

Glantz, S. A., & Bareham, D. W. (2018). E-cigarettes: Use, effects on smoking, risks, and policy implications. Annual Review of Public Health, 39, 215–235.

Lewis, S., Arnott, D., Godfrey, C., & Britton, J. (2005). Public health measures to reduce smoking prevalence in the UK: how many lives could be saved? Tobacco Control, 14(4), 251–254.

Public Health Sudbury & Districts-Tobacco & Electronic Cigarettes. (n.d.). Retrieved July 21, 2019, from https://www.phsd.ca/health-topics-programs/tobacco

UT CAPS Transfer Application

UT CAPS Transfer Application

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

UT CAPS Transfer Application

“Away, away, from men and towns,To the wild wood and the downs, —To the silent wilderness,Where the soul need not repress its music.”—Percy Bysshe Shelley

Humankind has been made of clay, and clay has its origin in the mud. Thus earth and its nature give a soothing effect to the mind, body, and soul of a man. A little recreational break from machinery-routine life into some wilderness gives joy and comfort. Unfortunately, the natural sites are no longer in their pure form due to urbanization which led to deforestation. There are very few places left untouched by man, while all the places where life is possible to have been captured by huge infrastructure. However, there are numerous factors for causing the environmental changes and ruining the natural habitat and wildlife of plants and animals. But the leading cause for pinpointing this issue is to look over the toll it has on the social, political and economic conditions of this world. Therefore this essay will explore the effect of damage done on the environment and the repercussions taken according to science to reverse the damage.

The food chain is linked from primary to tertiary consumers, such that every single life is dependent on the life of another living being. Likewise, for the sake of their live animals are hugely reliant on the presence of plants and trees. Moreover, a person lives by breathing the oxygen in the air produced by plants due to photosynthesis. Therefore, the plants and trees are the sole providers of life to animals and human beings. Similarly, the plants are the source of diet for almost all living people. It gives food and nutrition to humans and animals. This further makes environmental protection genuinely significant.

The effect of environment on socioeconomic circumstances can be perceived through the urbanization of lands and places essential for tree growth. Land irrigation and agriculture have significantly been highlighted for food production, but not much importance has been given to the tree or plant growth for food and shelter. Further, the timber has been used for producing goods and things out of its wood; instead, the forestation needed for the survival of the animals have not been considered enough.

The plantation of the tree and conserving the natural environment is essential for our survival as well as of the animal's sustenance. The community is gaining benefits from the fruit-flowers, creating medicines, the balance of rainfall, air-conditioning, man-made fertilizer, and protection from floods, earth erosion, insects, and refuge for animals and birds who are protecting the crops, towards the fuel and timber, hence there are plenty of advantages of conserving the natural environment. The scientific methods for preserving the natural environment is by planting genetically produced vegetation which is particularly beneficial for the environment, and also eliminating any destructive cause by using the best pesticides and fertilizers. This damage can be reversed by using such techniques for undoing the damage.

Consequently, for me, the significance of this issue is related to the biological conservation which I intend to further pursue as my major in college and bring advancement in the devising new ways for bringing back the natural habitat and flora so that the plants and animals are conserved and in return benefiting the humanity. This will also help the future generation who would not have to be worried about the issues of extinction, floods, soil erosion, etc. which is faced by our generation right now. I want to make a better future for our children to live a successful life along with the perks of nature. Thus, if there is no nature, there would be no life on earth.

Vaccine Wars - Frontline

Vaccine Wars - Frontline

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Vaccine Wars - Frontline

Introduction

The most terrible sight for a parent is to see their child lose their life due to a disease. Each year thousands of children meet their dreadful fate due to multiple diseases. Some of these diseases are caused by bacteria and some are caused by viruses of different types. The weaker immune system among the children makes them susceptible to different diseases (Offit, 2015). The reason for a weaker immune system is that they are yet to develop immunities for diseases (Offit, 2015). Hence, the need for vaccination arise. Many diseases that once killed thousands of children are nowhere to be seen due to different vaccinations. Diseases like smallpox, diphtheria, and polio have almost been eliminated from the face of the earth. Due to the prevalence of some diseases in some countries, there is a dire need for administering the vaccination to the children (Offit, 2015). Reason being that any unimmunized child entering from a disease-stricken country can be a source of an outbreak of diseases that have not been seen since a generation. However, there is paranoia among parents on the issue of vaccination. Even the most educated of parents have been reported to refuse to administer the vaccination to their children. Some parents believe that vaccination contains harmful substances that cause numerous illnesses in children. Another section of the parents' community holds the view that it is their personal belief on the issue of vaccination. Their belief has been respected by the state and legislation to not to administer vaccination due to personal belief has been enacted. Some parents argue that there is a medical establishment working behind the idea of vaccination. They seem to analyze this issue from purely the perspective of financial capital. Furthermore, some parents became paranoid after viewing multiple videos on social platforms aimed to spread misinformation. The situation is further exacerbated when celebrities jump on the bandwagon against the vaccines and spark a widespread fear among the general public.

Discussion

Paul Offit, an American pediatrician known as the co-inventor of rotavirus vaccine, claims that the vaccination has increased the life span of an American citizen by 30 years (Offit, 2015). Additionally, he claimed that most of the diseases that were once widely found in the United States are nowhere to be seen. According to Paul Offit, this can be a reason for parents to refuse to administer a vaccine to their children. With the last case of poliovirus appearing some 40 years ago, some young parents who have not witnessed an outbreak of disease consider vaccines to be redundant and they do not serve any purpose (Offit, 2015). Paul Offit suggests that there is little room for complacency and parents must shed their rigidity regarding vaccines.

On the other hand, Paul Offit, when asked about the millions of dollars he made from the profits on vaccines he co-invented, claimed that the vaccines have served their purpose. The vaccine that was invented to ease the sufferings of parents seeing their child die due to rotavirus has served its purpose. This argument is further cemented when there is no case recorded of the rotavirus in the United States for more than a generation.

The hesitancy and refusal of parents towards vaccines are understandable. The parents were forced to think of vaccines as a harmful object through an organized campaign. In the year 1988, Andrew Wakefield, a notorious British doctor, published papers against vaccines (Godlee, Smith & Marcovitch, 2011). The Wakefield papers claimed that surging Autism among the children is caused by the MMR vaccine (Godlee, Smith & Marcovitch, 2011). MMR vaccines are used to immunize the children against measles, mumps, and rubella (Godlee, Smith & Marcovitch, 2011). Following his footsteps, numerous other medical researchers published papers claiming that Autism has been caused by the MMR vaccine (Godlee, Smith & Marcovitch, 2011). This certification from well know medicine practitioners compelled parents to reject vaccination. Parents of Autistic children came forward pleading that their children have been diagnosed with Autism after getting the MMR vaccine. Additionally, some celebrities also came forward against the vaccines. As a result of a powerful campaign against the vaccines, anti-vaccine advocates were successful in forcing the state to notify the establishment of a vaccine settlement court. This implied that the state is willing to compensate parents whose children have contracted diseases after getting vaccinated. In some states, numerous legislations were passed, enshrining parents with the right not to administer vaccination due to certain personal beliefs. However, the bubble of Wakefield papers was burst when the publisher himself backtracked on his research, claiming that the papers were published with ill intentions to derail vaccination campaigns across the world (Godlee, Smith & Marcovitch, 2011). Additionally, Wakefield accepted that the children for his study were recommended by a lawyer suing some pharmaceutical companies (Godlee, Smith & Marcovitch, 2011). Hence, there was a sigh relief all over the world following the denunciation of Wakefield papers.

Conclusion

There appears to be only a logical conclusion surrounding the contentious debate of vaccination. For instance, the notion some parents claiming their children became Autistic was successfully debunked by Danish medicine practitioners. The Danish medicine practitioners claimed that they found no evidence that supported the hypothesis of children becoming Autistic after vaccination. Additionally, Danish medicine practitioners rejected the hypothesis that Thimersol caused Autism among the children. The analyzed the health history of the children vaccinated before and after 1992. 1992 was the year when the amount of Thimersol was decreased in vaccines. Danish medicine practitioners found there was an equal number of Autistic children before and after 1992. Additionally, medical practitioners in Japan suggested changing the vaccination routine. This too proved to be a presumptuous proposition. Reason being that the number of Autistic children surged instead of decreasing. This only goes to show that the case is scientifically settled and the role of vaccines in immunizing the children cannot be understated.

References

Godlee, F., Smith, J., & Marcovitch, H. (2011). Wakefield’s article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent.

Offit, P. A. (2015). Deadly choices: How the anti-vaccine movement threatens us all. Basic Books (AZ).

Vaccines

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Vaccines

Vaccines are the biological preparation which develops active acquired immunity for the particular syndrome. The administration of vaccines is known as vaccination. Variolae vaccinae is the word from which words “vaccination” and “vaccines” are derived. Variolae vaccinae term was used by Edward Jenner while studying about the cowpox. Vaccines acquire agent which are identical to the microorganism causing the disease in individuals. Vaccines are highly researched and verified and therefore effective for diseases like influenza, HPV, chicken pox and others. The basic role of the agent is to kill the active microorganism in the body, for the purpose typically weakened microbe are used for the preparation of the vaccines. It is the most active way to prevent infectious diseases. The dead or weak microbe help the immune system to recognize the threat in the body. The immune system responds to the threat and encounter the active microorganism present in the body. Vaccines not only helps in curing the disease but it also provides the body immunity to prevent such diseases in the future ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Xuq8VH5l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Vaccine Basics - Importance of Vaccines})","plainCitation":"(Vaccine Basics - Importance of Vaccines)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":397,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/PCEM5FXW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/PCEM5FXW"],"itemData":{"id":397,"type":"webpage","title":"Vaccine Basics - Importance of Vaccines","URL":"http://www.vaccineinformation.org/vaccines-save-lives/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vaccine Basics - Importance of Vaccines).

Effectiveness of vaccines depends on the number of factors like age, ethnicity, the strain of the vaccine, genetic predisposition, and whether the schedule of vaccination has been properly taken. Vaccines sometimes does not perform for instance, an idiosyncratic response to the vaccine. It means the body of some individuals does not a response to the particular vaccine or their body does not generate the antibodies to fight with the active microbe. There are various types of vaccines include; attenuated, inactivated, subunit, toxoid, heterotypic, an experimental vaccine, conjugate, and valence vaccine. It is risky to use two or more vaccine at the same time because vaccines can interfere.

Vaccines have some side effects same as other medical products have. The side effect of vaccines is called an adverse event. Most of the adverse event occurs with the babies, therefore, a monitoring system is established in America to analyze the adverse event in order to find out whether the adverse event is directly linked to the vaccination or not. Vaccination side effects are mostly linked to the type of vaccine. For instance, the Hib vaccine can cause swelling, redness, and fever. Smallpox vaccine can cause a mild rash, fever, tenderness of lymph nodes, and blister on the body. Archiness, redness, fever, and rash are the common side effects associated with almost every vaccine. To cope with the effects, doctors provide a handout that provide knowledge about the symptoms and precaution for the side effects.

Vaccination benefits are more than its side effect therefore, are widely used worldwide. Diseases like whooping cough, measles, and mumps may result in hospitalization and death and therefore are a big threat. Vaccination for such disease is the most effective cure. Vaccines are formulated after complete research and undergo careful review by the physicians, scientists, and government. Besides being safe vaccination is cost-effective. The organizations like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend vaccination to protect children from serious diseases. Therefore, from birth hospitals set the schedule for the newborn for vaccination. The vaccination protects them and increases their immune system to protect from diseases while growing. Parents should complete the vaccination schedule to prevent diseases like paralysis of limbs, brain damage, amputation of legs or arms, convulsion, hearing loss, and death. When parents decide not to vaccinate their child it can increase the risk of preventable diseases. Therefore, vaccination is useful to prevent diseases even before it attacks the body. Vaccination makes the immune system able to detect and fight with the microbe in the body.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Vaccine Basics - Importance of Vaccines. http://www.vaccineinformation.org/vaccines-save-lives/. Accessed 17 May 2019.

Vacuum Cleaners

High Music and Concentration

Submitted by

Affiliation

Date

Topic

Listening to music through headphones and concentration issues

Observation

If after a rock concert the body needs several days to recover, then with an everyday attack on the ears, there is no longer any time left to put the hearing in order. The auditory system ceases to perceive high frequencies but many times I have observed that why listen to music with high volume through earphone /headphones increases pressure on head and in result low concentration develops.

Back ground

The fundamental difference between the earbuds and other types of headphones is that they bring the sound source closer to the inner ear. If such pressure on the eardrum is daily, the person runs the risk of deafness. Loud music strikes the cells responsible for perceiving sound, especially if the attack comes directly from the headphones. Vibration in the subway worsens the situation, which also negatively affects the structure of the ear. In combination, these two factors provoke acute hearing loss (Dolegui, 2013). Its main danger is that it occurs literally overnight, but it is very problematic to cure it. Doctors believe that the quietest sounds that a healthy ear can catch are 10-15 dB. Whispers are estimated at 20 dB, normal conversation - at 30-35 dB. A scream with a sound pressure level of 60 dB already leads to discomfort and sounds with a power of 90 dB or more are really dangerous to hearing. In other words, any pop or rock concert with a level of 100-120 dB is a serious test for the ears (Dalton & Behm, 2007).. The same sound pressure can easily be achieved in any modern headphones. But these studies show the effect of using headphone on ears but not on concentration.

Research question

Why listening to music ( one hour or more ) in high volume, through headphone, can affect hearing and concentration?

References

Dolegui, A. S. (2013). The impact of listening to music on cognitive performance. Inquiries

Journal, 5(09).

Dalton, B. H., & Behm, D. G. (2007). Effects of noise and music on human and task

performance: A systematic review. Occupational ergonomics, 7(3), 143-152.

Krueger, J. (2018). Music as affective scaffolding.

Ventricular Assist Device

Ventricular Assist Device

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Ventricular Assist Device

Ventricular Assist Device (VAD) is a mechanical pump. People with heart diseases or those who face difficulty in pumping blood through the heart use this pump. VAD is effective for the proper function of the heart. It helps the heart to function normally by taking blood from the lower chamber of the heart and then pass it to the other body parts. Physicians use VAD usually before, and during the surgery, heart transplant and after the operation till the heart starts functioning normally ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rNvpCnqQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Slaughter et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Slaughter et al., 2009)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1386,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/3KYSE9C4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/3KYSE9C4"],"itemData":{"id":1386,"type":"article-journal","title":"Advanced Heart Failure Treated with Continuous-Flow Left Ventricular Assist Device","container-title":"New England Journal of Medicine","page":"2241-2251","volume":"361","issue":"23","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"Medical and electrical therapies for systolic heart failure have improved outcomes and altered the natural history of the disease.1–9 However, heart failure commonly progresses and becomes refractory to current treatments. Continuous intravenous inotropic support may improve clinical status in the short term but results in a survival rate at 1 year of only 10 to 30%.10,11 Cardiac transplantation is available for only a minority of patients, because of a lack of suitable donor hearts. The paucity of effective therapies for advanced heart failure led to the evaluation of mechanical circulatory-support devices as permanent therapy.To date, only two . . .","DOI":"10.1056/NEJMoa0909938","ISSN":"0028-4793","note":"PMID: 19920051","author":[{"family":"Slaughter","given":"Mark S."},{"family":"Rogers","given":"Joseph G."},{"family":"Milano","given":"Carmelo A."},{"family":"Russell","given":"Stuart D."},{"family":"Conte","given":"John V."},{"family":"Feldman","given":"David"},{"family":"Sun","given":"Benjamin"},{"family":"Tatooles","given":"Antone J."},{"family":"Delgado","given":"Reynolds M."},{"family":"Long","given":"James W."},{"family":"Wozniak","given":"Thomas C."},{"family":"Ghumman","given":"Waqas"},{"family":"Farrar","given":"David J."},{"family":"Frazier","given":"O. Howard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Slaughter et al., 2009). Therefore, it is also known as a heart pump.

Two types of VAD are present that are right ventricular assist device (RVAD) and left ventricular assist device (LVAD). These two devices can be used at the same time as per requirement, which is known as biventricular assist device (BIVAD). RVAD is used to help the right ventricle to function for a short period, while LVAD is the commonly used device that is used during heart surgery and transplant. When the LVADs do not perform solely, then RVAD is added to support the heart ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dJDR66gR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Birks et al., 2006)","plainCitation":"(Birks et al., 2006)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1387,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/QIALQMWB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/QIALQMWB"],"itemData":{"id":1387,"type":"article-journal","title":"Left Ventricular Assist Device and Drug Therapy for the Reversal of Heart Failure","container-title":"New England Journal of Medicine","page":"1873-1884","volume":"355","issue":"18","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"Fifteen patients with severe heart failure underwent implantation of left ventricular assist devices followed by a specific pharmacologic regimen. Eleven patients had sufficient myocardial recovery to permit explantation of the device, and eight of these patients were alive and free of heart failure or transplantation more than 4 years later.","DOI":"10.1056/NEJMoa053063","ISSN":"0028-4793","note":"PMID: 17079761","author":[{"family":"Birks","given":"Emma J."},{"family":"Tansley","given":"Patrick D."},{"family":"Hardy","given":"James"},{"family":"George","given":"Robert S."},{"family":"Bowles","given":"Christopher T."},{"family":"Burke","given":"Margaret"},{"family":"Banner","given":"Nicholas R."},{"family":"Khaghani","given":"Asghar"},{"family":"Yacoub","given":"Magdi H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",11,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Birks et al., 2006).

VADs have two designs known as the power source and transcutaneous VAD. Power sources are located outside the body while transcutaneous has its pump, which connects to the heart by tubes through abdomen with the help of a hole. VADs are added during the examination of the patient when physicians do a heart transplant. It can also be used as the long term solution for heart patients who are not candidates of a heart transplant.

Besides two types of VAD, it is also be considered on the basis of long-term and short-term use. When a patient is having more than one heart issue like cardiogenic shock, ventricular arrhythmia, and heart failure in that case, physicians prefer VAD for short-term use. In addition, before heart surgery when patients are under observation, VADs are applied to them.

Long-term use of the VADs is recommended by the physician when heart failure medicines are not effective for the patient, and it is necessary to improve the heart function to increase the life quality. In addition, while waiting for heart transplant, VADs are used as long-term ventricular assist devices ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vWbN2RAS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rose et al., 2001)","plainCitation":"(Rose et al., 2001)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1388,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/3IVVNXVZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/3IVVNXVZ"],"itemData":{"id":1388,"type":"article-journal","title":"Long-Term Use of a Left Ventricular Assist Device for End-Stage Heart Failure","container-title":"New England Journal of Medicine","page":"1435-1443","volume":"345","issue":"20","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"Mechanical left ventricular assist devices have been used as a bridge to cardiac transplantation, but not as long-term therapy. In this study of patients with severe heart failure who were not candidates for transplantation, left ventricular assist was compared with optimal medical therapy. The one-year survival rate was 52 percent in the device group and 25 percent in the medical-therapy group. The device permitted patients to be ambulatory and improved the quality of life.","DOI":"10.1056/NEJMoa012175","ISSN":"0028-4793","note":"PMID: 11794191","author":[{"family":"Rose","given":"Eric A."},{"family":"Gelijns","given":"Annetine C."},{"family":"Moskowitz","given":"Alan J."},{"family":"Heitjan","given":"Daniel F."},{"family":"Stevenson","given":"Lynne W."},{"family":"Dembitsky","given":"Walter"},{"family":"Long","given":"James W."},{"family":"Ascheim","given":"Deborah D."},{"family":"Tierney","given":"Anita R."},{"family":"Levitan","given":"Ronald G."},{"family":"Watson","given":"John T."},{"family":"Ronan","given":"Nuala S."},{"family":"Shapiro","given":"Peter A."},{"family":"Lazar","given":"Ronald M."},{"family":"Miller","given":"Leslie W."},{"family":"Gupta","given":"Lopa"},{"family":"Frazier","given":"O. Howard"},{"family":"Desvigne-Nickens","given":"Patrice"},{"family":"Oz","given":"Mehmet C."},{"family":"Poirier","given":"Victor L."},{"family":"Meier","given":"Paul"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001",11,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rose et al., 2001).

The patient and his family should know the basic knowledge of VAD because it is applied to the body. They should know about how it works, its safety precautions, wash, and shower, warnings, affect and care in case of an emergency.

Physicians may insert an extra tube in the body with VAD. This is because sometimes the patient is not healthy enough that the physician can do heart surgery. Therefore, they recommend different tests like Echocardiography (echo), Chest X-ray, blood tests, and EKG (electrocardiogram). In addition, a nutrition tube is inserted with VAD to provide extra patient nutrition to make him able for heart surgery.

Initially, VAD size was a big problem for the physicians as well as the patient. This is because VAD could be fit only who had a large chest and therefore, women were unable to use VAD in an emergency. However, the size of the device is now small so that it can easily be used for women and children, but it still cannot be used for newborns to young children.

VAD is the lifesaver for many patients with heart failure, but it still has some risks like blood clots, device malfunctions, infection, bleeding, and right heart failure. Therefore, it is important to notice pain or change in the body due to VAD so that the patient can identify the problem and preventions can be made on time.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Birks, E. J., Tansley, P. D., Hardy, J., George, R. S., Bowles, C. T., Burke, M., … Yacoub, M. H. (2006). Left Ventricular Assist Device and Drug Therapy for the Reversal of Heart Failure. New England Journal of Medicine, 355(18), 1873–1884. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa053063

Rose, E. A., Gelijns, A. C., Moskowitz, A. J., Heitjan, D. F., Stevenson, L. W., Dembitsky, W., … Meier, P. (2001). Long-Term Use of a Left Ventricular Assist Device for End-Stage Heart Failure. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(20), 1435–1443. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012175

Slaughter, M. S., Rogers, J. G., Milano, C. A., Russell, S. D., Conte, J. V., Feldman, D., … Frazier, O. H. (2009). Advanced Heart Failure Treated with Continuous-Flow Left Ventricular Assist Device. New England Journal of Medicine, 361(23), 2241–2251. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0909938

Vitamin C

Vitamin C

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Vitamin C

Vitamins are organic compounds that contain elements of carbon and oxygen that are essential for the human body. It is a water-soluble vitamin that cannot be stored in the body. It is an essential nutrient that is found in high amounts in fruits, green vegetables, and tomatoes. It is essential for bone structure, skin integrity, rejuvenation, iron absorption, and immune system.

Often it is taken through external supplements and tablets. Its recommended dietary allowance is 90 mg per day and its excess is excreted by urine. It strengthens the immune system and reduces the risk of chronic diseases. It helps to combat high blood pressure and help maintain the pressure levels I healthy individuals. Its healthy intake helps to reduce factors of heart diseases. The people who take 700 mg of vitamin C daily have a 25% lower risk of heart attack. It helps fight the symptoms of cough and cold.

Deficiency of Vitamin C can cause bumps, skin rashes, Corkscrew-Shaped body hair, and distortion in fingernails damaged dry skin and bruises. Recent medical researches reveal that vitamin C is an important regulator of stem cell biology and can help control cancer with its ability to modulate epigenome. Pharmacological levels of the vitamin C intake have the potential for broad efficacy in cancer treatment. Thus vitamin C can be used as the non-toxic epigenetic therapy for the cancer patients. This new research can change the course of cancer treatment in the patients(G.Neel, Cimmino & Aifantis, 2018).

Thus we can say that vitamin C is an important nutrient and the daily intake of it can help patient’s combat many health diseases. Its regular intake ensures the healthy functioning of the body and its organs.

References

G.Neel, B., Cimmino, L., & Aifantis, I. (2018). Vitamin C in Stem Cell Reprogramming and Cancer. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0962892418300643

Warren Wood Report Paper

Warren wood report

Student’s Name

Instructor

Course Code

Date

Abstract

The study was done to investigate and answer three major questions regarding the forest ecology within Warren Woods, which is locate at State Park in Berrien County, Michigan. The study is meant to answer the question whether lottery competition exist and if either the competitive or coexistence is exclusive are available in the forest based on the data collected from the Warren Woods and analyzed. However, the study discovered that lottery competition is indeed available based on the data due to the fact that the number of individual decreased and as the class increased. It is established that competitive exclusion does exist in the Warrant Woods between Fagus grandifolia and Acer saccharum because of the consistent of recruitment between the two species. The study also reflects that beech trees should have several asymmetric canopies than sugar maple trees. The data collected did not support the whole concept and this led to the rejection of the hypothesis. It was also established that the mechanism of coexistence ended up not being reciprocal replacement but the habitat, which is preferred which is the canopy trees could be responding to the resources preferences. The paper therefore, present a report of the analysis of the data collected from the Warren Wood on how the trees related and the coexistence of various species.

Introduction

Warren Woods is purely occupied by two species of trees Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia. The dominant of these two types of trees are very interesting because it is a preserved old growth forest and the said types of tries have been in the existed in the same forest for several years, with the same source of light without any of the trees withering off. Warren Woods is a state part and therefore, there are no possibilities of interactions which could create disruption of the natural possibility of the very species. The study also established that the replacements of the species have been consistency and either F. grandifoliaand or A. Saccharyn and therefore, the two species have been the dominant trees, which are found in the Warren Woods part. Research indicates that A. saccharum is larger in number and smaller in size that the existing canopy and the beech trees are still larger in plenty when it comes to canopy trees and sub canopy trees (Beaudet, Brisson and Gravel 460). The study has also established that the differences in spaces in gaps are because the trees are falling under different species. According to Whitemore (15), present evidence suggests that trees species are categorized in one or two groups. And therefore, by contracts larger different groups of species crates large gaps in the forest, which is a clear indication of the existence of different species in the forest.

The study also established that due to nature of the growth of two species of trees such as sugar maple of being straight vertical and F. grandifolia, which branch out and fill the lights gaps, each would be best suited for winning over the other in case of an event. Poulson and Platt (21) pointed that if trees fall, the population of beech trees would reduced drastically and in return the number of sugar maple in the forest would experience a steady growth. However, the F. grandigoliasis would survive better in a canopy compared to sugar maple trees. Most F. grandifiliasis take much time to grow up the canopy and therefore, the study summarized that with time the ratio of F. grandifoliais to A. saccham would reduce.

A different study has also established that after several years the sizes of beech trees in Warren Woods have increased. But only abundant of Sugar Maple of increased and this could be a result of limited lights when the canopy is full allowing only little gaps to be available CITATION Mic18 \p 21 \l 1033 (Beaudet, Brisson and Dominique 21). However, when more gaps become available in the Warren Woods, the distribution of the trees might change rapidly results of several trees in the canopy areas. The study therefore, predicted that with time and as a result of the existing global climate change, there would be more trees falling CITATION Run13 \p 1164 \l 1033 (Runkle 1164). The storm is likely to occur more often and this could affect the ecosystem of trees within the Warren Woods. The falling of trees due to storms would therefore, open more gaps for vertical growing of trees. In this case, Acer Saccharum may increase to become the dominant tree in the canopy over Fagus grandifolia.

The purpose of the study was to investigation the three different hypotheses, which would either be accepted or rejected based on the result obtained from the experiment. The experiment is based on the data collected regarding the two competing species, which dominate the forest, and these trees are the beech tree and the Sugar Maple trees CITATION HHu14 \p 32 \l 1033 (Huo 32). The first hypothesis which was tested is that the forest would display a pattern of distribution, which rank of the smaller sized trees in regardless of the height of the species and the lowest among the largest trees. It is meant to test whether the size of the trees affect the growing of pattern of other species within the same canopy. The second hypothesis tested by this study is both species of trees coexist based on the fact they display coexistent recruitment and they are being more canopy trees than being sub canopy for a single species. The third hypothesis is meant to establish whether Fagus grandifolia has more asymmetric canopies compared to Acer saccharum.

Materials and methods

The study was done at Warren Woods State park, which is located at Berrien County, Michigan. The Warren Woods is one of the forest recognized forest in the world and has been studied since 1900s. The Warren Woods forest is dominant by two main species of trees, which is Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia and therefore, the study is focused on these two species. The first data collection was done involving the settingup of 10m X10m quadrant. The data was separately gathered for each quadrant. Within the quadrant set, each canopy tree species which was gathered under the quadrant was recorded. The circumference of each tree was then recorded in cm. In same quadrant the sub canopy tree and poles which exist was recorded as well. Then a 2X2 quadrant was setup again within the first and the larger quadrant and then the number of seedling of each species existing in the second quadrant were recorded. The process of repeated five times using different quadrant. The second data collection was done with focus on the sampling of both types of trees.

Estimated 10 trees were selected for each species and therefore, about ten trees were used for the study. The circumference of each tree selected for the study was then done. The nearest neighbor tree to the focal tree north neighbor and the distance from each tree to the neighbor was then measured and recorded as well. The size of the canopy was also measured using meter stick from all four angles and directions and the measurement obtained recorded. A measurement of 4X4 was then created, which surround the focal tree and the number of sub-canopy and canopy at the measurement of 3m and (1-3) of the seedlings and the recording was done regardless of the species of the tree. The method was done five times for Sugar Maple focal tree and Beach tree as well to ensure that accurate information is obtained from the study but only three (3) different species were recorded.

Results

Figure 1: Lotto Competition

Figure 2: Class and species

Figure 3: Canopy Tree Species

Table 1

T-Test

Means

df

P-Value

Beech

6833.6799

6

0.602176

Maple

3059.8487

Table 2

Chi-Squared

df

P-Value

1.01

1

0.3149

Figure 1: Chi Squared Analysis

The result in figure 1 indicates a descending trend and it is clear that average density of a single hectare obtained decreases as the class sized increased. It is also evident that the class canopy had the lowest value of average density of 280 per single hectare while the seedling the seedling has the highest value of 11600 and sapling had a value of 3360 while the sub canopy registered the closes value of 120 and the canopy only had the value of 60 as indicated in figure 1 above.

However, the result indicated in figure 2 (two) above indicates an opposite trend of correlation of the average density which exist in a single hectare between the canopy and sub canopy of the beech and sugar maple trees. As illustrated in the figure 2 (two) above the average density of maple is higher in sub canopy class at about 60 and does not show any value in canopy. However, the average density of beech tree in sub canopy is slightly lower but when it comes to canopy is higher than the value, which is being registered at the sub county. In the figure 4, it is indicated that the P-value of maple and beech trees is 0. 602176, which is above the 0.05 and therefore, there is a correlation between the two species, which is obtained from the Warren Woods forest. The chi square p value is obtained is 0.3149 and targeted trees are 1.01, which include both sugar maple and beech trees.

Discussions

As indicated in the figure 1 of the result obtained, it is evidence that there is lottery competition at Warren Woods. The trend indicates that the abundance of the size of classes of trees increased and therefore, it means that none of the species of trees occupy the canopy section of the forest. It could be translated that when there is much light gap in the forest, there are several saplings, seedlings and sub canopy available to fill the gap. However, the finding of this study is not only reflect the hypothesis, which was being tested and also acceptable, it also supported by Poulson and Platt research which stated that over a period of time, when more spaces get created and become available, the dominant trees in the sub canopy take over the light gaps. It is therefore, means that the when the gaps are created in the forest the dominant trees take over the space or gap created and it could be reason why the dominant tree remains dominant forever in the forest. It is also established that the high number of seedlings are proprotionally linked to the low number of canopy. The result indicates that there are several seedlings on the ground, which are waiting for the gap or light gpas to geminate and grow to fill the gaps and they can only manage to grow to a higher height when the canopy is all taken.

The result indicated in the figure 2, as indicated above shows that both Acer Sacchum and Fagus grandifolia are coexistent. The result of established shows an opposite trend in the total average density in hectare, which exist between canopies and sub canopy of the beech and the Maple trees and this could mean that there is existence of maple and beech tree in both canopy and sub canopy classes. As supported by the journal, which established that, the population of the Maple trees would increase in the canopy areas as more spaces is made available and this therefore, supported in the finding in the figure 2. The result shows that beech trees have high average density in an hectare within the canopy are but the maple are having a high value within the sub canopy, which is a bit higher than the beech tree value and therefore, it is highly likely that the beech tree would be the successful candidate to take over the spaces created within the canopy and sub canopy CITATION Whi89 \p 1241 \l 1033 (Whitemore 1241). The light gaps are made available by the climate change, which occurs around the world and therefore, it means that the beech tree would likely to occupy more light gaps within the canopy due to their high value.

The result established therefore, rejected the third hypothesis. The beech tree should have a high index of symmetric canopies compared to maple trees. Bu the result indicates the opposite and therefore, the hypothesis is purely rejected. The result obtained shows that Sugar Maple has a high index value of symmetric. As stated by Poulson and Platt (32) both species maple and beech trees ahave have distinct nature of growth and therefore, beech tree have a bigger potential of horizontal growth, when compared to the vertical growth of maple trees. It therefore, means that the beech tree is supposed to have several assymetric canopies compared to Sugar maple trees CITATION Rob15 \p 102 \l 1033 (Tatina 102). The result also established that the nearest neighbor would always be the same species. This approve the hypothesis reciprocal replacement hypothesis and from figure 3, it is establsihed that the highest value of the trees were from the same spacies. And based on the data gathered and analyzed, it concludes that the null hypothesis is rejected. The p- value establsiehd is below 0.05 because thenull hypothesis is only accepted when the null hypothesis is above 0.05. It therefore, means that the nearest species or trees identified by the study is not what we would expect. Based on the data, the canopy trees responding to the habitants is supported by the data.

Conclusion

It is important to state that the study accepted two hypothesis ad rejected one and therefore, it reflect what the data analyzed indicates about the Warren Woods forest. The study discovered that lottery competition is indeed available based on the data due to the fact that the number of individual decreased and as the class increased. It is established that competitive exclusion does exist in the Warrant Woods between Fagus grandifolia and Acer saccharum because of the consistent of recruitment between the two species. The study also reflects that beech trees should have several asymmetric canopies than sugar maple trees. The data collected did not support the whole concept and this led to the rejection of the hypothesis. It was also established that the mechanism of coexistence ended up not being reciprocal replacement but the habitat, which is preferred which is the canopy trees could be responding to the resources preferences. The paper therefore, present a report of the analysis of the data collected from the Warren Wood on how the trees related and the coexistence of various species.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Beaudet, Marilou, et al. "Effect of a major canopy disturbance on the coexistence of Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia in the understoreyof an old-growth forest." Journal of Ecology (2007): 458–467.

Huo, H. "The Influences of Canopy Species and Topographic Variables on ..." https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4109125/ (2014): 1-35.

McCain, Micheal. " Effect of a major canopy disturbance on the coexistence of Acer .." (2018): 2-34.

Poulson, Thomas L. and William J. Platt. "Replacement Patterns of Beech and Sugar Maple in Warren Woods, Michigan." y the Ecoiogical Society of America (1996): 1234-1253.

Runkle, James R. "Thirty-two years of change in an old-growth Ohio beech–maple forest." the Ecological Society of America 94.5 (2013): 1165–1175.

Tatina, Robert. "Changes in Fagus grandifolia and Acer saccharum Abundance in an Old-Growth, Beech-Maple Forest at Warren Woods StatePark, Berrien County, Michigan, USA." Southern Appalachian Botanical Society (2015): 95-102.

Whitemore, T. C. "Canopy Gaps And The Two Major Groups Of Forest Trees." Special Feature-Treefall Gaps And Forest Dynamics 70.3 (1989): 2-34.

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Circumferences

Quadrant

Class

Species

Circumference (in)

Circumference(m)

Circumference (cm)

1

Canopy

Beech

4.4

0.11176

11.176

1

Sub-canopy

Maple

3.1

0.07874

7.874

2

Canopy

Beech

8.3

0.21082

21.082

2

Sub-canopy

Maple

2.7

0.06858

6.858

3

Sub-canopy

Maple

1.2

0.03048

3.048

3

Sub-canopy

Beech

1.1

0.02794

2.794

4

Canopy

Beech

9.1

0.23114

23.114

4

Canopy

Beech

9.3

0.23622

23.622

4

Canopy

Beech

6.8

0.17272

17.272

4

Sub-canopy

Beech

4

0.1016

10.16

5

Canopy

Beech

4.7

0.11938

11.938

5

Canopy

Beech

8.1

0.20574

20.574

5

Sub-canopy

Maple

3.2

0.08128

8.128

Appendix 2: Counts

Quadrant

Class

Species

Count

1

Canopy

Beech

1

1

Canopy

Maple

0

1

Sub-canopy

Beech

0

1

Sub-canopy

Maple

1

1

Saplings

Beech

0

1

Saplings

Maple

31

1

Seedling

Beech

25

1

Seedling

Maple

30

2

Canopy

Beech

1

2

Canopy

Maple

0

2

Sub-canopy

Beech

0

2

Sub-canopy

Maple

1

2

Saplings

Beech

4

2

Saplings

Maple

34

2

Seedling

Beech

50

2

Seedling

Maple

45

3

Canopy

Beech

0

3

Canopy

Maple

0

3

Sub-canopy

Beech

1

3

Sub-canopy

Maple

1

3

Saplings

Beech

5

3

Saplings

Maple

27

3

Seedling

Beech

20

3

Seedling

Maple

105

4

Canopy

Beech

3

4

Canopy

Maple

0

4

Sub-canopy

Beech

1

4

Sub-canopy

Maple

0

4

Saplings

Beech

7

4

Saplings

Maple

22

4

Seedling

Beech

25

4

Seedling

Maple

60

5

Canopy

Beech

2

5

Canopy

Maple

0

5

Sub-canopy

Beech

0

5

Sub-canopy

Maple

1

5

Saplings

Beech

10

5

Saplings

Maple

28

5

Seedling

Beech

55

5

Seedling

Maple

165

Quadrant

Class

Maple

Beech

1

Canopy

0

1

1

Sub-canopy

1

0

1

Saplings

31

0

1

seedlings

30

25

2

Canopy

0

1

2

Sub-canopy

1

0

2

Saplings

34

4

2

seedlings

45

50

3

Canopy

0

0

3

Sub-canopy

1

1

3

Saplings

27

5

3

seedlings

105

20

4

Canopy

0

3

4

Sub-canopy

0

1

4

Saplings

22

7

4

seedlings

60

25

5

Canopy

0

2

5

Sub-canopy

1

0

5

Saplings

28

10

5

seedlings

165

55