Relativism

Relativism

Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees

Institutional Affiliation(s)

Relativism

Relativism is a philosophical belief, and it states that all acts of good or bad nature, moral or immoral acts are subjective to each person, and this belief further states that there is no concept of universal truth. Besides, this belief has set the yardsticks of varying culture and situational contexts to define if an act is moral or immoral. For instance, every society has different moral values based on their cultural context. Moreover, according to this notion, all religions, believes, and opinions demand equal consideration and respect. This philosophy gives people liberty, freedom of expression, and saves them from any social or moral judgments.

Relativism allows liberty and freedom, nonetheless, but it does account that morality and truth can be judged based on cultural relativism. Besides, ethical relativism states that the ethical value of any act differs according to its cultural context. Relativity of truth and logic are also dependent on the various cultures and their respective cognitive structures.

Kant’s Deontological theory critiques the idea of relativism that there are no absolute or universal truths. He states that the sense of morality stems from universal moral rules because a bad act can pose a serious threat or harm to the safety of other men. Likewise, an act is considered good universally if it benefits humanity. Besides, a person should decide his action against the standards set by universal moral rules. Logical acts are also aligned with universal morality because logic can allow killing a person, but morality stops genocide. This maxim of morals form universal moral laws, and people turn to these universal rules.

He also distinguishes a prohibitory act from universal laws of morality. He proclaims that if a person murders another person for personal gains and repeats this pattern until it becomes a universal law; in this case, this act is prohibited even if it is not considered immoral.

Unlike, Relativism, Deontology believes that universal laws of morality apply to all cultures equally, and every action must be judged against the moral maxim.

Relativism Vs Natural Law Theory

Relativism vs. Natural law theory

Relativism vs. Natural law theory

The modern technology has helped in improving communications among people. People from different cultures and background have started communicating with each other more often than before. Since the interaction among people from different cultural backgrounds has become more widened, it is resulting in enhanced conflict especially in case of morals. These conflicts can be mitigated with the application of relativist and natural law approaches. This essay is therefore aimed at analyzing the similarities and differences among these theoretical paradigms.

Natural law and Relativism

The natural law for the people living on Earth is what the eternal teachings suggest to us (as humans). The eternal law is God’s plan, by which He commands the entire universe. The human beings believe (in different manners) that such commandments are for the betterment of human civilization and therefore human beings are bound to accept these commandments. By the application of this Natural Law, God has created everything in this universe, which is a reflection of the Natural law. Natural law is derived from such commandments. We, humans, understand this law in a specific manner and it is how the natural law is written into human’s nature. In general terms, the Natural law is same for each living creature on the Earth. It can also be substantiated by the fact that at a certain level, the Natural law or God’s command is same at everywhere. For example, it commands at one place “do and pursue good, and avoid evil ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"G5lQUr36","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fabian and Fordyce 1990)","plainCitation":"(Fabian and Fordyce 1990)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"aytUtq28/fWs1jWhw","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/AGKPT236"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/AGKPT236"],"itemData":{"id":311,"type":"book","title":"The elements of moral philosophy","publisher":"Georg Olms Verlag","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Fabian","given":"Bernhard"},{"family":"Fordyce","given":"David"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fabian and Fordyce 1990)”.

Now what is good or what is evil, we humans specify it by reason. For example, ‘life is precious and must be protected’, we humans justify this by resorting to the reason that ‘murder is wrong’. Although in some particular cases it becomes difficult to decide that taking the life was right or wrong, as some states practice death penalties. In the Natural law, there are also many moral absolutes, but deciding on each case individually, there can be a lot of uncertainties. These moral obligations are particularly dependent on the circumstances and over the personal nature of people involved. For example, if a rape is committed by any less paying worker, similarly on other side is a high ranked official, there could be many chances that the decision may not be what the natural law dictates. Hence, the virtue of prudence works here. The mental and moral character matters a lot and it guides the interpretation of the natural law.

Compared to Natural law, relativism is completely different. It is presumed on the idea that people and cultures are different and for such reasons they see different aspects in a particular situation. The general idea which surrounds this notion is that none of the viewpoints could be right. Therefore, the discord cannot be resolved by any means ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a4W9uTBz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jarvie 2015)","plainCitation":"(Jarvie 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"aytUtq28/ubUgmagk","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/JDLRXLDF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/JDLRXLDF"],"itemData":{"id":317,"type":"book","title":"Rationality and relativism: In search of a philosophy and history of anthropology","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Rationality and relativism","author":[{"family":"Jarvie","given":"Ian Charles"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jarvie 2015). Another aspect of this debate remains that some people or culture believe that their viewpoint concerning any situation is superior and other side believes the same. It is for all such reasons that in relativism there is no similar standard about what is right or what is wrong and similarly there is no correct judgment about the morality of a specific event. There are several belief systems in relativism also, one of such is to promote tolerance of different moral standards. Such debates erupt from the concept of ethnocentrism, which contrasts relativism. Ethnocentrisms entails that each individual’s actions are right, and application of methodology remains the secondary option.

Contrary to this, relativism necessitates that since there are no similar moral standards, therefore there must be a space for accommodating each other beliefs. These accommodations should base on the viewpoints of equality and there should be no discounted value since it is all about our own morals. Some of the early proponents of moral relativism also argue that since each individual on earth faces different environment and by any mean there can be no similarity in their life experiences, therefore different viewpoints about the world leads to different moral understandings.

Differences between Natural law and Relativism

As explained above, natural law is not different depending upon the geography or cultural boundaries, but relativism theory has different interpretation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zRiTRgyl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(d\\uc0\\u8217{}Entreves 2017)","plainCitation":"(d’Entreves 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"aytUtq28/Tzt2aOtw","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/VRUZBDH2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/VRUZBDH2"],"itemData":{"id":314,"type":"book","title":"Natural law: An introduction to legal philosophy","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Natural law","author":[{"family":"Entreves","given":"Alexander Passerin","non-dropping-particle":"d'"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (d’Entreves 2017). Considering a specific case scenario, the natural law’s interpretation would be different and so does for the relativist approach. Since morality is based in reason (not God) and in rational behavior of human beings, therefore it is how we discover the moral laws. In a relativist approach, the human decides by themselves, they interpret certain natural laws and finally come up with their own decision. By this reasoning, the first and foremost difference remains of the ‘variable nature ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ciaSZ5j5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(d\\uc0\\u8217{}Entreves 2017)","plainCitation":"(d’Entreves 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"aytUtq28/Tzt2aOtw","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/VRUZBDH2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/VRUZBDH2"],"itemData":{"id":314,"type":"book","title":"Natural law: An introduction to legal philosophy","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Natural law","author":[{"family":"Entreves","given":"Alexander Passerin","non-dropping-particle":"d'"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (d’Entreves 2017)’. Natural law contrast relativism. The culture of a specific country or applicable at specific geography may benefit certain population but it cannot be used as an alternative for the natural law. The interpretation of natural law will remain the same throughout the whole universe.

Another major difference between the natural law and relativism erupts from its interpreters. Relativism is purely based on material factors. Its interpretation is dependent upon material beings and also is carried over by humans. In circumstance which favors one and displeases others, relativist approach becomes a source of conflict. However in the case of natural law, since the humans are bound to obey, it becomes a source for resolution rather than a conflict. The interpretation of the natural law is different at different places, it remains largely unjustifiable, but certain things are interpreted in the same manner. Different to this the relativist approach is based on specific circumstance, it puts moral and cultures as a source and not as a factor for coming up to judgment.

Similarities between Natural law and Relativism

Natural law and relativist approach are strikingly different from each other. When it comes to comparison there are very fewer aspects which makes them similar. Starting from the definition and their application, it is evident that both laws are dependent upon human behavior. The application and practice rest upon human behavior. Natural law and relativist approach both defines the conduct of human behavior. The circumstances where morals and ethics are not applicable they both come up with similar justifications. There are very fewer incidences where morals become a source of conflict between natural law and the relativist approach. About some basic aspects like good or bad conduct the natural law and relativist approach hold guides similar behaviours. General good is acceptable in both ways and same is true for the bad aspect. Unless the situations don’t contrast significantly, both approaches will come to a similar conclusion ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RPZ2KnRp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pound and DeRosa 2017)","plainCitation":"(Pound and DeRosa 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"aytUtq28/mQ8a8tWi","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SZQKVUQM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SZQKVUQM"],"itemData":{"id":315,"type":"book","title":"An introduction to the philosophy of law","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Pound","given":"Roscoe"},{"family":"DeRosa","given":"Marshall L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pound and DeRosa 2017).

Their similarities are just not related to material things, they converge upon the ideas of natural objects. The relativist approach never contrasts to the Natural law. Concerning this aspect some believe that since natural law is primary in nature, therefore relativist approach comes at obedience to it. This relation between both is also suggestive of the fact that there exist similarities about the pressing aspects of nature and mankind. Finally, the doers of both are same, humans ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jFrqE5or","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pound and DeRosa 2017)","plainCitation":"(Pound and DeRosa 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"aytUtq28/mQ8a8tWi","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SZQKVUQM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SZQKVUQM"],"itemData":{"id":315,"type":"book","title":"An introduction to the philosophy of law","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Pound","given":"Roscoe"},{"family":"DeRosa","given":"Marshall L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pound and DeRosa 2017). The natural law and the relativist approach both remain applicable to humans and by any means remain inapplicable upon any other living creature.

References:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY d’Entreves, Alexander Passerin. 2017. Natural Law: An Introduction to Legal Philosophy. Routledge.

Fabian, Bernhard, and David Fordyce. 1990. The Elements of Moral Philosophy. Georg Olms Verlag.

Jarvie, Ian Charles. 2015. Rationality and Relativism: In Search of a Philosophy and History of Anthropology. Routledge.

Pound, Roscoe, and Marshall L. DeRosa. 2017. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Law. Routledge.

Religion Final Exam

Research paper: Christianity, Judaism and Islam.

Author’s name

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Research Essay: Christianity, Judaism and Islam.

Christianity, Judaism and Islam are the three most popular religions of the world. Other religions, mostly, are limited to their respective localities and lands while these three enjoy following across the globe. This paper will aim to answer some key questions regarding the three religions in the cultural and political context of the twenty-first century.

Question 1

For us Christians, the story of the birth of Jesus starts well before Mary and Joseph in the little town of Bethlehem. It starts from the prophesies and promises found in the Old Testament and the old Jewish traditions. The predictions found in Isaiah, which was written roughly 700 years prior to the date of the birth of Jesus is one of the many reasons the Jewish people of the time were waiting for a messiah.

“Therefore, the Lord himself shall give you a sign. Behold a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son and his name shall be Emmanuel.” (Isaiah 7:14)

The story of the birth of Jesus has been told in the Gospel of Luke to an audience which is largely familiar with the Jewish tradition and has prior knowledge of the Old Testament. At the time of Jesus, everybody knew that a messiah was coming and were waiting for him. That is the reason some of the apostles and some Jews as well believed in Jesus as the messiah. The majority, however disagreed. That is why the Jewish tradition continues to exist in some form to this day and they are still expecting the messiah to come.

In the gospel of Luke, the story begins by a man speaking to the virgin Mary by saying that, “Hail! Full of grace, the Lord is with you.” Afterwards the virgin Mary was given the news of a child and she asked how. She was told that for God, nothing is impossible. She then conceives him and the story continues in the Gospel. The gospel of Luke does not end with the birth of Jesus two centuries ago, but it only provides the beginning of the ideas that capture the minds of approximately half of mankind today.

Question 2

Jerusalem remains a place where Christians, Jews and Muslims have remained to be a part of a very diverse and ethnically rich community. The power struggle however, has proved to be a very important issue for all religions. All faiths have a claim on the land, as for the Jews, it hosts the Jewish kings of David and Solomon. The Muslims also have a claim on the land as these people are mentioned as prophets in the Quran and Jerusalem served as a direction for prayer(qibla) in early Islam. The mosque of Aqsa is even mentioned in the Quran, which is the most sacred text for the Muslims. Previous governments of the United States had an idea of this reality and was thus conscious in its behavior. Donald Trump on the other hand does not seem to care. His decisions across the board, are an evidence of this as he even went on to say this year that the Americans were planning to bring the Taliban over to the USA to sign the final agreement and call it a victory. The move by Donald Trump, in December 2017, an extension of this behavior, to announce the transfer of the US embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, sparked a wave of anger as well as outrage from Muslims across the world as they do not recognize the state of Israel as a legitimate state. The very reason that former administrations did not go this far was that they held their position that the status of Jerusalem should be decided by negotiations between Palestinians and the Israelis. This sense of middle ground in policy was left by the Trump administration as he made the speech on 6th December 2017 to move the US embassy to Jerusalem and recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.

Question 3

Islamophobia is the term used to explain the idea of unreasonable hatred or fear of the Muslims and the religion of Islam in a more general sense. The definition of ideological imperialism is a complex one. In the past, people have used a number of ideologies for their imperialistic purposes. Studying the colonial era in hindsight, it seems that Christianity has been the ideology which have been manipulated the most by imperialistic powers. There are some imperialistic traits which are common amongst all imperialistic powers, one of them is the use of fear. Imperialistic powers use the power of fear of the significant “other” to aggravate the feelings of the common public towards that particular ethnic or ideological group. The art of building a narrative and demonizing enemy to wage war on others is not a new idea. The American narrative building campaign of dehumanizing the Muslim population in order to gain the support of the American public for wars in Iraq and Afghanistan has proven to be the nipping bud for islamophobia. Listening to the American propaganda, we have seen European nations becoming afraid of Muslims and Islam and taking radical steps. Islamic symbolic clothing such as hijab was banned in France by the government as the layer of Islamophobia swept across Europe. This needs to be understood in the context that Muslims make a considerably significant minority in France. Recent events in which the anti-Muslim party of Norway planned to burn the Quran can be seen as the symbolism of the reality we know as Islamophobia.

Question 4

At the beginning if my semester, I defined religion to mean the set of actions a person does for his or her own spiritual fulfilment. My definition has changed a lot over the course of this semester. I have realized that for people who want to embody their faith, religion encompasses all major aspects of human life. The decisions ranging from personal life to the idea as to how the state should be run can all be found addressed in one form or another in all of the major world religions. Similarly, if we take a look at all of the conflicts in the world right now. It is all related to ideology in some way, shape or form. For the atheist, it is all about the resources while for all the religious people out there, it is all about the spiritual journey. There are many states in the world which predicate themselves on religion. The two most notable being Israel and Pakistan.

Religion Paper

Religion Paper

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Religion Paper

The Palestinians are Arab and the Israelis are Jews, both want the same piece of land. The only state for the Jews in the world, is Israel. They are located at the Mediterranean Sea, East. Though it is claimed by both Arab Muslims and Jews, this land belongs to them from thousands of years ago, while the current conflicts started from the beginning of the 20th century. The oppression of the Jews in Europe, lead them to flee from their homes and the desire to develop the national Jewish homeland, which was then, the Arab Muslim majority territory, partially ruled by the British and partially by the Ottoman Empire. Arabs always see this place as being rightfully theirs and the plan of the UN to give both groups parts of the land has failed, miserably. The Arab nations and Israelis fought many battles on this territory. The war of 1967 is considered the important one in relation to today's conflict, as it gives Israel more control of the Gaza strip and West Bank, both the territories are home to a large population of Palestine. Recently, the West Bank is controlled nominally through the Palestinian Authority, but is mainly under the occupation of Israel. Gaza is controlled by Hamas, which is the fundamentalist party of Islam, although it is under the blockade of Israel. The basic approach for solving this conflict is the “two-state solution” that establish Palestine as being the independent state in Gaza while the rest of the land would be given to Israel. Though this solution is still difficult to implement. Another solution is developing one-state in which either the land becomes one big Palestine or Israel. But because of the demographic and political reasons, this issue cannot be resolved through a “one-state solution”.

Al-Emadi is Qatar's chairman for the reconstruction committee of Gaza to build the destroyed public infrastructure and homes. According to him, there is no hope for Palestine and Israel to acquire peace in the near future. He said that the reason behind his pessimistic thinking is that many states will be both politically and financially benefitted through this tension ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IDcE1Nac","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in \\uc0\\u8216{}near future,\\uc0\\u8217{}\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in ‘near future,’” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":599,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/9XE4XS4P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/9XE4XS4P"],"itemData":{"id":599,"type":"webpage","abstract":"Qatari envoy, tasked with rebuilding Gaza's infrastructure, says local, regional parties taking advantage of situation.","title":"No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in 'near future'","URL":"https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/hope-peace-palestinians-israel-future-190909140310342.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in ‘near future,’” n.d.). Al-Emadi described the situation of Gaza, as a man walking on a tight rope and keeping his balance as if not to fall while everyone is poking him. Gaza is the place where various authorities interfere including Egyptians, Palestinians and Israelis they all are trying to undermine each other’s power ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sCEU1lvt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in \\uc0\\u8216{}near future,\\uc0\\u8217{}\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in ‘near future,’” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":599,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/9XE4XS4P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/9XE4XS4P"],"itemData":{"id":599,"type":"webpage","abstract":"Qatari envoy, tasked with rebuilding Gaza's infrastructure, says local, regional parties taking advantage of situation.","title":"No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in 'near future'","URL":"https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/hope-peace-palestinians-israel-future-190909140310342.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in ‘near future,’” n.d.). Prothero said that all of the world religions join the same faith in the end, they all are unifying and appealing. All the religious faiths are quite different from each other indeed, but if these divisions are not appreciated sufficiently, there is a risk of terrorism and violence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jlfDRzjG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wecker & reporter, 400AD)","plainCitation":"(Wecker & reporter, 400AD)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":597,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/4S5ISKP4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/4S5ISKP4"],"itemData":{"id":597,"type":"webpage","abstract":"There are a lot of good things to say about Stephen Prothero's God Is Not One , but he gets disgracefully sloppy in his chapter on Judaism.","container-title":"HuffPost","language":"en","title":"Stephen Prothero's Jewish Problem","URL":"https://www.huffpost.com/entry/stephen-protheros-jewish_b_604417","author":[{"family":"Wecker","given":"Menachem"},{"family":"reporter","given":"ContributorFreelance"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,5]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["0400"]],"season":"01:42"}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wecker & reporter, 400AD).

Islam

The meaning of Islam is to achieve peace within oneself, with God and with God's creations. This can be achieved by submitting oneself wholly to God and by following His guidelines. The word ISLAM is derived from three Arabic root words which means submission, peace, commitment, and surrender. This religion is revealed to Muhammad Ibn Abdullah from 610 to 632 Common Era. Islam is not the new religion rather it is the reiteration of previous religions about the Oneness of God, which is found in the other monotheistic religions earlier. It is mentioned in one of the narratives of Holy Prophet Muhammad which gives the best summary of Islam, “Submission means that you should bear witness that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is God's messenger, that you should perform the ritual prayer, pay the alms tax, fast during Ramadan, and make pilgrimage to the House if you are able to go there."

Major Holidays/Celebrations

Every year, Muslims have two major religious ceremonies which are Hajj and Ramadan, while all the other holidays are associated with these two. Each Islamic holiday is observed on the basis of the lunar Islamic calendar. Ramadan corresponds to the lunar calendar’s ninth month in which Muslims fast for a month. They abstain from liquid, food, sex, and smoking. Fast is the important factor of the Muslim faith and is the fifth pillar of Islam. In commemoration of the first Quranic verse revealed on Muhammad, Muslims around the globe celebrate Laylat al Qadr ‘night of power’ and at the end of this month, Muslims celebrate Eid al-Fitr. In the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar each year, Muslims perform annual pilgrimage towards Mecca which is Muhammad's birthplace. Eid al-Adha, the festival of sacrifice is celebrated at the end of “Haj” which includes a sacrificial ritual of camel, goat or sheep, it is celebrated in the honor of Prophet Ibrahim(Abraham). These are the two major Muslim observances other than those which are not observed as Islamic holidays universally. However, some of the Muslims acknowledge a few other in the Islamic history context. These holidays include Ashura which is on the tenth of Muharram(lunar Islamic calendar) marked as the death anniversary of Muhammad’s grandson Hussein, 12th Rabia Awal is celebrated as the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, although these holidays are celebrated in various ways by different sects.

Land Right

In Islam, all the things including man himself, belongs to God. The land and its provisions also belong to him, though God has given trust to men to keep charge of it and use it wisely for their and community benefits ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oufZSHE0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Iqbal & Gill, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Iqbal & Gill, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":601,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98KJXH27"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98KJXH27"],"itemData":{"id":601,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The main object of this study is to ascertain the origin, explain the concept, classify the kinds, highlight the categories, and illustrate the economic implications of land ownership with special reference to poverty alleviation particularly in Pakistan. This is an evaluation and judgement of the relationship of land and its owner. This work endeavours to understand the general concept about the formation of land ownership laws within the broader theoretical framework of Islamic jurisprudence, the science of Fiqh. The question of whether land is individually or collectively owned, though, is the fundamental question. But what economic implications this concept has with special reference to poverty alleviation occupies an important position in the teachings of Islam. Jurists and economist of all schools of thought have addressed the matter of land ownership which is very closely related to, and in fact forms, a significant part of the social welfare institutions of Islam.","archive":"JSTOR","container-title":"The Pakistan Development Review","ISSN":"0030-9729","issue":"4","page":"649-662","source":"JSTOR","title":"The Concept of Land Ownership in Islam and Poverty Alleviation in Pakistan [with Comments]","volume":"39","author":[{"family":"Iqbal","given":"Nuzhat"},{"family":"Gill","given":"Zulfiqar Ahmad"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Iqbal & Gill, 2000). It is written in the Quran, “To Him belongs what is in the Heavens and what is on Earth and what is between them and what is under the soil.” Islam encouraged human creativity and entrepreneurship to utilize such resources for human welfare. Although, Islam does not provide specific instructions on how the land might be distributed, but clearly stated the principles of the just system ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8B0Gczio","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Iqbal & Gill, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Iqbal & Gill, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":601,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98KJXH27"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98KJXH27"],"itemData":{"id":601,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The main object of this study is to ascertain the origin, explain the concept, classify the kinds, highlight the categories, and illustrate the economic implications of land ownership with special reference to poverty alleviation particularly in Pakistan. This is an evaluation and judgement of the relationship of land and its owner. This work endeavours to understand the general concept about the formation of land ownership laws within the broader theoretical framework of Islamic jurisprudence, the science of Fiqh. The question of whether land is individually or collectively owned, though, is the fundamental question. But what economic implications this concept has with special reference to poverty alleviation occupies an important position in the teachings of Islam. Jurists and economist of all schools of thought have addressed the matter of land ownership which is very closely related to, and in fact forms, a significant part of the social welfare institutions of Islam.","archive":"JSTOR","container-title":"The Pakistan Development Review","ISSN":"0030-9729","issue":"4","page":"649-662","source":"JSTOR","title":"The Concept of Land Ownership in Islam and Poverty Alleviation in Pakistan [with Comments]","volume":"39","author":[{"family":"Iqbal","given":"Nuzhat"},{"family":"Gill","given":"Zulfiqar Ahmad"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Iqbal & Gill, 2000). The private trusteeship is indeed protected and allowed in the Sharia law but only if it does not create poverty, injustice, and hunger. Hadith and Quran both forbid taking others’ property by unlawful means through state or individuals ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nTgUt7Cm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Iqbal & Gill, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Iqbal & Gill, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":601,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98KJXH27"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98KJXH27"],"itemData":{"id":601,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The main object of this study is to ascertain the origin, explain the concept, classify the kinds, highlight the categories, and illustrate the economic implications of land ownership with special reference to poverty alleviation particularly in Pakistan. This is an evaluation and judgement of the relationship of land and its owner. This work endeavours to understand the general concept about the formation of land ownership laws within the broader theoretical framework of Islamic jurisprudence, the science of Fiqh. The question of whether land is individually or collectively owned, though, is the fundamental question. But what economic implications this concept has with special reference to poverty alleviation occupies an important position in the teachings of Islam. 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The economic concept in Islam

Islam prohibited from ‘riba’ or interests in all its form as it accumulates wealth in hands of a few, therefore gaps between rich and poor would increase as a result. Islam also prohibited from ‘qimar’ and ‘maisir’ which is the money acquired by ‘games of chance’ such as gambling or lottery. For the accomplishment of social obligations, Muslims are also encouraged to give 'Zakat'(tax).

5 important Women

Khadija the first wife of Muhammad, was a trader and wealthy woman who managed all the commercial dealings. She hired Muhammad to work for her and then proposed him. Khadija always supported Muhammad every time, she was not just a spouse but had an important role in Islamic history ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NHMjlEth","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ahmed, 1986)","plainCitation":"(Ahmed, 1986)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":603,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/8Z5YJNU5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/8Z5YJNU5"],"itemData":{"id":603,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society","DOI":"10.1086/494271","ISSN":"0097-9740","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society","page":"665-691","source":"journals.uchicago.edu (Atypon)","title":"Women and the Advent of Islam","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Ahmed","given":"Leila"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1986",7,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ahmed, 1986).

Aisha was the most favorite wife of Muhammad and she was an intelligent lady. She had spiritual wisdom and after the death of Muhammad, she played a major role in military and politics ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NHMjlEth","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ahmed, 1986)","plainCitation":"(Ahmed, 1986)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":603,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/8Z5YJNU5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/8Z5YJNU5"],"itemData":{"id":603,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society","DOI":"10.1086/494271","ISSN":"0097-9740","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society","page":"665-691","source":"journals.uchicago.edu (Atypon)","title":"Women and the Advent of Islam","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Ahmed","given":"Leila"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1986",7,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ahmed, 1986).

Fatimah was the daughter of Prophet Muhammad and Khadija. She admired her faith and regarded as the purest and high virtue lady.

Summayyah bintt Khalid was the first martyr of Islam, she was born a slave and later became a free lady ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NHMjlEth","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ahmed, 1986)","plainCitation":"(Ahmed, 1986)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":603,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/8Z5YJNU5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/8Z5YJNU5"],"itemData":{"id":603,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society","DOI":"10.1086/494271","ISSN":"0097-9740","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society","page":"665-691","source":"journals.uchicago.edu (Atypon)","title":"Women and the Advent of Islam","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Ahmed","given":"Leila"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1986",7,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ahmed, 1986).

Hafsa bint Uma was the wife of the prophet and later narrated 60 hadiths.

Politics and Challenges of wearing Hijab

Hijab is considered as the Islamic veiling and is regarded as a crucially cultural, religious and social symbol which is the central identity of Muslim women. It has proved to be a major political issue as it is regarded as the symbol of political oppression and political Islam ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0gX8Kcvv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Guven, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Guven, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":602,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/PSSG79NL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/PSSG79NL"],"itemData":{"id":602,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The purpose of this article is to discuss the ways in which the social, political and cultural foundation of the headscarf as a symbol affects the nature and practice of educational life. It will examine the ways in which the headscarf practice is constructed in the public sphere. In order to understand the headscarf practice in Turkey the nature of the state, religion, social structure, tradition, globalisation and Political Islam will be examined. The international dimensions of, and local responses to the growing use of the headscarf will be examined. Islamic communities have justified the headscarf by urging that it protects the inner life of Islamic communities and women from unwanted male interventions. This claim has been a key aspect of the discourse of the Islamic movements which have arisen in secular Muslim or non-Muslim/western countries. In Turkey, especially, during the early 1990s the issue of women's head covering acquired politicised momentum.","archive":"JSTOR","container-title":"Comparative Education","ISSN":"0305-0068","issue":"3","page":"377-390","source":"JSTOR","title":"Globalisation, Political Islam and the headscarf in education, with special reference to the Turkish educational system","volume":"46","author":[{"family":"Guven","given":"Ismail"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Guven, 2010). As wearing the hijab is connected with Islamism and it is assumed that the person who wears the hijab wants Islamization in the country. When the issue of immigration started, it was associated with Islam's problem due to the hijab which is regarded as the symbol of the problem by some global political leaders ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"guWeH6I1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Guven, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Guven, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":602,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/PSSG79NL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/PSSG79NL"],"itemData":{"id":602,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The purpose of this article is to discuss the ways in which the social, political and cultural foundation of the headscarf as a symbol affects the nature and practice of educational life. It will examine the ways in which the headscarf practice is constructed in the public sphere. In order to understand the headscarf practice in Turkey the nature of the state, religion, social structure, tradition, globalisation and Political Islam will be examined. The international dimensions of, and local responses to the growing use of the headscarf will be examined. Islamic communities have justified the headscarf by urging that it protects the inner life of Islamic communities and women from unwanted male interventions. This claim has been a key aspect of the discourse of the Islamic movements which have arisen in secular Muslim or non-Muslim/western countries. In Turkey, especially, during the early 1990s the issue of women's head covering acquired politicised momentum.","archive":"JSTOR","container-title":"Comparative Education","ISSN":"0305-0068","issue":"3","page":"377-390","source":"JSTOR","title":"Globalisation, Political Islam and the headscarf in education, with special reference to the Turkish educational system","volume":"46","author":[{"family":"Guven","given":"Ismail"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Guven, 2010).

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmed, L. (1986). Women and the Advent of Islam. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 11(4), 665–691. https://doi.org/10.1086/494271

Guven, I. (2010). Globalisation, Political Islam and the headscarf in education, with special reference to the Turkish educational system. Comparative Education, 46(3), 377–390. Retrieved from JSTOR.

Iqbal, N., & Gill, Z. A. (2000). The Concept of Land Ownership in Islam and Poverty Alleviation in Pakistan [with Comments]. The Pakistan Development Review, 39(4), 649–662. Retrieved from JSTOR.

No hope for peace between Palestinians, Israel in “near future.” (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2019, from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/hope-peace-palestinians-israel-future-190909140310342.html

Wecker, M., & reporter, C. (400AD, 01:42). Stephen Prothero’s Jewish Problem. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from HuffPost website: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/stephen-protheros-jewish_b_604417

Religious Experience Paper

Religious experience paper

Christians believe in God as the Bible mention, "He is from all eternity" (Ps 93:2). The practices of worship involve speeches, music, reading of scriptures, praying and sermons. Although Christians can perform worships alone, but on special days they prefer to perform them in the form of groups. Carol singing is organized by different churches during the holy days. The pope wears a purple and white colored cassock. Christians engage themselves in worships during Christmas and Easter. Christianity associates Christmas with the birth of Jesus and Easter with the martyrdom and resurrection. Other worships are associated with the births of saints and celebrated as festivals. Christians take full participation in worships depicting their bonding with religion and Christian beliefs. The worship reflects the customs and traditions of the Christian religion leading to a unique experience for the followers.

Charismas are one of the most celebrated days in the Christian calendar. The followers of the Christian religion do worship to celebrate Christ’s birth. Christians have a belief that Jesus Christ was born on the very day, so followers throughout the world have a feast on this particular day. The followers recognize Christ as the father of religion, so they don’t leave any opportunity to celebrate the event. Charismas represent the religious beliefs and the culture of Christian as the followers recognize Christ as a savior of humankind. Christians believe in the magic of the event as they consider it as a source of joy and inner satisfaction. Through the ways of celebrating the event changed with time but the spirit of Christmas remains the same. No Christian can deny the significance of the event and celebrates with certain rituals such as going to the church for prayer. The traditions associated with the Christmas include decorating the Christmas tree, star, Santa Claus and gingerbread man. Another tradition connected to Christmas is giving and receiving gifts. People share the bonding of love and positivity is presenting gifts to their loved ones. Christmas spreads the joy, happiness, and spirits of humanity connecting people and societies CITATION Jac171 \l 1033 (Bernhardt).

I visited the Trinity Church in New York for attending the Christmas worship. The church contained hundreds of Christians, and everyone was participating in the singing activity. Many songs were sung in the church including; "O Come All Ye Faithful," "Joy To the World! The Lord Comes" and "Christ has Come." Carol singing is common worship practiced by Christians on the Christmas day. Carol singing is linked to the oldest tradition of Christianity. Everyone at the church was part of this singing activity that included children, men, and women. The songs were so perfect because everyone has rehearsed for that day. In the church, I realized the togetherness of the people as they all were participating in the carol singing. The group of students was standing at one side including both girls and boys. The girls were wearing skirts in green cheque, stockings, and jackets of black color. The boys were wearing trousers and black jackets. Everyone was wearing a Santa cap. Other people in the audience were wearing different dresses. Most of the women wore skirts and shirts. While males wore shirts and trousers. I observed the pope was wearing cassock and a small cap.

Another event that I attended was Easter at the Apostolic Church of God in Chicago. The worship songs were sung in the Easter. Most of the people were wearing purple color dresses while the pope wore white colored Cassock. The church had organized food donation activities. The local food bank was giving canned food to the people. The people were singing the song "Because He Lives" in perfect coordination. It seemed that everyone had rehearsed the song well. Women were wearing skirts and shirts while men were wearing trousers and shirts. Christians sing songs in Easter to regard the resurrection of Christ. Easter is celebrated on Sunday and followers attend churches for the collective prayer. The event communicates the belief that Christ was reborn and raised from the dead. The Friday before Easter was the day of Christ’s crucifixion when he died. Christians symbolized it as Good Friday. Easter associated with the resurrection of Jesus reflects the belief that the sufferings take him to the eternal life granting Jesus, a status of humans. Christian calendar contains a 40 days period Lent. The forty days are between Ash Wednesday and Easter. Lent is forty holy days when Christians fast to regard the fasting of Jesus. Fasting shows the patience and the strength of the Christians as they manage to remain hungry for many days. The period reflects the meditation and patience of Jesus; however, the fasting as strict as people eat one meal in a day.

I also attended the Ash Wednesday before that was followed by Easter. The church was full of people, and everyone was reading the Gospel. The pope raised his voice and gave the sermon to the people. The verses of the scripture were read louder, and everyone was listening to it keenly. The people who were part of the worship were having fast. Fasting is to build their relationship with God. Christian follow another worship on a holy day Ash Wednesday that arrives forty days earlier than Easter. The identified date of Ash Wednesday is from February 4 to March 10. I witnesses the Christians on that day celebrated the ritual of rubbing ashes of the palm fronds burnt on Palm Sunday. People were doing that in peace and harmony. The Christians were also singing songs in the church. The pope read the scripture from the Bible that was a call to worship. The holy day reminds Christians about the self-examination, sufferings, and resurrection of Jesus. The calendar marks it as the first day of Lent that leads to the Easter Sunday. A clergyman from all over the world dispenses ashes emphasizing on the themes of human sins and morality. The Christians self-examines their acts of the year and assess their sins and morality. Christians make a cross from ash over their foreheads CITATION Kim151 \l 1033 (Winston).

The worships follow the Christian calendar that involves two main cycles; the Easter cycle. Lent, Holy Week and Pentecost complete the Easter-cycle. The Easter cycle comprises the period from March 22 to April 25. Palm Sunday also was known as Passion Sunday is another worship performed by Christians. It is the Sunday that follows after the end of Easter. The religion associates Palm Sunday with Christ’s entrance into Jerusalem, and the ceremonies include palm fronds procession while the ashes of the burnt palm fronds proceed to another holy day Ash Wednesday. The burnt palm fronds are used on the Ash Wednesday approaching next year. Maundy Thursday is another holy day when that advises the clergy to wash their feet. The day is identified on a Thursday before the Easter. Maundy Thursday is a holy day as Christ passed the final words to his disciples on the same day. Christ washed the feet of his disciples on the same day, and he advised everyone to do the same with others. The purpose of the event was to spread the message of humanity and freeing humans from the evils of pride. His words are recorded as, "A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another: just as I have loved you, you also are to love one another" (John 13:34). The holy day carries the theme of forgiveness and brotherhood CITATION Ale15 \l 1033 (Crain).

The history of Christina worships indicates that it is a product of Jewish worship. Jesus Christ celebrated many Jews festivals, so the Christians adopted those rituals and traditions. The central reason for Christians to worship is to accept the existence of God. They celebrate the holy days and engage in different worships for showing their connectivity with Jesus. Salvation is important for the Christians because it saves the people as christens claims "we have been saved" (Erickson 1992, 31). Salvation is linked to the themes of justification, sanctification, and glorification. It highlights the prevalence of worldly curse that threatens the lives of the people. The journey of the temporary world will last. The philosophy relies on the notion of influencing people to stay good to others and not only care about this world but also remember the concept of punishment. On common accounts, salvation is a physical process that can be obtained through a physical object. The principles explained by Jesus apply to the daily lives of human beings that discourage the desires for riches. People can live good lives by adopting these principles as it eliminates the elements of greed, corruption, and temptation and allows them to focus on humanity.

Christens are strong in faith and they engage in worships defined by their religion. It is crucial for maintaining one's relationship with God, and the most common method is by following the teachings of Jesus. There are different ways of establishing an association with God such as by offering help in a different form.

Research Paper

The Cartesian Project

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Cartesian Project

Cartesian doubt also called systematic doubt or universal doubt is a form of methodological skepticism related to the writings of Rene Descartes. It is a structured process of being doubtful about the reality of one’s belief. In western philosophy, he was extremely popular due to his method of doubt philosophy. He attempted to doubt the reality of his beliefs to deduce the certainty of these beliefs.

According to him, to be sure that something is true or certain it is important to abandon all the previous beliefs that we learn through our experience or taught by our parents and teachers. For this purpose, he developed a method known as the Cartesian method that consisted of four rules that are necessary to be certain about doubt or belief. These rules are:

Accept as true what is unquestionable.

Prejudices are the amount of information that has been conveyed to us. Although throughout our schooling we have learned a lot whether that can be considered as knowledge is a bit questionable. There are many things that people are compelled to believe as true or certain. This is a real threat as we are not gaining knowledge rather than just accepting the general perspective. According to Descartes, there is no such thing as probability and things are either true or false and genuine knowledge is what that is beyond any doubts based on facts.

Split every question or query into reasonable parts that are feasible.

Known things and unknown things are correlated. There is nothing in the world that is either unknown or fully known. To acquire knowledge or to explore the unknown it is mandatory to have all the data required that will help in searching for the truth. To find the truth the foremost important step is to consider what is unknown. Secondly, all the information about the unknown should be gathered so that one cannot deviate from the original goal that is to find the truth. Thirdly, it is important to figure out the relation between the unknown and the known.

Start with the uncomplicated issue (easy) towards the complicated issue (hard).

This rule is simply about differentiating the simple things from the complicated ones also, organizing them in such a way that the truth can be concluded.

Review periodically to grasp the whole argument immediately.

The search for the truth is not so simple. There are many questions that arise during the process. Some of them can be answered and the others cannot. The process is long and it is not possible to remember each and every detail. It is therefore important to focus on every detail as if any little detail goes missing the chain of searching the truth will be broken and the truth will escape from us (Goudriaan, 2016).

Descartes began his meditation I by starting from scratch by avoiding believing what he thinks is not certain. Basically, he questions the existence of everything. According to him, perception is just a belief which should not be considered the truth. He strongly believes that knowledge must be certain and unable to be doubted (Davies, 2017). Although many philosophers think that he raised the standards of knowledge too high. However, moving on towards meditation II he concluded that what is clear and distinct is true and is certain. In mediation III he questioned the existence of GOD by considering Him as an evil demon but later he realized that there an entity which is perfect and he lies between the perfect and imperfect means that he has a limited power to think and perceive. In mediation IV he discussed the possibility of an error that when a person exceeds the limit of understanding something he often makes the wrong decision. In mediation V he again focused on the existence of GOD and in meditation VI he argued over the relation between mind and body that some activities of our body are purely mechanical yet the mind controls body.

Descartes method as discussed earlier is more of a structured approach to assessing whether the beliefs on which we believe are actually true or not. He promoted to doubt the basic reasoning process as well as the evidence involved in that process. His project is also called as radical doubt because of his theory of knowledge which is rational. According to him, two objects are not identical if experience can prove that qualities of the objects being not similar to each other (Reynolds, 2019). He is very well known because of his dream issue. He illustrated a method of doubting every perception due to his lack of differentiating between vivid dreams from real-life incidents. Based on this he considers everything he sees in the world is just an imagination in fact the world itself is an imagination. Although other philosophers pointed out that it is possible to distinguish between a dream reality yet he still believes that dream and reality are indistinguishable and only greater rationality of perception can differentiate them. Another radical theory that he gave was about GOD. As he believed that God is an evil demon that is trying to deceive everyone and is the reason for all our experiences. Later in his meditation, he seems to have a conclusion that GOD is not an evil demon and therefore is not a deceiver. He also discovered that his existence is because he can think and if he is a thing that can think and can be deceived then he must also exist.

References

Davies, R. (2017). The Modes of Descartes’ First Meditation. In Academic Scepticism in the Development of Early Modern Philosophy (pp. 153-180). Springer, Cham.

Goudriaan, A. (2016). Descartes, Cartesianism, and Early Modern Theology. In The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern Theology, 1600-1800.

Reynolds, C. (2019). The Quest for Knowledge: A Study of Descartes.

Research Paper

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Title: Subtitle

The purpose of this paper is to reflect on two days of being epistemically temperate in order both to assess successes and failures in relation to ideas and concepts from Heather Battaly’s article, “Epistemic Self-Indulgence.” This paper will also explain how Virtue Epistemology, in general, may provide a promising route of turning belief into knowledge. To accomplish this goal, this paper will be proceeding in three steps. In the beginning, this paper will describe the epistemic objects that were being pursued during two days of course of attempting to be Epistemically Temperate, including end-states and activities, as well as examples of partaking in epistemic treats. Secondly, this paper will assess the attempts at being Epistemically Temperate by evaluating the end-states and activities (and treats) in relation to Battaly’s categories of being EI, epistemically tempered, or desires (ESI). Finally, Virtue Epistemology will be explained, in general, may provide a promising way of turning belief into knowledge, thereby avoiding the specter of skepticism.

It is important to reflect initially on being epistemically tempered (ET). An ET person is the one dreams, desires about having a number of luxuries, and consumes epistemic objects. The epistemic objects that are consumed may be appropriate and inappropriate. Some of these epistemic objects may help to improve individuals, or sometimes these may lead individuals to make biased decisions. Sometimes an individual may become prejudiced because of these epistemic objects.

Epistemic objects

Epistemic objects are considered those objects that are the sources of motivation and interest individuals ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kJygXaN3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Battaly 226)","plainCitation":"(Battaly 226)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1460,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8F2MVMJW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8F2MVMJW"],"itemData":{"id":1460,"type":"article-journal","title":"Epistemic Self‐Indulgence","container-title":"Metaphilosophy","page":"214-234","volume":"41","issue":"1‐2","URL":"https://sci-hub.tw/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01619.x","author":[{"family":"Battaly","given":"Heather"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}},"locator":"226"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Battaly 226). These are often termed as knowledge objects, and mostly these are open-ended. One may not be able to capture the definite meaning and properties because these keep emerging and evolving with the time of their use. The level of knowledge and learning processes increases with the use of these epistemic objects, which attracts and motivates human beings.

End-States

According to my belief, end states are those actions and activities of individuals that lead to a conclusion, while these end-states are based on a belief system. Human actions are driven by the belief systems that help them to learn and gain knowledge with the help of epistemic objects. Individuals are subjected to those situations knowingly or unknowingly where they learn to keep the flow of the time and objectives that are driven by the epidemic objects. In any of human activities, it is important to be indulged; for example, an individual believes that learning is always a learning process, and it never stops.

According to epistemology, true-beliefs are those that refer to the individualistic actions and their personal attitudes. True-beliefs are one of the sources that encourage individuals to strive for knowledge. These are important to ensure the existence of something and to believe that an individual is seeking for truth. Based on knowledge, it may be a wrong belief that one can gain complete knowledge although it is not true. Evidentialism suggests that it is important to have true-beliefs because they will help to show evidence about something that you believe in ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Llbm99CK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Feldman and Conee 96)","plainCitation":"(Feldman and Conee 96)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1454,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/9FWV6U3W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/9FWV6U3W"],"itemData":{"id":1454,"type":"article-journal","title":"Some Virtues of Evidentialism","container-title":"Veritas","volume":"50","source":"ResearchGate","abstract":"O evidencialismo é, primordialmente, uma tese sobre a justificação epistêmica e, secundariamente, uma tese sobre o conhecimento. Sustenta que a justificação epistêmica é superveniente da evidência. As versões do evidencialismo diferem quanto ao que conta como evidência, quanto ao que seja possuir algo como evidência e quanto ao que um dado corpo de evidência apóia. A tese secundária é a de que o apoio evidencial é necessário ao conhecimento. O evidencialismo ajuda a formular as questões epistemológicas de uma forma que é ótima para que se perceba o núcleo dos problemas. Oferece soluções, sem mascarar as dificuldades. Nós fornecemos ilustrações disso através da consideração dos problemas da justificação a priori e do ceticismo. O evidencialismo também oferece a base para que se compreenda uma grande variedade de fatos e conceitos epistemológicos. Nós fornecemos ilustração disso, mostrando que o evidencialismo pode explicar como a justificação pode ser anulada, como as atitudes distintas da crença podem ser objeto de avaliação e como a própria prática da filosofia é epistemicamente valiosa.","DOI":"10.15448/1984-6746.2005.4.1817","journalAbbreviation":"Veritas","author":[{"family":"Feldman","given":"Richard"},{"family":"Conee","given":"Earl"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",11,16]]}},"locator":"96","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Feldman and Conee 96). The knowledge that individuals gain should help them to provide evidence about their true-believer systems.

Epistemologically it varies whether true-belief systems are helpful or harmful. For example, irrationality in terms of religion: if one denies the religion, it may hurt the sentiments and testimonies, while the one who fails to provide evidence gets hurt ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XYq42Erj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bortolotti and Sullivan 1)","plainCitation":"(Bortolotti and Sullivan 1)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1457,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/BYTZYWAC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/BYTZYWAC"],"itemData":{"id":1457,"type":"book","title":"How can false or irrational beliefs be useful?","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1386-9795","author":[{"family":"Bortolotti","given":"Lisa"},{"family":"Sullivan","given":"Bissett Ema"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"locator":"1","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bortolotti and Sullivan 1). Such individuals fail because they are unable to provide enough evidence about their true-belief systems. Epistemic objects that are not healthy to individuals and their souls, while Aristotle believed that the desires, insensibilities, and self-indulgence is not helpful ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"AiU7PlKl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Battaly 224)","plainCitation":"(Battaly 224)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1460,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8F2MVMJW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8F2MVMJW"],"itemData":{"id":1460,"type":"article-journal","title":"Epistemic Self‐Indulgence","container-title":"Metaphilosophy","page":"214-234","volume":"41","issue":"1‐2","URL":"https://sci-hub.tw/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01619.x","author":[{"family":"Battaly","given":"Heather"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}},"locator":"224"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Battaly 224). He believed that these are not helpful if these objects are meant to please human bodies. In contrast, of what Aristotle stated, I believe that humans have natural desires that are both for soul and body needs. These needs must be fulfilled according to the requirements and desires. The epistemic objects that lead individuals to desire, consume, and enjoy treats are considered sensible ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0RWdSAg5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Battaly 222)","plainCitation":"(Battaly 222)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1460,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8F2MVMJW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8F2MVMJW"],"itemData":{"id":1460,"type":"article-journal","title":"Epistemic Self‐Indulgence","container-title":"Metaphilosophy","page":"214-234","volume":"41","issue":"1‐2","URL":"https://sci-hub.tw/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01619.x","author":[{"family":"Battaly","given":"Heather"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}},"locator":"222","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Battaly 222). People enjoying all the treats are to be considered as those enjoy and value all the pleasures their life. These pleasures may lead to gain knowledge, to learn, and to desire for more learning these pleasures may include gaining knowledge, to learn something, and to desire.

Activities

Individuals may have desires and they may enjoy those desires, while these keep them engaged in epistemic activities. These activities include intellectual virtues, rational thinking, increase attentiveness of individuals those who are sensible and value the desires. I believe that true epistemic objects lead individuals to a better understanding of things and in making of conclusions that are based on merit, wisdom, creativity, and knowledge. The two days of epistemically temperate activity has helped to be more open towards creating an understanding of things attentively. These activities have allowed me to self-reflect and make fair decisions that are logical and they have helped in recognizing authentic authorities. Epistemic objects have helped me to create an understanding while assessing things rationally and fairly. This has also increased my gratification, which has resulted in increased levels of concentration on the projects.

Assessment

Epistemic temper is successful in a way that it allows individuals to think rationally and desire to gain more knowledge about things with which we are surrounded by. I believe that, sometimes epistemic temper helps us in a way that we become able to provide the required evidence that is based on knowledge and learning. This helps individuals to enjoy and value the virtues and motivations that are provided by the epistemic objects. While it again depends on the nature of desire, that leads us to a judgment for the validity or the truthfulness of the epistemic object use. According to Aristotle, the body desires are restricted to self-indulgence however, I believe that, it is not necessarily right. Humans have to fulfill their human desires whether they are related to their bodies or their souls.

Epistemic temper fails when it is not able to provide enough evidence, while this evidence must be based on knowledge and learning of an individual. Therefore, it is important to gain knowledge in a way that will be helpful for practical uses and to provide evidence against the given questions. Hence, epistemic temper is important to consider because, these are the sources, which motivate individuals to gain knowledge.

Analysis of Virtue Epistemology

The virtue of epistemology provides motivation and increases motivation according to their capacities and materialistic perfection that leads individuals to gain knowledge ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ogpqetVk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Arevuo 31)","plainCitation":"(Arevuo 31)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1452,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/N8QDPIWN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/N8QDPIWN"],"itemData":{"id":1452,"type":"paper-conference","title":"Epistemic objects in collective decision-making : a practice perspective on the use of causal maps as situated material artifacts","source":"Semantic Scholar","abstract":"2","shortTitle":"Epistemic objects in collective decision-making","author":[{"family":"Arevuo","given":"Mikko"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}},"locator":"31","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Arevuo 31). It is not always necessary that an individual may be able to turn or convert the knowledge that he has gained into a reality. For example, the true-belief systems that connect to religion are not necessarily transformed into a reality. It is hard to show God but people do believe in God. People know about religion and God but it is a problem for them to show this knowledge to them. While, the concept of being Epistemically Temperate might provide a promising route for moving from mere belief to knowledge, thereby avoiding the specter of skepticism. It is possible when an individual learns to accept things and think rationally about the things in the surroundings.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Arevuo, Mikko. Epistemic Objects in Collective Decision-Making : A Practice Perspective on the Use of Causal Maps as Situated Material Artifacts. 2015.

Battaly, Heather. “Epistemic Self‐Indulgence.” Metaphilosophy, vol. 41, no. 1‐2, 2010, pp. 214–34, https://sci-hub.tw/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01619.x.

Bortolotti, Lisa, and Bissett Ema Sullivan. How Can False or Irrational Beliefs Be Useful? Routledge, 2017.

Feldman, Richard, and Earl Conee. “Some Virtues of Evidentialism.” Veritas, vol. 50, Nov. 2006. ResearchGate, doi:10.15448/1984-6746.2005.4.1817.

Resopnse To Peer

Response to Peer

Name

Affiliation

Date

Response to Peer

1 RAVYN BYR7

Top of Form

Misdiagnosis is a common matter prevalent in our world today and often people and professionals are mistaken about their diagnosis. When we are faced with health issues we often turn to professionals or doctors. We rely on doctors to essential figure out what wrong. However, these commonly overlooked improperly diagnosis result in a lot of mistreatments and even deaths of many people. The U.S, Department of Veterans Affair stated in 2014 the nationwide misdiagnosis rate is at 5.08%, or around 12 million patients per year. This is very relatable and personal to me because my mom was misdiagnosed in 2016. I think that we put too much trust into the American health system with our well-being and health and we don't often take the many precautions before allowing another human being label us with an illness. Example: in the black community often young black males are misdiagnosed with attention deficit hyper activity disorder (ADHD) and quickly labeled and are given medication as treatment although, they have not been properly diagnosed. Often, doctors sometime do more harm than good, just because a child is distracted doesn't indicate that they suffer from ADHD.

My response

RAVYN BYR7 has explained the severity of misdiagnosis in a clear manner by sharing the stats of yearly death rate, due to misdiagnosis. Misdiagnosis not only gives rise to mistreatment, leading to death, however, in other cases it gives rise to stigmatization of another culture or population and the write has explained it clearly.

2. ISATA YOKI7

Top of Form

Something that most people including myself often mistaken is personality. Often time we tend to judge people before getting to know them first. We structure impressions of individuals a similar way we structure an impression of anything. When we see something that doesn't look edible our first impression is “Oh no that doesn't look good to eat” or we start questioning if the food is cooked good or if it's edible. We don’t even give the food a chance to see if it’s good or not. I feel like as humans we tend to judge people based on their personality. Some people may be loud or act in a way when they walk in somewhere they want all attention on them. Some people do that to hide their insecurity so instead of judging them why not make the effort and get to know them and see why they act the way they do. Another thing our society do is when they see someone with a lot of tattoos they start judging them and giving them a bad label. Some people have a tattoo as a form of art to express themselves. We need to stop and think that we could be totally and absolutely wrong, and maybe take a risk to know that person regardless of our abnormal feelings.

My Response

The writer has explained the biased attitude of human bangs towards each other, by highlighting the aspect that we judge each other from the appearance of a personality. We do not make the effort of knowing the person or his/her circumstances and just give the verdict based on our assumption, which needs to be changed.

3. MONIQUE NELSO7

Top of Form

I think an area many people are mistaken about is first impressions. It is so easy for individuals to make an assumption about others based solely on what they perceive them to be. Using myself as an example, I'm a quiet person. Some of my friends told me they perceived me to be stuck up at first because I didn't talk much. They felt as though I wasn't interested in being friends with anyone. Of course, this is not true. Though I am quiet, me being stuck up or even anti-social is nowhere near true. Unfortunately, this is an example of how people can jump to conclusions based on what they perceive someone to be on the first impression. I'm not innocent, because I too have made assumptions at times. However, I try my best to give people the benefit of the doubt because I know what it's like to have people jump to conclusions about me and my character when they don't know me.

My Response

The writer has talked about the negative consequences of developing a first impressions. Talking about being the victim of forts impressions, the writer has shared that it is not good, as well as possible to judge someone perfectly based on one’s assumptions and it causes damage to the person, as people do not try to give a chance to the other person.

4. OLASUMBO OLAGOK8

Top of Form

When I think about this topic of our discussion, what came up in my mind was Money! Many people in this beautiful world believe that money is everything and everything is money. I will disagree that money is everything. There are number of things that money cannot take care of. Money cannot buy and keep love. If money can buy and keep love, many marriages of the rich people should last forever. And our President (Mr. Trump) should still be married to his first wife today. Money cannot raise the dead. If money can raise the dead, Steve Job would still be alive today. Money cannot buy happiness. If money can buy happiness, no rich man or woman should commit suicide. And Kate Spade and Anthony Bourdain should be alive today, if money truly brings happiness.  Money cannot buy absolute good health. If money can buy absolute good health, no rich person(s) should have any of the following diseases (disease of affluence) type 2 diabetes, asthma, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, obesity, hypertension, cancer, alcoholism, gout, and some other types of diseases considered the disease of affluence.  

Don’t make any mistake, I myself like money and I like to make a lot of it. And, don’t get me wrong, money is really-good and can buy a lot of things in this world. I just disagree with notion that money is everything and everything is money.

My Response

The author has talked about the importance of money in the life of human beings. Most of the times, we think that money is the solution to all of our problems, however, the writer, through the examples of some famous people has depicted that money cannot buy love, ultimate health, happiness and life. So, it is beneficial but not everything.

5. JUBILEE STANTON 

Top of Form

Many people believe that the meat we eat is good for us; however you have other such as myself who don't believe this. Many facts point to meat being the leading cause of human health problem of the world today. There are many website as well as doctors working hands on in the medical filed that don't believe there should be meat in our diet. As a current meat eater i agree. With the scary and overwhelming research to back this matter. i myself had in my mind that we need it and that meat is good for us, but the matter of fact is that we wrong meant is the leading cause of cancer form any people. We need to have and get what our bodies need from a plant based diet. Many people such as myself just didn't ant to or found it too much to do the research ourselves because we had the fake fact finders pulling at us with different foods we don't need but are told we do. No a day’s I push myself not to believe things because im lazy and just really want to believe and not give it up. 

My Response

The author has argued about the harms of a diet based on meat while arguing about the general perception of the public. He has revealed that he also considered a meat diet as the best and healthiest; however, it is not true as proved by research. So we should make an effort and change to a vegetarian diet.

6. GLORIA THOMAS 

The Observation

Top of Form

Having a college education and graduating from college can get you a good job. In so many families and being brought up in an environment that pushed education. Hearing this all my life. Saying that’s what you need to do to make it in the world. That’s the idea for many American’s and their families.  What we teach our children from day one. Don’t get me wrong. Education is important. Learning and growing is a wonderful thing. I think that the educational system in America is backwards. So many people go to college and get degrees in field of studies and they never get jobs related to their field of studies. Getting degrees in things that they never pursue. I work with lawyers who went to college graduate pass the bar and still living paycheck to paycheck due to student loan and debt. While trying to build there resume for better opportunity. College is not the American dream unless you are being afforded a college education. I am do to graduate May 2020 I am excited this will be a big accomplishment for me but I also think about the 70,000.00 bill that I will be receiving in the mail the minute I graduate.  Now in my field of studies the average yearly salary is 70 to 80 thousand. Reality just set in. I am going into the work force seeking employment already in a deficit.  So when people in the world say college education is the American dream. They can’t really justify it. 

My Response

The author has talked about the dark truth of the American dream of college education. He has argued that college education is considered the guarantee of better employment, however, it is not so. The graduates even have to deal with the burden of their educational debt and live their lives while struggling.

Bottom of Form

Response

Response

Name

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Response: Classmate 1

Aristotle's theory of Virtue ethics states that all actions are based on an individual’s choice, which is a primary factor, and virtue comes secondary. When a person repeats a same behavior knowingly, it becomes his habit. When a person adopts this behavior on daily basis, it becomes virtue. Every action involves a mean between good and bad if a person chooses a good side, the mean is honor and if he chooses to devalue the honor, his choices are not in a balanced position. Moreover, he asserts that the ultimate goal is to attain ethics through virtue (Sherman, 1989). When a person repeatedly chooses good, it becomes a virtue. The theory of virtue ethics does not need an existing structure because it supports the idea of ethics over virtue. On the contrary, the Kantian and Utilitarian theories focus on an action at a majority level. Therefore, if an action benefits the majority, it is considered good.

Response: Classmate 2:

The theory of Virtue ethics places “balance” as a deciding factor between good or bad actions. It emphasizes on “choice” a lot because choice acts as a deciding factor. The people who think or act according to this theory carry a sense of good or bad actions nonetheless but the voluntary actions manifest itself as a habit. However, one time voluntary action does not qualify as a virtue. Therefore, if a person decides to go with the mean of dishonesty or disloyalty for only one time, he does not become selfish, unless and until this habit manifests itself as a regular pattern. According to Aristotle, traits such as generosity, loyalty, honesty and courage serve as a deciding factor because these factors promote the well-being of a society and promote a communal experience. Likewise, apart from personal good, good ethics should be chosen as they prove beneficial to the collective welfare of society.

References

Sherman, N. (1989). The fabric of character: Aristotle's theory of virtue.

Response Essay

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Response Essay: What is the right thing to do

Kant argues with Bentham's statement that pain and pleasure are 'our sovereign matters,' which is about ‘we dislike pain but like pleasure’ according to Kant, this statement is half right. Reasons could be sovereign sometimes, but when reasons governed by our will, we cannot drive with the desire, which avoids pain and seek pleasure. The ability to reason can be performed with capability of freedom; such types of capacities make us different from the animals. The idea of freedom is vast in comparison to freedom of choice, which connects morality and justice to freedom. It is commonly thought that the consumers' choice and the idea of freedom isn't true freedom; according to Kant, this idea is used to satisfy those desires which are not chosen by us in the first place. As something that makes many people happy doesn’t mean that it is right, Kant also argued that morality is not based on the empirical considerations, which include wants, interests, and desires. The basic point of Kant is based on moral principles such as happiness; desire makes the person happy is completely different from making the person good and prudent.

It is commonly believed that freedom is referred to as the absence of the obstacles in doing what we desire, but freedom notion is more demanding and stringent. When we seek pleasure and avoid pain at that time, we are not free but trying to fulfill our desire and appetite, when we are choosing anything such as flavor of ice cream we satisfy our preferences at that time. According to Kant, in such situations, we are not acting free, but we act in accordance with the determination provided outside us. Once 'Sprite' has a slogan in their advertisement that ‘Obey your thirst’ and in Kant, perspective, obedience is not freedom. According to Kant, autonomously means acting to laws that are given by ourselves not given through social convention and which nature dictates. Linking Kant's idea of morality with autonomy, which is the ability to act freely, can be gained by giving special dignity to human life. For example, if a person falls from the State Building to earth, nobody will say that that person is behaving freely as his movement is governed through gravity law such as billiard ball. In another example, if a person kills another person, it can be said that the first person is not responsible morally for this unfortunate death as this billiard ball is not morally responsible for falling from a great height. In both of the above examples, neither the person nor the falling object is responsible for their actions. This means that if there is no autonomy, then no person is morally responsible.

Kant argued that the actions' moral worth is not based on the consequences in which it flows but in intensions through which the work is performed. The morally good actions do not require to confirm the moral laws, but they should be done for moral law's sake. Through this Kant is not describing the moral commands of supreme principles by this Kant means that through assessing the actions moral worth we use to assess the motives through which it is performed, not consequences which it produces. So, according to Kant, if we do not understand respect, freedom, and duty, then there will be no morality. Human is not required to become morality instruments but should become morality objects themselves. From this point, Kant's morality idea developed devastation critiques over utilitarianism that says that morality's highest principle is to maximize happiness. But the Kant idea objective was completely different, which is humanity, not happiness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CiPlV6Gs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Immanuel Kant: Why Happiness Is Not the Life Goal - Inan - Medium})","plainCitation":"(Immanuel Kant: Why Happiness Is Not the Life Goal - Inan - Medium)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":215,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BG8U579B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BG8U579B"],"itemData":{"id":215,"type":"webpage","title":"Immanuel Kant: Why Happiness Is Not the Life Goal - Inan - Medium","URL":"https://medium.com/@inananan/immanuel-kant-why-happiness-is-not-the-life-goal-20aff988619a","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Immanuel Kant: Why Happiness Is Not the Life Goal - Inan - Medium). According to Kant, good deeds provide their moral worth, such as principles, not its consequences.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Immanuel Kant: Why Happiness Is Not the Life Goal - Inan - Medium. https://medium.com/@inananan/immanuel-kant-why-happiness-is-not-the-life-goal-20aff988619a. Accessed 14 Nov. 2019.

Role Of Philosophy In Your Life

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Role of Philosophy In Your Life

Philosophy is a Greek term which basic meaning is the love of wisdom. While in a broader sense philosophy is considered as an activity which is undertaken by all the people when they try to find out basic and important truths about themselves, the environment they interact with and also the world they live in, their basic relationship and interaction with the world and also with each other. The people who study philosophy are continuously involved in asking various questions, answering them and also arguing for their answers to the most basic and vital questions of an individual's life. In general, Philosophy is the practice of thinking about what, why and how we think about some of the specific realities of life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"x4d4iezz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}What Is Philosophy? The Basics of Philosophy})","plainCitation":"(What Is Philosophy? The Basics of Philosophy)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1250,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/2ZKWRIWM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/2ZKWRIWM"],"itemData":{"id":1250,"type":"webpage","title":"What is Philosophy? The Basics of Philosophy","URL":"https://www.philosophybasics.com/general_whatis.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (What Is Philosophy? The Basics of Philosophy). The main purpose of philosophical questioning is to simplify our own thinking process and then answering the question that whether we have good reasons to think or not. So as a whole philosophy is not a set of easy certainties but it is a rational adventure in which everything is open for questions and re-evaluations. And also to deal with radical uncertainty it provides us the means for dealing with it rather than denying it. It provides us the chance about the limits of what we know instead of despairing us about the things that we don’t know ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CMsRxkEo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Priest)","plainCitation":"(Priest)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1252,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/IPABIXGB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/IPABIXGB"],"itemData":{"id":1252,"type":"article-journal","title":"What Is Philosophy?","container-title":"Philosophy","page":"189-207","volume":"81","issue":"316","source":"JSTOR","archive":"JSTOR","ISSN":"0031-8191","author":[{"family":"Priest","given":"Graham"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Priest).

In the lives of many of us, there is a deep problem which is that we always work hard and invest our energy and time for money and related possessions to surround us. Once we achieve one of the shiny things then our mind becomes preoccupied with a new one. This is a never-ending cycle and it will continue like this, our culture is also pushing us for the virtue of accumulation and also consumption as a way to be happy in our lives. As a result, we go for a nice car, fine clothes and also a spacious house. But there comes a certain point when we realize that all this does not work and we become clueless about where we are heading. So at such time, the philosophy of life comes in and it provides us a guide about what to aim for in our lives and also how to get those things. As life is a long journey where we try to find answers and also try to cope with doubts and fears that we have. So in order to create success and also to achieve happiness philosophy is very important. Philosophy helps us to argue about a certain situation in our lives more forcefully, it allows us to express our thoughts comprehensively and then it allows us to be more creative, flexible and tolerable towards the problems that we face in a day to day life. Therefore it is safe to say that philosophy helps us to have a better life by teaching us about the problems and how to solve them.

As it is true that God after creating us do not intervene in our day to day life and activities and. He made us free about everything we do or intended to do because it is only on us that how we want to live our life. Every individual has a free will that means that every single person is free to whatever they want to do but that does not mean that our actions have no consequences. All our actions either good or bad that we take out of our free will have consequences. If we do good then that means that we will have a good reward for it or we will have a good life but if we do bad then certainly we have to bear the negative consequences and it will definitely come back to us so these are some philosophical ideas which help me to determine my own thoughts and ideas.

I live this life because this was the life which was destined for me even before my birth and I think that this is the best life that I can get. If other people lived the kind of life that I am living I am not sure that if it would be good for them as well because like everyone my life has also its own ups and downs I have my own problems and my own concerns but there are millions of people out there who are living without food and also without shelter and obviously and as compare to them my life is much better because I have all the necessities in my life I am getting my education I don't go and beg and things like that. So if there are people for whom my life will be good there are also those people who are living a good life as compared to mine. Also the world is a better place because all of the people despite of having their own lows and struggles are playing their role in making other people's life good so I cannot say that if everyone would have my life then the world would be a better place because I doubt that it would be the case.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Priest, Graham. “What Is Philosophy?” Philosophy, vol. 81, no. 316, 2006, pp. 189–207. JSTOR.

What Is Philosophy? The Basics of Philosophy. https://www.philosophybasics.com/general_whatis.html. Accessed 1 Apr. 2019.

Sacred Elements In Religion

Lauren Crow professor’s name Philosophy 28th November 2019 Sacred Elements in Religion The religion is the credence in and worship of a prodigious controlling power, especially a personal God or gods. It can also be defined as a pursuit of curiosity trailed with prodigious devotion. Religion plays a role of high importance in the lives of many people and acts as a path of light in this life. There are around 4,200 diverse religions followed all around the globe but, There are twelve major religions that are followed the most are Baha'i, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism.

 Each faith has its sacred elements, myths, methods, and stories that the followers believe in with all their faith and heart. Among all the different religions around the world, the one I’ve selected to research is Hinduism. Hinduism is one of the world’s hoariest religions, it can be traced back to 5,000 to 7,000 BC. Hinduism instigated around the Indus valley near India which too now is the largest country that follows Hinduism. The word Hindu is resultant from the Sanskrit word Sindhu which was used by the Aryans in the early days. Hinduism has no solitary founder, scripture and no single governing body. Hinduism is considered as a way of life and is also known as the family or several religions. In other words, its referred to as the Sanatana dharma that translates into the other law or the perpetual way that is afar human origins, many people who practice Hinduism refer to this as the orthodox. The concept of Sanatana Dharma refers to duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties are bound to be followed by all Hinduism followers despite what cast, creed, class or sect they belong from. This concept truly shows how Hinduism emphasis on prioritizing morals before any groups of worlds distributions. This shows how this religion tells its followers to revolve their world around truth before anything else and guiding them to live a life without unethical practices. 

 Hinduism is a miscellaneous religion with no single figure that is followed. The concept of God is multifaceted and hinges on the individuals, traditions and philosophy that is being followed. They show veneration the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called  HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishvara" \t "_blank" Ishvara,  HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavan" \t "_blank" Bhagavan,  HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameshwara_(God)" \t "_blank" Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have diverse meanings in different schools of Hinduism. They believe that there is divine in everything that exists in this universe, trees, water, fire, mountains, human beings, one's work, birds. This concept helps the followers of Hinduism try to see the good and positive side in everything on this earth from the smallest speck to the prevalent mountains. The religion wants you to find god in everything and everyone that teaches you to respect one another. Moreover, just like every other religion Hinduism too has scriptures that are in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is considered as the ancient linguistic in Hinduism, where it was used as a means of communiqué and dialogue by the Hindu Celestial Gods, and then by the Indo-Aryans. According to the teachings of Hinduism, there are objectives of life that are known as Purusartha. The first object is Dharma which is the foremost goal in Hinduism the concept of Dharma revolves around righteousness and ethics, instructs a follower to follow duties and lives the life of rightness. The second objective is artha that means livelihood and wealth, objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. The third objective is Kama that is desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations. The fourth objective is known as Moksa that is associated with the cycle of life, the liberation of sorrow and suffering. Each objective tells us to follow a positive aspect. In today’s life following such aspects can leave to a healthy life and happy life even non-followers can benefit from these objectives. Hinduism is a religion that can help one reach peace and encourage one to live a simple life with pure happiness and rightness. 

 This Religion has a lot of interest facts and rituals, for instance, the divinest number in Hinduism in 108 so the prayers beads must have 108 beads this is because 108 is the ratio of sun’s distance from the earth to sun’s diameter or the moon’s distance from the earth to moons diameter. Yoga the world's most-followed divine, bodily fitness procedure was originated from Hinduism. 

 Hinduism has given a lot to this world and played a great role in spreading positivity and love all around the world. There is a lot that can be written about this beautiful religion that cannot be covered in a single essay. Here’s a quote that exquisitely describes Hinduism 

The essence of Hinduism is that the path may be different, but the goal is the same.     

Manmohan Singh

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kurien, Prema. "Hinduism." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (n.d.). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism.

Lands, M. "Hinduism - World's Oldest Religion Explained - Origins, Beliefs, Facts." (2016): 25.

Schemitization

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Schematization

Argument Schematization

P1 No direct interaction of mind and body, yet they are dualistic

P2 State of one affects the other’s state

P2 a) mind affects body and body changes mind- two-way causality

P2 b) plausible mechanism for the object’s interaction with each other

P2 c) it has agnostic free-will, but the system works perfectly in its absence

P2 d) law of physics/causality is conserved

P3 this theory is illustrated by just analyzing the physical phenomenon first

P3 a) it will prompt the concepts regarding indirect dealings

P4 the whole thing is put together by physical laws

P4 a) there is the formation of states in series

P4 b) it contains a particular arrangement of atoms as such objects are spatially extended

P5 laws of mental representation

P5 a) includes experiences, feelings, and qualia

P6 physical states interact with the mental capacities in a correlational physical state

Conclusion: Therefore, the interaction problem is solved.

Critique of the Argument

Descartes defended the theory of dualism; thus P1 is defended according to his theory of dualism. There are various reasons regarding this phenomenon that relate the mind with the body without them being physically directly linked (Alison, np).

As without interacting with each other directly, mind-body interaction takes place through each other’s states, this confirms P2 as well. These states are two-way causality, plausible mechanism, agnostic free-will and law of physics or causality.

According to P4, this interaction is dependent on physical law and law of mental representation, which is indeed justified by the states of atom defined in the law of causality. So every action is caused by the presence of some entity, which in this case is mind for the body. Due to this mind's state is connected with the state of the body.

Thus Cartesian dualism is justified as the p6 states that physical states interact with the mental capacities in a correlational physical state (Thibaut, p.3). So this interaction problem is solved through this method.

Works Cited

Alison, John. "A Look at Cartesian Dualism." (2018).

Thibaut, Florence. "The mind-body Cartesian dualism and psychiatry." Dialogues in clinical neuroscience 20.1 (2018): 3.

Second Paper

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Second Paper

Relationship between religion and morality in Plato’s Euthyphro

In this paper, I will argue about the relationship between religion and morality that was expressed and portrayed in Euthyphro. Plato’s dialogue, also called Euthyphro deciphers an encounter between Euthyphro and Socrates. Euthyphro was a self-declared expert who believed himself to be well versed in terms of all religious topics, while Socrates was a great Athenian philosopher. In this dialogue, Euthyphro defines piety by different attempts where each of the attempts seems fallacious and doubtful. Taking into account the argument that was proposed in the form of a question by Socrates, it is asked, "is something right just because it is commanded by God or the other way, God has commanded about something so it must be right”. The underlying essence of the argument questions two different domains, that are both connected as well as apart from each other. Sometimes, ethics is defined by connecting it with religion and on the same board, religion is defined to be very moral because, in the end, humans are the topic of discussion under the umbrella of religion. However, an honest ethical implication of this argument highlights that the relationship that exists between religion and morality is not as clear as it is depicted or it is presented. The point of conflict is the dimensions that are proposed and then logically enforced to some conclusions.

If the idea, that something is right because God has commanded it, is considered, then man is asked to honor his parents and do good which seems righteous. It justifies that God is good and He asserts only those propositions that are good for mankind. However, the very notion of doing good conflicts with the action of Euthyphro who was prosecuting his father because his father committed the murder of a servant. In this case, the underlying notion of the divine theory is challenged with a supporting argument of humanity where human rights come first. The defenders of the Divine Theory will find this argument under which only one side will be valid. “An action is morally good because God has commanded it". However, the implication of the response is that, it is morally right to respect parents whether they have committed something that a moral human being should not commit? After an analysis of this argument, I think, morality is relative to the authority of practice. If the idea of respecting parents is considered, no doubt it is obligatory but prosecuting the same individual who is taught to be respected is invalid because children are no one to judge the reality of the actions. The philosophy of Euthyphro is also flawed because of the interference of “practicing excessive power’, that is not allowed. To judge morality is the right of the state holder and those who are given the right to do justice and the murder of servant by his father is also a question that should be dealt by justice stakeholders. Moreover, the commands by Lord are also to be practiced because of the underlying goodness which directs to adhere to the code of conduct as well. The other side of the argument is, God commands something because it is right then it is obvious that God can never command something that is wrong and that is harmful in the long run. The same ideology can then ultimately be connected to the conclusion of the first argument because Divine theory cannot knock an individual out of the universal boundaries under the title of morality and immorality. Another school of thought that appears in the theory of commands by God highlights the issue of logic and integrity. This type of integrity refers to the adequacy of the judgment and the underlying honesty of the propositions that are supposed to be directed by God. It asserts, how to believe that something is directed or commanded by God. Here, it is proposed that one should believe only those facts that are apparently right and seem to be true. But again, the question arises, which is the right one? It can be judged by analyzing that in Christianity, different parts of the Bible are considered while others are excluded because they are not assumed to be correct. In the same way, the Baptist bible is different from the Christian Bible. It is also arguable that the teaching of some particular texts and different parts of the holy text vary from nation to nation and the type of beliefs that a nation holds. So, where does the war of right and wrong end?

Under the impact of all these suggested ideologies and the comparison of religion with ethnicity, it can be said that the Divine Command Theory is not the sole source of information. Although this theory is a code of conduct that directs actions and lets people to have a look at their action by keeping them in moral boundaries. Still, this theory is not universally accepted, the theory is not as robust as meant for the people that might believe about it. There are several justifications under this assumption, that are ultimately driven by Plato’s’ Euthyphro. It is asserted that the world should be taken as a staircase in which each stair reflects a different level or school of thought. In this staircase, religion is placed in the beginning and above the moral stair because moral is something that is driven from religion. As many religious scholars think that the dialogues between Socrates and Euthyphro are a deeper invitation to topics such as morality and how religion shapes morality. I think moral arguments and religious segments are two different schools of thought and both of them should not be counted under a single domain. Religion is a domain that directs belief under which one of the beliefs is the notion that humans should be served best because it will keep this world peaceful. This idea of peace is a derivation of moral because morality is an essence that can play a key role in defining the peace paradigms of this world. However, the scale of judgment should be different, all moral conduct should not be quoted as religious sayings and all religious sayings should not be considered as a moral approach to life. Religion is to obey parents and morality is to obey everyone who is similar to parents. Religion is to analyses the code of conduct but morality is to judge it as a part of societal affairs. The idea to respect parents and then persecute parents under the impact that God said to respect parents and prosecute the murder against a parent because God said to do justice is more like an amalgamation of two different fields which will ultimately result in a conflicting view about both religion and morality.

It would not be wrong to say that the underlying problem is the lack of synergy between morality and religion where religion is mixed with morality. The idea to consider is, religion deals with divine belief such as, the existence of God, underlying teachings of God and the propositions that are, made to justify the existence of God. On the other hand, morality is termed as a domain that addresses corruption, armed robbery, thefts, murders, and other crimes that are nowhere directly connected with religion. If all moral issues will be associated with religion then all the rights will appear righter and wrongs will appear right because someone is stealing something to fulfill the needs of family and religions asserts caring for others. In the same way, the suggestions and arguments that are made for religion and then morality needs to be departed from each other because it will bring a conflict in society that will tarnish the framework of religion. As long as there is a lack of synergy between morality and religion, there would be a mess in which, religion will fail to raise the morality of individuals but efforts would be made to preach the breakthrough where ends will justify the means accompanied by promotion multiplicity of religious denominations that would be both inconsequential and peaceful. Under all these situations, the egalitarian society would be positioned to a mirage without any realistic and sound basis, rushing after illusions of righteousness.

In conclusion, it is asserted that the assumptions that are made about the religion by keeping morality as a driving source is something that sways in moral theology and it is something that is no longer tenable. The underlying theme is, morality has nothing to do with religion but morality does not depend on religion. Religion is something divine, magical and superficial while morality is one of the features. One of the most adequate and subjective answers to the question raised by Socrates can be, morality is loved by God because it is good and it is a positive note for the creation of God. Morality is not an ideology to define the features of God and question the authenticity of the sayings of God. Morality is a spirit of religion to promote goodness that can keep pace in society.

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Socrates, Guilty or Not

Introduction

Socrates (469-399 B.C) was the most exemplary figure among the founding faces of western philosophy. HE was well known as the questioner of everyone and everything. His teaching method was very unique as he used to teach by questioning. He did not left anything written but his students like Plato has let the world known about him. He was known as the follower of a God rather than following lots of Gods, as the people of Athens used to believe. In the end he was accused of spoiling the youth and was sentenced to death. He was known as the wisest man in Athens and he accepted it by saying that he knows his own ignorance (history.com). For Socrates philosophy was a way of life and he not just only wants to talk and think about philosophy but to live it. So to live a philosophical life is to live on the bases of reasons. He lived by analysis the truth and had a very good capacity for arguments. He was a well-known as well as a controversial personality of Athens. He had no writings of his own but his admirers like Xenophon and Plato has wrote about him. He is presented in that work as a wise man with integrity, great insight and having great argumentative skills. His life was ended at age 70 by a group of juries on an accusation of impiety. His speech during the trial is saved in Plato’s Apology of Socrates. His strong views on an examined life and his criticism of states government makes this book the important part of western culture.

He was of the opinion that, “Must one heed popular opinion about moral matters”, and he means that as a citizen of a state we need to follow the laws, despite thinking that they are unfair. He paid the price of this distinction by accepting what the juries decided for him. He found himself before jury of 501 “men of Athens” and he was accused of leading Athenian youth in a wrong way and not believing on the Athenian gods. He did not crumble any word against the jury. Critos was aware of the fact that Socrates was accused unjustly. But Socrates was not going to avoid his fate. Critos tried to motivate him by saying that what people will think and he said that he is going to give his enemy what the need by accepting his faults in front of the juries. Critos motivates him to fight against the injustice that has been done to him but Socrates relied that Critos should not be worrying about what others think but should focus on the appropriate way to live a life. He also remind his student that public opinions not always a good opinion but being the citizen of a state, its laws should be followed. He accepted the fairness of the law and is highlighted in the fact that Socrates refused the escape plan of Cerritos saying that “two wrongs don’t make a right” (Plato).

Socrates and his student extended the boundaries of philosophy by explaining the outsider world from tearing once inner side. His interest in explaining through questioning gave rise to the discipline of logic. His life became a great example for importance of living life according to oncemoral, ethics and principals.

The Trial of Socrates:

The Trail of Socrates can be discussed in two parts “Socrates and Athens” and “the Ordeal”. As the charges against Socrates were disrespecting gods of the city and by making its youth corrupt. But the actual clash was among between his political beliefs and the city of Athens. Choosing the member of a government and freedom of speech was a symbol of pride for the people of Athens. But for Socrates leaders should be chosen based on the fact that they know how to make rules (Magill).

However, “the Ordeal” describes the trial. Socrates was teaching those youth throughout his life time but he was accused of guiding people wrong when he reached in his seventies. It was analyzed later and find out that him being the teacher of Critias, who destroyed democracy once in the history, was punished to death. So again it was a clash of understanding between Socrates and the Athenian society.

However, Meletus charges proved Socrates as anti-democrat and he was asked to change his political views then he said that he would rather die. So he proved himself a principal man. Socrates methods might not be confused with freedom of speech. Socrates would not have chosen that defense mechanism by giving up his philosophical principles. He showed by accepting this decision that the Athens cannot secure the interpretation of civil liberties and proved democracy as not always the right path to lead the people (Welty, pp. 264-267).

As Socrates was the citizen of Athens and he was bound to follow the laws of city states He was imprisoned for wrong doing and was punished according to the laws of the state. He had an option of running away from the prison in result of an offer of his friend or he had to accept the punishment of breaking the laws of the state. The consequences of attempting an escape would be that he and his friends would be known as a law breaker of different levels. His friends will always remain in danger of punishment. Most importantly he will not be address as a just man and he will be accused to harm his friend for his own sake and that was totally against his policies. While the option of accepting the decisions of jury will be resulting in death of a single man who remained stick to his principles of obeying the rules of the state. This option was a dignified one that was a solution to an unjust decision and that might give rise to amendment in laws.

How much fair were these solutions. So by accepting his fate Socrates maintained his dignity and provided his friends a new level of integrity. He understood the necessity of keeping the decision despite being a just decision and running away from it was going to promote the power of anarchy.

He died with courage and his wisdom will be continued by the students he had left behind. But if he run away from dead then it will reflect his friends and poorly himself. His name would be stained throughout the history of Greece. Although he was unable to impress the jury but he stood with his ethics in front of death as he choose to die but not to make his friends die for him (Kyte)

Conclusion:

Socrates is portrayed as a religious figure. He was famous among the Skeptics, Cynics, and Stoics. He and his followers were successful in spreading the light of philosophy and made the world with the help of this incident where their inner moral values were teased apart. According to some historians, there might be some political planning behind his trail; as he was accused on the bases of his virtues, thoughts and teachings. He died happily without any fear and drank the glass of hemlock himself.

Socrates did not defend himself in front of the juries but he showed that saving himself from death is not important as compared to doing the right thing. He showed that the decision of the juries was very unjust but it could not restrain himself in developing his moral soul. His philosophy was based on, “what is a good life?” and for Socrates a good life was one that is lived according to ones virtue. He was always intended to live such a life. His life was ended by evil bodies but he was still virtuous. He did not let evil harm his moral soul by choosing death over escaping from the prison and breaking states laws along with destroy his friends’ life completely.

Socrates accusers were against his virtues. When he realized that his accuser were ignorant of his virtues then he decided to uncover that ignores and never pleaded inform of them. Therefore his behavior in front of juries was high handed. He did not agree on the point of ceasing his philosophical virtues, if the jury agreed to let his go. That proved that he is a man of virtue and he improved the knowledge and virtue of everyone else while accepting his death penalty. He never deserved punished but he accepted this unjust act just to protect his virtues and living his philosophy out. According to him an unexamined life is never worth living but life should be lived with respect to ones virtues and without focusing on outcome (eNotes.com)

Work Cited

Whttps://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/socrates) hat tech companies the apology) have to)

"The Trial of Socrates" Literary Masterpieces, Volume 7Ed. Frank Northern Magill. eNotes.com, Inc. 1989eNotes.com 3 Apr, 2019

Kyte, Richard (2012, draft). An ethical life: A practical guide to ethical decision making.

Gordon Welty , I. F. Stone's The Trial of Socrates, Southern Humanities Review, Vol. XXIII, No. 3 (Summer 1989), pp. 264-267

"How did Socrates defend himself against the charges brought against him?" eNotes, 3 Feb. 2018, https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-socrates-defend-charges-apology-369024. Accessed 3 Apr. 2019

Seeking Truth

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Philosophy

12 December 2019.

Seeking Truth

To understand Kant's and Hume's perspective about truth and knowledge, this essay will examine the difference in philosophical foundations on which Hume and Kant built their arguments. It will then focus on how Kant responds to Hume. Hume was an empiricist, regarding knowledge, empiricists usually give importance to experience through senses, and underestimate the role of reason. Hume says that there are only two kinds of knowledge: Knowledge regarding relations of ideas and knowledge regarding the matter of facts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3WVhS0jq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Noonan)","plainCitation":"(Noonan)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":64,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/YR4NU9EU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/YR4NU9EU"],"itemData":{"id":64,"type":"book","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Routledge philosophy guidebook to Hume on knowledge","author":[{"family":"Noonan","given":"Harold"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Noonan). There is no third kind of knowledge. Hume argues that knowledge regarding the matter of facts can occur only through perception and don’t follow from the rules of logic, such as the law of contradiction. Whereas, knowledge concerning relations of ideas is not dependent on perception, but since refuting those leads to a contradiction, they are accepted as true ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ss7EUxvJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Noonan)","plainCitation":"(Noonan)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":64,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/YR4NU9EU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/YR4NU9EU"],"itemData":{"id":64,"type":"book","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Routledge philosophy guidebook to Hume on knowledge","author":[{"family":"Noonan","given":"Harold"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Noonan). But since this knowledge results from a logical analysis of the given ideas, no new knowledge apart from those given ideas is possible. And also, this analysis cannot say anything regarding truth or knowledge of the given ideas.

Kant is considered to be the father of the ‘Copernican revolution’ in philosophy, as he highlighted the mind’s active role in organizing the concept of reality ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GTAXbr75","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Prichard)","plainCitation":"(Prichard)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":63,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/RVDYPJYW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/RVDYPJYW"],"itemData":{"id":63,"type":"book","publisher":"Clarendon Press","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Kant's theory of knowledge","volume":"5","author":[{"family":"Prichard","given":"Harold Arthur"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1909"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Prichard). Before Kant, rationalists and empiricists argued for the mind’s passive interaction with objects of knowledge. Rationalists argued that the mind has innate ideas, and all knowledge follows from logical implications from these ideas. Empiricists considered the mind to be a blank slate, and in its ideas of objects are received from experience, which forms the basis of all knowledge. In both cases, the nature of the mind’s own active contributions to the structure of knowledge is disregarded. Kant rejects both these conceptions of knowledge. According to him, 'understanding makes nature', i.e. mind's structure makes experience possible ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HJqm8sLP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Prichard)","plainCitation":"(Prichard)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":63,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/RVDYPJYW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/RVDYPJYW"],"itemData":{"id":63,"type":"book","publisher":"Clarendon Press","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Kant's theory of knowledge","volume":"5","author":[{"family":"Prichard","given":"Harold Arthur"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1909"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Prichard). Thus, the mind plays an active role in understanding and structuring objects of knowledge. To deduce the mind’s role in knowledge, Kant devised a methodology, known as inspirational argumentation. In normal argumentation, people deduce conclusions from given premises. Whereas, in transcendental argumentation, on the basis of given experiences, necessary presuppositions make experience possible. Hume says that among the principles of association, the connection is the toughest opinion. But Hume considers these principles as not contributing anything to knowledge. For him, they are merely part of human nature.

So, if knowledge of causality is possible, it should constitute knowledge regarding either relation of ideas, or matter of facts. If causality is to be knowledgeable regarding the relation of ideas, then the idea of effect should be deducible from ideas of its causes, i.e. the idea of effect should be contained within the idea of the cause. The negation of this should lead to a contradiction, but this is not so. Similarly, if it is to be knowledgeable regarding the matter of facts, then it must correspond to some sensitive data. But, we don’t have any perception of causality; we merely have a perception of a series of events ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"s69nfOZ0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Prichard)","plainCitation":"(Prichard)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":63,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/RVDYPJYW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/8reWiRZH/items/RVDYPJYW"],"itemData":{"id":63,"type":"book","publisher":"Clarendon Press","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Kant's theory of knowledge","volume":"5","author":[{"family":"Prichard","given":"Harold Arthur"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1909"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Prichard). Thus, knowledge of causality is impossible. Kant agrees with Hume that causality neither can be deduced from the analysis of ideas, nor can it be perceived from experience. But, he rejects Hume's conclusion that knowledge of causality is impossible. He proposes a third kind of knowledge apart from the relation of ideas and matter of facts, which he calls synthetic a priori judgments. Kant considers the knowledge of causality to be a kind of synthetic a priori judgment. Knowledge of causality is synthetic because the idea of effect is not contained within the idea of the cause. Furthermore, it is a priori because it is a necessary presupposition that makes the experience of the temporal sequence of cause and effect possible.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Noonan, Harold. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Hume on Knowledge. Routledge, 2002.

Prichard, Harold Arthur. Kant’s Theory of Knowledge. Clarendon Press, 1909.

Short Essay - Kant's Vs. Aristotle's Ethics

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Short Essay - Kant's vs. Aristotle's Ethics

Times have seen many philosophers who have advocated in favor or against ethics or virtue. There have been many notable philosophers who have presented different views regarding various aspects of virtue and ethics, and every argument has its own pros and cons. The below-mentioned details discuss my actions in a situation where a famous celebrity (Justin Beber) had a severe accident and he is hanging off a cliff. His life is in serious danger as he is about to fall. The waters below contain deadly sharks, which will tear him into pieces as soon as he falls down. Now the following piece of writing demands me to view the whole situation in light of both schools of thought: the one presented by Aristotle and the other one presented by Kant. The following details will also discuss the similarities and differences between the outcomes of both actions.

My Action According To Aristotle’s Point Of View

Aristotle defines the various aspects of virtue as the moderation between the two vices. The famous philosopher urges his followers to behave in a right and appropriate manner as an average or mean between an extreme of deficiency and excess (Gerson). In this case, the excess of virtue would be that I save the life of the famous celebrity, take care of him completely, take him to the hospital and remain with him until he becomes completely healthy. However, a deficiency of virtue would mean that I read the tweet and ignore it. In accordance with Aristotle’s point of view, I would rescue Beber and leave him in the hospital or a nearby clinic, where he will be taken care of. This would be a moderate act and in complete compliance with Aristotle’s teachings.

My Action According to Kant’s Point of View

Contrary to Aristotle’s beliefs, Emmanuel Kant considers virtue as a necessary aspect of a human’s life. According to him, the judgment of an action being right or wrong does not depend upon its consequences but on the fact whether it fulfills the duty or not (Kant). Hence, according to Kant’s teachings, it becomes my moral duty to save the life of any person who is in Beber’s situation, whether I like him or not. Hence, I would rescue him and take him to the nearest hospital as soon as possible. Moreover, the acceptance of reward will also become doubtful in this respect, as saving the life of the celebrity was my moral duty and I should have done it with or without the greed of reward.

Similarities and Differences Between Kantian Ethics and Aristotle’s Virtue of Ethics to the Situation

There are a number of similarities that occur in both cases. One of the most notable is that the life of the celebrity will be saved. Whether the approach of Aristotle or Emmanuel Kant is followed, action in both of the cases will mean that the life of a famous singer is safe. However, the only difference would lie in the level of care and the acceptance of reward. In the case of following Aristotle’s school of thought, the level of care will be moderate and the acceptance of reward will be necessary, as the reward will be acting as a major motivator in my action. While in the case of Kantian school of thought, it becomes my moral duty to save the life of the celebrity, with or without the inclusion of reward. Kantian school of thought also requires the maximum level of attention and care.

Works Cited:

Gerson, Lloyd P. Aristotle and other Platonists. Cornell University Press, 2017.

Kant, Immanuel. Kant: The metaphysics of morals. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Should You Kill The Fat Man

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Should you kill the fat man?

Four scenarios are described in this philosophy experiment and they are associated with gauging the inherent levels of morality that each one of us has in ourselves.

In the first scenario, it is described that the breaks of a train have failed and five people are standing right in the middle of the track where this train is headed. It turns out that a collision between the train and those five people is inevitable and the only way out is that if the driver diverts the train in the ‘right’ direction as there is a siding. In that siding, there is a person stuck. This philosophical dilemma poses the question that should the driver divert the train towards the siding or let it loose, which would entail the killing of five men. If the driver diverts the train, only one person would be killed.

My answer:

I opt for the driver to turn the train because according to my preliminary responses, I believe that maximizing happiness is a moral requirement. If the driver turns the train, five people will be saved. I also tend to follow the utilitarian perspective in this regard which advocates that the better action is one which ensures good and prosperity of the majority. According to the results of this scenario in the quiz, my preliminary opinion and the response of this experiment had no contradiction.

In the second scenario, which is known as ‘Fat man on the bridge’, there is a person who is standing on a footbridge which is lodged on the tracks. The first person is well aware of the fact that this train is going to hit the five men stuck on the track and is approaching soon. In this scenario, the collision is inevitable. Here the condition for avoiding a head-on collision is to throw a heavy weight on the train from above to stop it according to the laws of motion. The scenario entails that the only weight available is a very overweight man and he too is also sentient of the fact that the train will hit the five men. The question is whether the first person should throw the stout man on the train to stop it or let the train continue its journey. The former condition would imply that the fat person dies while the latter implies that five people will be killed if the train hits them. Flipping the switch might seem realistic if this was to happen in the real world, but in a fictional problem or a philosophical dilemma, there is a strong distrust expressed for those people who use other human beings as a means to an end CITATION Syt19 \l 1033 (Sytsma).

My answer:

I responded with choosing the option that the fat man should be pushed on the track. The analysis of this quiz opined that my response is consistent with my claim that only one person should be killed instead of five because again, this will maximize happiness as it is a moral requirement.

The third scenario is highly identical to the scenario which is mentioned above but here, there is a key difference. The first person knows that the fat man has sabotaged the breaks of the train because he was highly upset with the increasing rate of fares. Just like in the previous scenario, there is only one way to stop the train and save five people who are stuck on the train lines and that is to push the saboteur on the train to stop it from killing the five men. If this was not done, the five people on the track would be dead in no time.

My answer:

Out of the two options, I opt that the fat man should be pushed so that he stops train. The analysis of this response advocated that throwing the saboteur off the bridge is consistent with my previous response. The resulting analysis also said that there is an inconsistency in my responses, because in my preliminary answers, I held that causing another person’s death, whatever the case may be, is always and utterly wrong. I would like to present a counter-argument in this case and would maintain that causing another person’s death is not wrong if we are aware of the fact that he put several lives in danger. I also opted for this claim earlier because I was not aware of the context that lie ahead of me.

The fourth scenario is the most interesting of all.

Description of the scenario: In this final scenario, the fat man is now in custody of the police after being arrested. The fat man asserts that in a major urban center, he has hidden a nuclear device which is set to explode in a day; 24 hours from that very moment. There are some conditions in this scenario which have to be kept in mind by all those people who are involved in this philosophy experiment:

In 24 hours, the bomb will explode.

If the bomb explodes in this time as mentioned in the first statement, it will exterminate one million people irrespective of age, gender, or any other criteria.

There is a strong chance that if in 24 hours, the explosive device discarding squad gets to the nuclear device, the deadly device may be defused.

No one can do anything to let the location of the explosive device slip from the fat man. No amount of persuasion or convincing will help in this case.

The only way out is that there is a 75% chance of the fat man’s complicity, only if he is tortured.

The question here is that is it moral to torture the fat man in order to save a million lives?

I opted for an unconventional response but in hindsight I was viewing the scenario through a bigger picture. This philosophy experiment led me to believe that the fat man ought to be tortured because the probability of him disclosing the location of the deadly device is high. The analysis revealed that it is directly contradicting with my initial claim that torture, as a matter of core values and principles, is immoral and wrong. I would like to present a counter-argument here that without being aware of the situational context, how can one support torture. A very brief hint of consistency was exhibited here because this response was harmonious with the other answers that I had given. One might object that I should have thought about various other scenarios before claiming that torture is always wrong, but here, I again maintained a utilitarian perspective and opted for the fat man to be killed in the pursuit to save a million lives. Our moral intuitions also tell us that causing harm or violence to others is totally wrong and one should avoid such a scenario at all costs CITATION Mol16 \l 1033 (Crockett).

Consistency level:

My consistency score in this philosophy experiment turned out to be 58% which is lower than the average score. The average score of this philosophy experiment is 75%.

The philosophy experiment asserts that it is highly preferable if the moral choices of an individual are governed by some moral principles that are consistently applied. But I would like to corroborate another statement from the analysis that most of the moral choices we make are more like feelings of the gut or are based on intuition.

Works Cited:

BIBLIOGRAPHY Crockett, Molly. "The trolley problem: would you kill one person to save many others?" 12 Dec 2016. The Guardian. 27 1 2020.

Sytsma, Justin, and Jonathan Livengood. " "Causal Attributions and the Trolley Problem." ." (2019).

Socrates And Plato

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Socrates and Plato

Ancient Greek Philosophy gave birth to two of the biggest philosophers of its time; Socrates and Plato. Both of these philosophers covered an enormous number of topics including ethics, politics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, and mastered the art of philosophy in these genres. Their similarities in these fields grew stronger with time as the student-teacher relationship grew.

The Apology by Plato is an interpretation of the trails of Socrates back in 399BC where he explains the kind of person he was and the kind of life he led. The word "Apology' in this context is an "explanation' and should not be confused with ‘being sorry'. So, “The Apology” is an explanation of Socrates trails in court when he was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth. He denied all the accusations and kept presenting his definition of truth because he wanted to save the entire generation of Athens. For Socrates, life is something to be lived, not a thought or a conversation to be talked about. His core objective of life was, living life with reasons means there should be a reason for the life we are living and pursue the truth behind everything. An examined life is better than an unexamined life and this is what he uttered during his trails and preferred to continue to find the truth to his question. If seeking the truth and knowing about his ignorance means corrupting youth, then he is ready for whatever decision the court will make. He preferred death over being aware of his ignorance, and this way he challenged the answer of the Delphic oracle. Death is natural and can come anytime; it is either of the two things: A Change of place or a Deep sleep and he does not mind both because he is not a sophist rather someone who holds tight to the claim. He is not afraid of death as it's peaceful than the waking irrational ignorant waking days. Through death, he will be able to meet all the great Greek thinkers and in no way be harmed as he has been harmed the ignorance of the people of Athens ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Q7xaPoyr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Leibowitz)","plainCitation":"(Leibowitz)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":63,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/6C543NLW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/6C543NLW"],"itemData":{"id":63,"type":"book","title":"The Ironic Defense of Socrates: Plato's Apology","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","number-of-pages":"205","source":"Google Books","abstract":"This book offers a controversial interpretation of Plato's Apology of Socrates. By paying unusually close attention to what Socrates indicates about the meaning and extent of his irony, David Leibowitz arrives at unconventional conclusions about Socrates' teaching on virtue, politics, and the gods; the significance of his famous turn from natural philosophy to political philosophy; and the purpose of his insolent 'defense speech'. Leibowitz shows that Socrates is not just a colorful and quirky figure from the distant past but an unrivaled guide to the good life - the thoughtful life - who is as relevant today as in ancient Athens. On the basis of his unconventional understanding of the dialogue as a whole, and of the Delphic oracle story in particular, Leibowitz shows that the Apology is the key to the Platonic corpus, indicating how many of the disparate themes and apparently contradictory conclusions of the other dialogues fit together.","ISBN":"978-1-139-49026-9","note":"Google-Books-ID: _JPsatMWpAgC","title-short":"The Ironic Defense of Socrates","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Leibowitz","given":"David M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",7,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Leibowitz)

The platonic ideal of the philosophy of life is a life directed towards the Good and fruitful life of virtue. Phaedo by Plato is a dense dialogue Socrates had with his fellow philosopher about the immortality of the soul and philosophical life. It contains an extended discussion of the theory of forms introduced by Socrates. One of the main things he discussed in Phaedo is the idea of death as a normal thing and a true philosopher practices death at every moment and thinks body as an obstacle. Once the search for happiness begins, death does not count any importance in life, it is a search for the actual goodness and happiness that does not involve any material approach. The philosophy of life is the journey of finding the truth and the separation of the soul from the body can ease this journey. It's a continuation process and should be greeted amicably. Practicing death is important in refining people's character because the materialistic approach of men is the root of evil. Separation of the body from the soul enables man to see beyond the worldly things.

The immortality of the soul is somewhat very important for a philosophical way of life. The arguments in the Phaedo suggest that the soul existed before birth and will continue to exist after death. The body is a hindrance in the search for wisdom and happiness. It is important to acknowledge the fact that the sole which is undying and never-ending is the sole purpose of life. The immortality of the soul is indestructible once the body dies

Both the philosophers give a detailed account of how a life a good life should be lived and they inspire me in a way that death is not something to be afraid of rather it is an acceptance to enter into a better life than this. They inspire me to lead a life with reasons and become aware of my ignorance and there is no shame in that.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Leibowitz, David M. The Ironic Defense of Socrates: Plato’s Apology. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Socrates And The Pursuit Of Wisdom

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Socrates and the Pursuit of Wisdom

Introduction

Philosophy is usually defined as a “pursuit of wisdom", also termed as "love of knowledge." Socrates one of the famous Greek philosophers is well known for his concepts and work that inferred the idea of wisdom, in fact an account of “real pursuit of wisdom”. Addressing wise people, Socrates dug out actual definition of wisdom stressing that wisdom is an acceptance and acknowledgment of what one don’t know. He defined wisdom as a quest for good life. Socrates used a method of “reasoning” to look ahead for seeking wisdom. Socrates questioned all wise people he knew such as, politicians, craftsmen, and poets. As everyone failed to answer Socrates’s question, he introduced Socrates method to seek wisdom. The method infers to question until a statement is reached, valid enough to address scrutiny. Socrates asserted an undeniable fact that pursuit of wisdom is an understanding of limit of knowledge, taking into account theory or treatise.

Discussion

Socrates is one of the most intelligent philosophers; he wrote no major works of his own but his teachings and life can be understood through his friends and students. "The Apology," written by Plato is one of the significant writings on Socrates. The great philosopher inferred a concept known as, "Socratic wisdom." (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). It refers to the understanding of limits of knowledge, taking into account that man knows nothing and makes no assumption of knowing anything that is less or more. The derivation of Socrates understanding of wisdom can be traced from Plato’s writings. Apology is a detailed account that describes trials of Socrates that influenced understanding of the truest aspect of Socratic wisdom. (Plato, et, al. 2018).

Although a famous quotation is attributed to Socrates, “I know that I know nothing” refers to a complete account of Socrates’s understanding of life and wisdom. Socrates definition of wisdom distinguishes him from other people, taking into account his status as a divine example. He infers that man is obliged to live a life of philosophical examination. In a nutshell, Apology is one of the fundamentals to understand the concept of human wisdom. Socrates introduces the idea of “human wisdom” in the context of “historical charges." (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). Human wisdom unfolds into two components; one of the components adheres to ‘divine wisdom". Divine wisdom refers to the belief that people don’t know anything. In a simplified form, wisdom is to know that one is not wise. Other aspect of quotation infers that "human wisdom is an account of false beliefs." (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). It would not be wrong to say that Socrates does not infer an expression of skepticism, in fact, he imparted dogmatism.

According to him, wisdom lies in the realization of the fact that man knows nothing. In a nutshell, "Socrates definition of wisdom” unfolds two aspects of understanding. One aspect highlights the fact that Socrates knows nothing while the other aspect infers that he does not claim he doesn't know anything, in fact, he is aware of ignorance and the phenomena of "ignorance" also called Socratic Ignorance. (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). The quest for knowledge directed Socrates to a method that can act as a guide in search of wisdom. The practical implication of this method can be found in the philosopher's search for knowledge and wisdom. Socrates tried to reach out to all the educated and literate people in Athens to know their wisdom and seek answers to his questions. He used a method of "cross-examination”, "discussion" and “rationalism" to know the validity of knowledge politicians had. Socrates realized that people with greatest reputations were deficient in knowledge while others who were supposed to be less intelligent were more knowledgeable and intelligent. (Apology 5). Socrates gave up asking politicians and shifted toward poets. The poets in ancient time inferred that they had a direct line to truth and described a deep understanding of the wisdom of customs and traditions. Even the poets were unable to clarify Socrates, and it made him realize that "it is not wisdom that enables a poet to write poet, it is an instinct and an inspiration." (Apology 51). Socrates turned towards architects and craftsmen, he observed the same mistake thus he came to know that obsession of knowing everything makes people stay in ignorance.

Socrates claims, it is not true wisdom to stress that human wisdom can be justified as an acknowledgment or an acceptance that one cannot know everything, nor is one capable of knowing everything. This idea of true wisdom does not infer that people should not strive for wisdom, in fact it stressed that it is vital for every human being to strive for attainment of a good life and it should be an ultimate goal of mankind. A famous quote by Socrates is, "An unexamined life is not worth living." (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). The quotation highlights that the aim of life is to grow spiritually and philosophically, where life is meant to undergo an analysis of values and beliefs. Socrates used a method called, "elenchus," also known as the Socratic Method that can enable people to become more aware of their lack of knowledge and ignorance leading to modesty and humility. (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). It is important to note that Socrates method is not only concerned with what is actually true, in fact, it also adhered to "what is actually not true." Socrates is of the view that ignorance is better than knowledge because the only true and valuable knowledge is the knowledge of good, an authoritative knowledge that can advise us correctly when to use other goods and skills in our possessions.” (Plato, et, al. 2018).

“The unexamined life is not worth living for human beings" (Apology 38). The quotation is an insistence that humanity is called for self-analysis, taking into account that one should live in accordance with a meaningful and well-lived life. It would not be wrong to say that it is an emphasis to the “passage of pain and pleasure”; Socrates calls for an examined life that can reject the obsessions of power, reputation and wealth. (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). The aim of an examined life is to infer a reflection that can appraise true worth of a human soul. Socrates imparts a conception of “well-lived life" that differs from the context of contemporary philosophers. Although many of the philosophers adhere to a moral life but it is not based on discussions. In a nutshell, Socratic meaning highlights the importance of cross-examination, a dialogue and a conversation with others rather than with oneself. Unexamined life refers to unwillingness and inability to opt for inquiry with cogent reasoning. (Peterson, et, al. 2017, pp. 273-287). Socrates choice of death over anything else affirms his stress on the analysis of unexamined life. In a nutshell, it is a code of conduct with two features. On one side, lust of life conquers everything, on the other hand, an unexamined life is not worth living, highlighting that "examined life is devoted to quest for wisdom." Uncontroversially, whatever is the outcome of wisdom; one must observe the right doing. To know wisdom is to seek discussion and it will lead to an analysis of life.

Conclusion

Socrates, a man of wisdom, has brought into insight a circle where seeking wisdom is a start as well as an eventual end of human being. Wisdom invites examination, and an unexamined life is worthless. So, in order to live a worth living life, one must adhere to seek wisdom, analyze action in the light of right and wrong taking into account that actual knowledge is to believe that one knows nothing.

Work Cited

Peterson, Valerie V. "Plato's Allegory of the Cave: literacy and "the good." Review of Communication 17.4 (2017): 273-287.

Plato, By. Apology. BookRix, 2018.