Philosophical Essay

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Question 1: What kind of reasoning Descartes use to support the Cogito in the first meditation?

Answer: Descartes’s project appears to be more consistent with the universal thinking. It appears that he is projecting the Meta shape of the limits of our imaginations. For him everything that exist in the universe has any connection with the human interpretations of the thoughts. It has challenged the Aristotle’ interpretation of the senses. Since Aristotle has based the ideas on human senses, creates a relation between the senses and the universe. For example, in Aristotle’s view the imagination is attached to thinking and universe is attached to its seeing. Unless one cannot think, he or she cannot imagine. Similarly if one cannot see, he or she cannot guess the vastness of the universe. The reasoning Descartes use to support the Cogito in first meditation is difficult to answer. As the classic formation of this is “I think, therefore I am” is easy to interpret in a lay man thought. But it has many interpretations. For example if one thinks, according to Descartes, he has all in his thoughts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t8PrOx1W","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Descartes)","plainCitation":"(Descartes)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":211,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SFMLFJZW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SFMLFJZW"],"itemData":{"id":211,"type":"book","title":"René Descartes: Meditations on first philosophy: With selections from the objections and replies","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"René Descartes","author":[{"family":"Descartes","given":"René"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Descartes). It is more likely that he is thinking in the every possible manner in the first meditation. The meditator calls the cogito a very clear and a very different perception. Such perceptions are created as a result of the imaginations. Since imagination is very large and there are many possibilities that one’s interpretation might not get in connection to other. This is how also the things get in order, For Descartes this is what is different in our imaginations. Descartes imaginations are opened to wide interpretations. Things for him are wide and invites much different contours to understand. But if we think the God exist, we are now at the much different place to everyone. For example, Descartes claim that we find a reason to associate our thinking too. In this case cogito is not assured unless in some late meditations.

Question 2: What point Descartes tries to show by using the wax argument and other argument which supports his point?

Answer: By using the Wax argument, Descartes has superseded the mind, compared to the body. For him, mind has been the driver of the imaginations. It creates thoughts, it adds images, it colors them, and it add life to them. That is how the mind has a primary role over the body. For Descartes, the body has a secondary importance. It is sub ordinate to the imaginations created by mind. If someone want to observe, he can observe the body, the existence and not the inner thing. These hidden feelings are everything. They make the person drives and make him also believe on the thinks that do not exists in the real world. Descartes substantiates his argument by pointing toward many such phenomena where a human being is attracted toward a thing of less important. For him every act reinforces and strengthens the cogito. But in the process of strengthening of Cogito, he mentions that it does not in any way mean that Descartes is moving away from hos attractions for the mind. He has put the emphasis on mind on every way, for him the mind is the center of all the phenomena taking place in the universe. He believes that if I take myself back from the love of mind, I don’t then have anything to associate my feelings and my thoughts to. Another argument he uses to associate himself more toward the mind, is his own abilities, which he thinks are what had made him. He owns every aspect of his mind to himself. He places the mind over the body for so many reasons which makes him distinguished from many others around him. He also mentions that if the body has any attraction (which attracts the earthly beings), it is the mind which makes it attract. In short, Descartes have not much space for the body in his writings.

Work Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Descartes, René. René Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy: With Selections from the Objections and Replies. Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Philosophical Essay

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Philosophical Essay

Pensées, the work of Blaise Pascal is one of the most profound and contentious piece because of its content “Pascal’s Wager”. Pensées manifests the argument on the existence of God. According to Blaise Pascal, it is a choice to have faith in God. If someone has faith in God, he should carry substantial weight to show his faith. In other words, an individual who has faith in God, spends his life for eternity and happiness by obeying the orders of God in true letter and spirits. However, one who does not believe, advances to nourish negative sentiments pertinent to the existence of God underpinned in eternal sorrow and outweighs the outcome of a piousness lifetime. Primarily, Blaise Pascal advanced to distinguish between the people who believed in God and refrained from adhering. Christians oppose the view of Pascal because of several reasons. For instance, according to Christianity, a person who believes in God and spends his life worshiping God to avoid hell will get reward afterlife. However, Pascal gambles the concept of existence of God. He highlights the way one should spend life with the fundamental belief that God exists. He lacked the provision of profound argument and evidence to identify whether God exists or not. Therefore, it can be considered as a motivational theory for the individuals who have faith in God.

The strongest part of Pascal’s argument is not manifested in the refutation of atheism. Instead, it is delineated by refutation of dissent as an impossible endeavor. Irrefutably, agnosticism is highlighted as the plausible option which nourishes an uncommitted and skeptical attitude. For instance, Pascal replies to the agnostic as, “But you must wager” when confronted with the claim of not wagering fundamentally ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kvqcCe1g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Blaise Pascal, \\uc0\\u8220{}The Wager\\uc0\\u8221{}})","plainCitation":"(Blaise Pascal, “The Wager”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":229,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/h6KbaPMu/items/BV94CI5M"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/h6KbaPMu/items/BV94CI5M"],"itemData":{"id":229,"type":"webpage","title":"Blaise Pascal, \"The Wager\"","URL":"https://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/notes-pascal.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Blaise Pascal, “The Wager”). It is an intricate aspect that postulates humans are the participants of life, not merely observers. They are similar to the ships which ought to reach destination while sailing past a spot with signs proclaiming that it is true happiness and home. These signs on the spot reflect God while the ships are human lives. The agnostic advances to adopt a radical attitude by neither disbelieving nor believing. Such significant are the manifestations of gamble in The Wager. For instance, the dissents are not staying on the spot, refraining from running away from it and hence living an ambiguous life. In essence, they are anchored at an optimal distance away till the weather is clear and they can witness the credibility of the spot as mystical or realistic. It raises a critical question. Why is this behavior unreasonable or even impossible?

Furthermore, the strongest argument can be explored as the ship of life is always moving. It passes across the detrimental and productive waters of time. In the journey, a place surfaces which has a dead end. It is the point where the fuel runs out and it gets too late to traverse in the past. Primarily, the gamble in the argument strengthens under the influence of death. Had humans been immortal, the wager would be absolute imprudent or irrational. The instance of death strengthens the argument and constructs the strongest argument as deliberated above. Pascal lived in the days when skepticism dominated the theoretical paradigms related to a wide range of dogmas and realities. The classical postulates highlighting the existence of God were no longer adhered by majority of the population. Under these circumstances, Pascal coined the mystical wager. Though majority of the arguments were weakly supplemented with evidence, the rejection of agnosticism as an impossible aspect sounded the strongest.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Blaise Pascal, “The Wager.” https://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/notes-pascal.html. Accessed 27 Mar. 2019.

Philosophy

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Philosophy

Ethics is a thorough system of one’s ideologies determining the degree of righteousness and wrongness. Philosophers believe that ethics shape the moral status of individuals and are derived strongly by emotions. The sense of ethics can provide basic guidance to live in a social constraint and practice one’s moral values. Ethics has played a vital role since the beginning of human civilization. All humans naturally bear a distinctive sense of fairness and have the ability to choose what interests them and society at large. These innate feelings motivate decision-making capabilities. But for any choice humans make, there has to be moral reasoning behind it. It is important to discover the truth first and it can not only simply rely on our feelings. Our desires, prejudice, and cultural values may tempt us into assuming the truth and not having to think through logical reasoning. An ethically right decision will always have the aptitude of proving moral arguments. It is hard to know what reasons are good enough but we can try by keeping the analysis unbiased and bringing moral values into play.

Understanding morality is a hard subject as we observe different cultures believe in different moral values. The lack of human abilities in finding universal moral truths has made us accept the concept of cultural relativism. The rights and wrongs are defined by a society's moral code meaning if society considers a certain thing right, it is right at least within that society. On the other hand, subjective relativism is based on an individual's perception of right and wrong. It believes in objective standards used to judge that a society's moral codes are better than another's. Each individual has the authority to have their definition of fairness. But in cultural relativism, it is considered an arrogant trait to judge other cultures CITATION Rac69 \l 1033 (Rachels and Rachels). It is believed to always tolerate their norms but it is a huge challenge as to what if the other society's norms do not favor tolerating them? It is simply impossible to make someone accept the cultural variations against their fundamental beliefs. We can only make things easier by broadening our minds and realize that our feelings are not mere perceptions of truth but because of cultural conditioning. As Ruth Benedict said; “Morality differs in every society, and is a convenient term for socially approved habits.”

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Rachels, James and Stuart Rachels. The Elements of Moral Philosophy. 9. McGraw-Hill, 1969.

Philosophy



Philosophy

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Philosophy

Introduction

“The Tree of Life” is an American drama Film that came out in 2011. Iota was an experimental project jointly produced by Sarah Green, Bill Pohland, and Brad Pitt. Dede Gardner, and Grant Hill and directed by Terrence Malick. The star cast included Brad Pitt, Jessica Chastain, Sean Penn, Tye Sheridan, Hunter McCracken, and Laramie Eppler. The film is based upon the Origin and meaning of life through the vivid memories of a middle-aged man from his childhood. The picture focuses on the initiation of the universe and the inception of life on planet Earth.

The plot of the movie revolves around a middle-class family who lives in Texas in the 1950s, the O'Brien's. O’Brien’s eldest son gets flashbacks and glimpses of his future life in which he sees his parents, Mr. and Mrs. O’Brien, and his younger brother R. L., who dies in the 1960s when he was just nineteen. The eldest son, Jack O’Brien is happily married with a family and has a job as an architect. He gets a flashback of the past as he sees darkness and then the universe, Milky Way emerging out of it, as the background voices keep asking existential questions. Further, he gets glimpses of the creation of the planet Earth, volcanic eruption and the birth of life in the form of microbes. Further, life starts developing, in the form of seas, plants and ultimately the biggest form of life as dinosaurs. The film has also portrayed the famous Cretacous-Paleogene extinction event.

The movie then turns towards the starting of a family by The O’Brien’s; their first child, Jack O’Brien is newly born, followed gradually by his two brothers. When young Jack reaches adolescence, he faces the choice of leading his life by way of grace or nature, as posed by his parents. Jack finds his parents, Mr. and Mrs., O’Brien as two different personalities whose personality is quite contrasting with each other. Mr. O’Brien is authoritative, strict and a pessimist as he sees the world as an exploitative and corrupt place. He works at a power plant and has a deep passion for music. On the other hand, Mrs. O’Brien is a kind-hearted and gentle woman, who cares for her children very much and presents the world as a positive and happy place.

Jack deeply hates his father and blames his mother for bearing his abusive behavior, which has turned him into a strict human being. He turns into a rebel once his father goes out on an extended business trip, and along with the other boys of his age, he takes questionable steps like vandalism an animal abuse. He also trespasses in a neighbor’s home and involves in stealing. Meanwhile, when Mr. O’Brien comes back from his business trip, he learns that the power plant he works for has been closed and he will have to work at an inferior position. This moves him deeply, and he apologizes to jack for rude behavior all these years.

The story then moves to the present, and Jack sees himself following a young girl who takes him through a wooden door located in rocky terrains. Here he sees a glimpse of the future in which he sees the images of death and the dead people coming back. He sees his parents, his dead younger brother and all the people he knew who were dead. His family is happy to see him. Jack then sees himself getting married and her mother handing over his son to the bride.

The film faced many delays in its release, which was initially planned in 2009 and then in 2010 due to post-production and developmental issues. The film was finally premiered in 2011 in Cannes Film festival, where it bagged Palme d’Or, the highest prize awarded in the Cannes Film Festival. The film was hugely acclaimed among the general audience. It also received great remarks and appreciation from the critics and was listed at the number one on the top ten Metacritic’s review aggregator. Moreover, “The Tree of Life” also appeared in the world’s top 250 movies as per the 2012 Sight and Sound Critic’s Poll and gained a position in the list of America’s greatest films as per the polls conducted by BBC. The film was also nominated for three categories of Academy Awards; Best Director, Best Picture and Best Cinematography.

Discussion

The movie has portrayed philosophical thoughts amazingly with excellent use of visuals and sound. The flashbacks and the flash-forwards have been shown intelligently with the use of visual effects. There are multiple concepts of philosophy that Malick tries to elaborate in a short span of time. The picture starts with the iconic statement from the Book of Job: "Where were you when I laid the foundations of the Earth? When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy?” This statement is in itself a powerful package of philosophy in which the Creation of the whole universe has been summarized.

The second and most important concept that has been portrayed in the film is the depiction of Death. The basic question that will change everything last forever, or it has an end? The third major concept of philosophy discussed in “the Tree of Life” is regarding the way of life. The question has always been a hot topic of debate that how a person should lead their life, whether it should be according to nature or grace? All these and many other questions of philosophy are questioned in the movie, and the director tries to clarify many people's concepts and confusions in an innovative yet interesting way.

Philosophical Ideas

The Creation of the Universe

The first and foremost Philosophical idea that has been explained and most probably the whole basis of the film is showing in the very beginning of the movie when a quotation flashes on the screen, from the Book of Job: "Where were you when I laid the foundations of the Earth?... When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy?" [38; 4, 7]

This quotation clearly invites a human to ponder over the creation of this vast universe. The Creator himself addresses in Bible that where were you (mean the human) when the Universe was being created; urges the reader or the viewer to ponder over the fact that how was this universe built and how it has progressed. A normal human being may take many aspects of this quotation, but the clear meaning is the thinking over the fact of creation of this universe. The God Himself urges the human mind to ponder and investigate the process with which the universe was made; was it created on its own? Did someone create it? Did this Universe go through any stages when it was being formed? How did those stages prove to be for this Universe? How was our own planet, Planet Earth, was formed? What were the various phases of earth formation? How did life start on Earth? How did life come to the present stage?

The quotation may seem little, but it encompasses the whole universe in it and a number of procedures, phases, and stages. The director explains these concepts beautifully by taking the main lead of the movie, Jack O’Brien back in times, even before the creation of the universe and tries to answer these phenomena by showing the formation of the universe, the production of Milky Way, the formation of Earth, smoothly Moving to the initiation of life in the form of microbes and then plants on earth and then finally the great Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

The Ending of Life

The second philosophical idea discussed in the movie is Death. Death has always been an interesting and widely discussed phenomenon, and there has been lots of discussion and debates over it. Many philosophers consider it an ending of everything for the person who dies. They are of the view that when a person dies, he or she just ends forever. Nothing of them remains behind, and it's a total finish of everything for them. On the other hand, there is a group of philosophers who are of the view that death is not an end; in fact, it is just a way or medium of transportations of a human soul from place to another, most appropriately from one universe to another. This ideology emphasizes that when a human dies, he or she does not end forever, but moves to another universe, which can neither be reached nor seen by the living and all humans will reunite in the Hereafter .

The Director is also of the view that human life does not end with the death and portrays this notion in the form of flash-forward of the main character, where he passes through a wooden door and ultimately meets his parents and younger brother, who had died. The Wooden door frame depicts the death, the boundary between the two universes. The rocky terrain intends to show the hardships and difficulties a person has to bear to get to the other universe after death. When Jack passes through the frame, he enters a totally new world, where everything and everyone is happy, and no trace of sadness can be seen.

Nature or Grace?

Another critical question of philosophy, which the director has tried to confront and answer, is that how a person should lead their lives. There has been a long debate going on over this topic and experts have multiple opinions over it. Some philosophers are of the view that a person should lead their lives as per their own nature and the circumstances around them. Another approach tries to handle life with kindness, compassion, and care; No matter what the circumstances and situations are, a person should always be empathetic and helpful .

Both these approaches have been adopted in the picture, in which two people are shown leading their lives following both approaches. Mr. O’Brien has been shown leading his life according to Nature; he is a very strict and rigid man who thinks that the world is a mean place. On the other hand, Mrs. O’Brien is an entirely opposite person having a soft and caring nature and leading her life according to the rule of Grace and considers the world as a place of wonder.

Conclusion

Although a person may feel confused and stuck while watching the movie, the ideas have been elaborated very intelligently, so that it becomes easy for a person to understand and unravel the mysteries of philosophy even for a layman. Sometimes it may feel that a person is watching two movies at a time or there has been an overdose of heavy philosophical ideas. Despite all these facts, a viewer gets to gain a bundle of knowledge from various events in the movie, happening with the O’Brien family and how they shape the behavior of the family. The film justifies the ideas of philosophy in a just and proper manner.

End Notes

Berglund, Mia MU. "Learning turning points—in life with long-term illness—visualized with the help of the life-world philosophy." International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being 9, no. 1 (2014): 22842.

Hittinger, Russell. The first grace: Rediscovering the natural law in a post-Christian world. Open Road Media, 2014.

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Why Abortion is Immoral - Don Marquis

In this essay, I will defend my position and adjudicate between the arguments analyzed and criticized from the article which is entitled “Why Abortion is Immoral.” The article is written by Don Marquis and was published in the year 1989. The author has argued about the abortion debate, while mainly holding the position that abortion is immoral because of the fact that the fetus holds the position of a potential human being and it is not morally rights to take away that right of living. The author has highlighted both sides of the opinion while supporting the point that abortion is immoral. I will explain and defend my position in the abortion debate in light of the arguments presented in the article by Marquis.

I support the argument of the anti-abortionists group that the fetus holds the status of human beings because it is a potential human being and has a future ahead of it. According to my opinion, killing a fetus is like killing a human being. On the other hand, the supporters of abortion are of the few that killing a fetus is not a wrongful or immoral act because of the fact that it is unconscious and does not have the ability to feel the pain. I do not agree with this stance on the basis that killing a human being should not be associated with his or her pain. If a human being is killed in a painless manner, the act does not become justified just because the death was painless. A fetus does have the potential of developing into a human being and killing it in any manner is immoral (Marquis, 195).

The supporters of the abortion debate claim that the fetus is only the collection of few living cells and it would not be right to say that it is equal to adult human beings. They have presented their point in quite an effective manner claiming that killing human cells which have the future is baseless because of the fact that the culture of cancer cells also has a future; however, it cannot be permitted to continue its existence. I do not agree with this stance of the abortionist stand firm on the point that abortion is immoral. The reason for my opposition to the claim is that it is not right to compare the cells of the fetus with the cells of cancer. There is no doubt that cancer cells are destructive and have the potential of harming the body of human beings. On the other hand, the cells of a fetus do not cause any harm to the human body, except for the pain that is part of their creation process. The fetus cells develop into human beings, while the cancer cells would only develop into diseases, which would eventually take the life of human beings. I firmly support the point that abortion is immoral because it takes away the right of living and developing from a fetus which is on the mercy of human beings (Marquis, 198).

Marquis has presented the claims of the supporters of abortion and the anti-abortionist groups in quite an effective manner. I support the point of view that abortion is immoral and cannot be justified in any manner. The fetus is unconscious and does not have the ability of feeling pain is not enough to justify its killing. Killing a human being in a painful or painless manner remains the same brutal act, which should not be supported. Moreover, nothing can deny the fact that a fetus would develop into a human being, and killing it even before it becomes unconscious is immoral.

Taking Life

The Embryo and Fetus - Peter Singer

In this essay, I will defend my position and adjudicate between the arguments analyzed and criticized in the article "Taking Life, The Embryo and Fetus." The article is written by "Peter Singer" and was published in the year 1993. The author has argued about the status of embryo or fetus while presenting his point about the abortion debate. The author holds the point of view that the fetus is a sentient being therefor should not be harmed. Moreover, the author has also discussed the views of the conservatives and liberals about the debate of the morality or immorality of abortion. I will explain and defend my position in the abortion debate in light of the arguments presented in the article by Singer.

Singer has explained the point of view of the conservatives who support the anti-abortionist ideology on the grounds that embryo and fetus cannot be distinguished and both denote the potential human beings. I support their point of view that a fetus represents the human child and it is wrong to take away its right to living. The author has also discussed the stance of the liberalists in his article and highlighted their claim that fetus is not a conscious being and does not have the ability to feel the pain, so it is right to kill it. I oppose this point on the grounds that killing cannot be justified just because the victim did not feel the pain of death. On the other hand, the killing of the fetus cannot be justified just because it is claimed to be unconscious. While in reality, the fetus is not unconscious. It is conscious in its particular space and has the ability to respond to the danger and seeking the protection in the womb of the mother, so deliberately killing such a being is an immoral act (Singer, 165).

Singer has presented his argument in quite an effective manner that there is no way of assessing the fact that the death is painful or not for the fetus, which is the main point of the supporters of the abortion debate. They are of the view that killing the fetus is justifies because it cannot feel pain. I support the point of view of Singer in this regard that the supporters of abortion do not have any way to know or measure that death causes any pain to the fetus or not. Even if does not cause pain, the painless killing is also not justified, because of the fact that killing in itself is a brutal act and the no developed or even potential human being should be subjected to it. I also support the point of view of Singer that fetus has a well-developed brain and nervous system, which depicts that it is a potential human being. On the other hand, during the first weeks of conception, the fetus has not reached the stage where its brain and nervous system is not developed, even then it is not right to kill the fetus, on the grounds that it is a potential human being which would develop in to a healthy being, if provided with the chance of survival (Singer, 170).

Singer has shared the stances of the liberals and the conservatives in his article. I support the claims of the conservatives that abortion is wrong and immoral on the grounds that fetus is a conscious being having the potential of developing into a human being. I oppose the point of view of the liberals that killing of the fetus is justified because it cannot feel pain because killing cannot be justified if it is painless. So abortion is immoral and cannot be justified in any manner.

Works Cited

Marquis, Don. "Why abortion is immoral." The Journal of Philosophy 86.4 (1989): 183-202.

Singer, Peter. "Taking life: The embryo and the fetus." Practical Ethics (1993): 135-174.

Philosophy

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Philosophy

Philosophy is a discipline that explains the meaning behind certain ongoing practices in this world. Likewise, it also explains the purpose behind the human reception of natural objects and the holy deities. In the same manner, it discusses man's relation with his creator, God, and the natural world surrounding him. Nowadays, after technological advancement, everything can be answered through scientific theories; however, there are some questions that can be best understood through the medium of philosophy. Many philosophers have given their theories and ideas regarding God and natural balance in different eras. Among these philosophers, a noticeable name is of Frederick Nietzsche; he was an atheist and gave many theories on the central idea of the absence of God. Similarly, he advocated the idea of nihilism as a popular philosophical belief. Another philosopher from contemporary times is Slavoj Zizek, and his work explains the ideological reasoning behind human and his relation with the world. This essay discusses the announcement of “God is dead” by Nietzsche and compares it with Zizek’s declaration “there is no Nature." This comparison essay will discuss the ideas of God as an absent figure, morality, knowledge, and catastrophe concerning the philosophical believes of both philosophers.

When Nietzsche announced that God is dead, he meant that this death was caused through scientific advancement and technological revolution since science gave all the answers to man. Similarly, man is a curious creature by nature, and he prefers to receive factual knowledge over unresearched facts. Scientific advancements have helped men in getting to know his surroundings, and he now knows that every natural phenomenon occurring near him is based on the principles of physics or cosmology. In this lieu, he no longer believes in the scriptures and the guidelines provided by God in it. In Nietzsche’s opinion, the above reason constitutes the ideological death of God. In a similar manner, Zizek advocates the idea that man explores the meaning behind a naturally occurring phenomenon. He proclaims that ideology is something that aids man in associating reason with every natural occurrence. Besides, man has attached the idea of nature with morality. For example, the ongoing situation of climate change has occurred as an aftermath of scientific advancements since the experiments produce heat and damage the ecological habitat. According to Zizek, man is not accountable by the religious laws if he throws trash on the ground since the Earth utilizes this trash, and it is capable of reproducing. In this lieu, man and his actions are part of the naturally occurring phenomenon; although he is part of nature, there is no nature. The philosopher argues that everything man views is a result of a big catastrophe.

Nietzsche proclaims that from the onset of human life, man’s knowledge of the world has come through the medium of religion and theology. For instance, he is taught that if he obeys God, the natural order will remain balanced. On the other hand, if he disobeys God, the natural balance will be disrupted. According to this logic, the ideology of God manifests itself as a moralizing agent that is used as a central figure to encourage man towards good deeds and abstain from the misdeeds. Besides, when God becomes an absent figure in the lives of human beings, they lose a sense of good and bad. They make decisions based on logic and according to their self-interest. In the same manner, the man views transition in his belief towards the notions of ethics, virtue, and kindness. He believes that these concepts are baseless since they are abstract. Quite on the contrary, his self-interest becomes the vital force that pushes him to make decisions a bit selfishly because he prioritizes his gains over the collective gain of the natural world. Morality is a debatable point in Zizek’s declaration as well since he is of the view that nature is going through a state of decomposition.

Zizek states that the current deteriorating state of nature and ecology is a big catastrophe that is created by man and his dangerous use of technology to explore this world. Man wants to believe that this catastrophe is instigated by him, and he will be punished by God. Likewise, this idea of a divine sense of judgment makes it easier for him to make himself guilty. However, on the other hand, he does not refrain from the practice of technology used to explore the environment around him. In Zizek's point of view, modern man is although reliant on technology and considers it a reason behind the moral decline of humanity; however, he does not stop damaging ecological order. In his opinion, the contrary debate about climate change and ecological threats have established itself as another ideology. This ideology makes human beings certain of getting punished for disrupting the divine balance because the human world is the only balanced world. Moreover, ecology is the contemporary ideology for today’s human beings, whereas, in reality, it is a catastrophic occurrence. Quite similarly, Nietzsche positions with the idea of nature as another attempt directed towards human beings as a measure of becoming self-righteous. Besides, his nihilist ideas reject nature and God since earlier they were considered to know the secrets behind this world and various occurrences in it.

Philosophy explores the meaning behind human actions and deconstructs multiple divine notions since they propagate the popular beliefs of sin and virtue. Both the philosophers, Zizek and Nietzsche, support the view that God and nature no longer exist as moralizing forces in the life of a modern man. After the technological revolution, science has provided all the meanings to him, and everything that occurs differently in this world is because of a big catastrophe and not because of man’s virtue.

Philosophy Essay



Philosophy essay

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Philosophy essay

Question: What is the one thing related to the reading that I want to keep exploring and developing- for your life?

Philosophy according to Bertrand Russell has everything to do with the soul of the body, and not with the material gains. Bertrand Russell has provided the readers with a thorough overview of how the philosophy is workable, for them who consider the worldly gains as of secondary importance. Bertrand has placed the two narratives in front of the readers. He has not criticized the developments of physical science. Neither has he talked about placing these inventions as less important in your life. For me, I think I need to dwell more into the philosophical sphere of Bertrand. The reason why I need to re-think about dwelling into the philosophical strands drawn by Bertrand is that I live in a world, which is occupied with science and technology. I am at every phase dependent upon this inventions to make my life easier. Because of my this dependence over the physical sciences, I am far away from Bertrand’s philosophy. My mind is resting at a very far place from Bertrand’s definition of philosophy.

For the development of my life, I do think that I need an unknown or an imaginary base to rest upon. This imaginary base will benefit me in various ways. For example, I am at present just a wandering soul, which don't know the path of life. Bertrand’s this reading has (to some extent) provided me with an understanding that there can be something which can guide me. I am sure of the fact that if I start moving on the way of the philosophy or in other words if I distance myself from the world things I can reshape my entire life. The thing that I will keep on exploring is the fact that how can I synchronize myself to this philosophy. As Bertrand mentions that the value of philosophy is uncertanity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ShnLj1NP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 1\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"1","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":288,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Y2EDAD39"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/Y2EDAD39"],"itemData":{"id":288,"type":"book","title":"The problems of philosophy","publisher":"OUP Oxford","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Russell","given":"Bertrand"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 1, therefore it makes me think again and again to reconsider my perspective about the philosophy. This uncertainty offers me a benefit here as well. For example, if I compare my life’s goal with reference to the material world- as suggested by the physical sciences and with that of the philosophy presented by Bertrand, I find that the physical world is predictable. This predictability can serve my purposes of life which I need for the development.

Why would I like to explore this?

I will explore the world which is not physical just to make way for my life which is not dependable on the earthly things. I have studied Plato, and I have lived a life with material beings. I am unable to find even some commonalities between these two extents. The reason why Plato appears to be true and loving is the fact that he has made open many things in front of me ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"81E8acJl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 2\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"2","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":290,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/KWW2VFJ8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/KWW2VFJ8"],"itemData":{"id":290,"type":"book","title":"Plato: complete works","publisher":"Hackett Publishing","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Plato","author":[{"family":"Cooper","given":"John M."},{"family":"Hutchinson","given":"Douglas S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 2. After reading Plato, I think I can reimagine my existence with a whole new perspective. This is interesting to me. I can come close to a world that wants to induct me and that wants to open mysteries upon me. But then I think of the uncertainty of Bertrand, which is distressing. It pulls me back and I become afraid that if not this world then what? It is, therefore, no endgame for me.

There are other ways for me why I need to explore this world. There are times when anyone is living a life which is dependent upon many things. For example, taking an example of a person who is dependent on many things to pass over this phase of life. The smallest being in a relationship with a girl to fulfill the hidden desires. What is in this life? This is nothing just the race of exploring one thing after another. There is also some time when the person becomes tired of doing all this stuff. This is where the philosophy can make things better and can even give a new phase to the life of earthly beings. This is where Plato and Bertrand can get what they have aspired for the humans of the earth.

How I plan to explore and develop myself in this area in your life?

I have nothing in a concrete form to mold over my life to. For example what if I abruptly think of changing my life’s direction. I will have nothing other than just despair and regrets. Till this phase of my life, the physical world has not disappointed me. Neither have to think of changing my life pattern- just for the sake of exiting from this physical world. However, I know that there will be a time when I- like other people of this planet will be done with this world. For that specific period of my life, I have thought of reconsidering my phase of life. Going close to that end will then be my ultimate aim in life. I plan to explore that area in my life by first witnessing what I have the choices in my hand if I decide to exit this physical world of science. (Exiting the world for me is actually exiting the physical world and adapting the world of transparency). As Desecrates mentions in of Doubt and Uncertainty that uncertainty is inherent in a life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5MQWumoK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 3\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"3","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":291,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/HVNBM75P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/HVNBM75P"],"itemData":{"id":291,"type":"article-journal","title":"Doubt and certainty in ESL textbooks","container-title":"Applied linguistics","page":"21–44","volume":"9","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Holmes","given":"Janet"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1988"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 3. This is what I want to explore how much the uncertainty I will need to bear on. This uncertainty is what makes me think about going toward that end or not.

Development is then the next phase, once if I decide to opt for adopting the philosophy. I can then re-define the limits of mine. I also remain open to the development that can change my attitude toward the idea of life. As it has been idealized by Plato that exploring the ends should be the ultimate purpose in one’s life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5H0ZlhwM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 4\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"4","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":293,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CBQY8RLG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CBQY8RLG"],"itemData":{"id":293,"type":"book","title":"Plato, not prozac!: Applying philosophy to everyday problems","publisher":"HarperCollins New York","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Plato, not prozac!","author":[{"family":"Marinoff","given":"Lou"},{"family":"Kapklein","given":"Colleen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 4. This is also what I have in my mind when it comes from thinking about developing life.

End Notes:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Russell B. The Problems of Philosophy. OUP Oxford; 2001.

2. Cooper JM, Hutchinson DS. Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing; 1997.

3. Holmes J. Doubt and certainty in ESL textbooks. Appl Linguist. 1988; 9(1):21–44.

4. Marinoff L, Kapklein C. Plato, Not Prozac!: Applying Philosophy to Everyday Problems. HarperCollins New York; 1999.

Philosophy Essay

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Philosophy Essay

A question that still remains with us today: What does it mean to be a woman?

Current debates over the continent or analytical traditions of feminism are still relevant to the philosophical wisdom of a prominent philosopher, Simone De Beauvoir. Seemingly, this question appears easier but is rather much difficult to answer given its contemporary germaneness. The second-wave feminists began to mark boundaries between sex and gender by incorporating gender identity into the culturally prescribed behaviors. The idea that biology is destiny was strictly argued against by De Beauvoir, who is best known as a writer and a feminist thinker.

In 1949, De Beauvoir’s most famous and influential book, ‘The Second Sex’ laid the framework for the second wave of feminism. Reproductive rights, family issues, sexuality, workplace rights among other things, were the broader concerns of this wave. Almost all the strands of continental and analytical philosophy strive to liberate women and are committed to their freedom and equality, yet the debate about what it is to be a woman or who is considered a woman still remains with us today.

“One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” CITATION Bea72 \l 1033 (Beauvoir)

This quote is a true depiction of the existential history of a woman’s life. It probes into the dynamics of how society influences a woman’s attitude towards her body and bodily functions. Off-shoots of this quote indicate towards another interrogative strand which asks that before becoming a woman, what state that human flesh was in. This quote also entails that women must always be comprehended in relation to men.

“Man is defined as a human being and a woman as a female — whenever she behaves as a human being she is said to imitate the male”, CITATION Ste16 \l 1033 (Stefanovici).

This also leads us to ask why one person embodies the persona of a woman while another does not. Various case studies of different stages of a woman’s life are deeply explored and analyzed in this book. Also, there is an attempt to determine whether the supposed or actual disadvantages faced by women are objectively prevalent in all the societies in a uniform manner or are just limited to oppressed societies.

Across the globe, women belong to different socio-economic classes and belong to different ethnicities, religions, nationalities, and sexual orientations. These differences automatically translate into different concerns and interests about the growing deliberations on feminism and the philosophical questions associated with gender identity. For many decades, various strands in the feminist philosophy have presumed that there is no single or definitive property that all women share. This paves the way for introducing a concept that is suitably inclusive and incorporates all the normative inputs. Questions like “What does it mean to be a woman” or “Who all can be categorized as women”, are open to multiple understandings and conceptions. Throughout history, many different feminist philosophers and scholars endeavored to devise many possible notions and are still studied by contemporary academics and philosophers for guidance.

Beauvoir also strived for the formulation of an inclusive and definitive answer to this question by actively speaking on the issues of female liberation and emancipation in the workplace. By default, anthropological and historical studies point towards the premise that a woman is always subject to subordination along with more than two dimensions. These dimensions can be associated with political, legal, economic or even socio-cultural horizons.

In 1949, the second-wave feminism caused much outbreak and social chaos. The emergence of radical ideas was chiefly related to existentialist concerns about freedom. For instance, the opinion that gender is a social construct still attracts ample amount of philosophical debate. The kind of freedom which is achieved by acting on the basis of free-will or radical freedom was only possible if the authentic self was expressed. Following this line of approach, this was not possible in the case of women at that time because women were expected to act according to some pre-determined and normatively accepted rules. The sense of freedom and authenticity of women were largely affected as they were projected as subservient and docile to their male counterparts. It was also anticipated that women must look and act a certain way which was strikingly different from what males did or looked like.

Developments in the feminist debates can also reduce the gendered economic disparities and can also support the rights and privileges of trans-women and minority groups who have unorthodox sexual orientations. The conceptions revolving around gender and identity must be unsettled if the question under consideration needs to be ultimately answered.

A patriarchal society almost always tends to punish women and demands that women must stay within a marked set of boundaries and if a female tends to stray from that demarcation, she is bound to face consequences. Since birth, women feel their inner selves to be embedded in the hostilities and oppressive conditions of male-dominant societies. Being a woman is more than biology because the attitudes and gender roles attached to females because of their physical attributes are merely a plethora of perceptions. It can also be reflected that being a human being precedes being a woman and there is a need to recognize the complexities that accompany it. In a less than perfect world, which is marked with many insurmountable perils, a woman has to face numerous up-hill battles while carrying the inherent weaknesses that are largely ascribed from her birth. The meaning of a woman can only be understood properly if notions about these weaknesses and battles are completely shattered and the strength exuded by womanhood is accepted and practiced normatively.

“If I want to define myself, I first have to say, “I am a woman”; all other assertions will arise from this basic truth. A man never begins by positing himself as an individual of a certain sex: that he is a man is obvious” CITATION Tow18 \l 1033 (Townsend).

This quote also imparts claims about gender socialization. The results of differential treatments are largely the reason why gender dissimilarities are essentially cultural in nature rather than having a sound biological basis. In the absence of certain theoretical goals, the distinction between gender identities is considered to be pretty useless. Agency and human subjectivity are more often than not identified with the human mind. Owing to the fact that women are primarily identified with their bodies and are objectified, they are considered as devalued agents. Thus, the opposition between men and women is thought to have stemmed from the opposition between the mind and body. The distinctions between various groups of individuals, men, women, Trans, queer amongst others, turns to be worthless if the end goal is devoid of production of a good theory of subjectivity. This distinction is also inclusive of certain undesirable commitments of ontological nature which demotivate the social agents. It can be implied that one is not considered a woman because she shares the apparent properties with other women. Instead, going through the right history makes someone a woman. Going through an ontogenetic and elaborate process of gender socialization specifically dismisses alternate views about being a woman.

Of all the groups of divine creations, women have been undeniably differentiated by virtue of their bodies and the lives of women are also quintessentially shaped by such narratives that are crafted by society.

Works Cited:

BIBLIOGRAPHY Beauvoir, Simone de. "The Second Sex. 1949."Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.

Stefanovici, Smaranda. "Why do we need feminism." Philologia (2016): 105.

Townsend, Mary. "Do Women Exist?." The Hedgehog Review (2018): 28-38.

Philosophy Essay

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Title: Philosophical Essay

Augustine was a great Christian philosopher of Ancient times. He was a saint of the Catholic Church and has made a lasting and most profound influence in theology and Christianity. The views of Augustine on freedom, sin, sexuality, and grace would be hardly overvalued. He has spent years analyzing human life and his relationship with God. However, he has spent his life in transformation, and that is the reason he has received criticism from humanists and liberals in the twenty-first century ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). He has spent a lifetime analyzing the life and cultural features of Western civilization. He has great knowledge regarding ancient philosophy and cultural traditions. He has escaped from life to understand the cultural ideals and has spent a life of celibacy. He was a great philosopher and has provided his views and opinions on theology, philosophy, and culture, particularly prevailed in Western. This paper will describe the early modern philosophical readings of Augustine, and the evaluation of beliefs and faith would be discussed from an ethical point of view.

Life of Augustine

Born in year 354 AD in the Roman prince of Numidia, Augustine has spent a life in a family that was called as Berber by the scholars. His mother was a sincere Christian, and his father was a pagan. He has no desires for his father, or he considers him a stranger in his home ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). These ethnic groups were indigenous to North Africa. He has lived a life of honor, pride, and honoring God. He has deep thoughts regarding the human heart and desires. He often called this a matter of selection in which man selects desires of the impatient heart ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). He said human beings should have to prefer to obey sincerely to their God. His family preferred to speak Latin at home and considered it as a matter of pride that they are retaining their culture ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). Various studies have shown that the life of Augustine was not stable and has suffered many defamation and interruption from pagans in this regard.

Augustine was a free and open man at the time of his teens. He was impressed by his mother and her sincerity to Christianity. She was the reason Augustine converted himself into a saint and struggled to become a good Christian. He had a great desire to learn and explore the human relationship with God and has strong feelings for his religious wisdom. He selected philosophy and theology to explore because of his religious wisdom, beliefs, faith, and threatening ambiguous relationship with his parents. He also sought to reintroduce the gospel of human's absolute necessity and the copious grace of God.

Confessions

The life of infancy was reflected as full of violent behaviors and childhood. He has described his life in detail in a book Confessions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). It was a book of traditional autobiography, but this book is considered as the most recommended book for autobiography in a modern age by scholars. He said childhood is a period full of joy and violent behaviors ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). He started literature and scripture in adulthood. He explored Christianity through scripture and literature. He has committed various kinds of sins that have been mentioned in the book ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). Augustine considered punishment received from parents and teachers was because of his sins. He has mentioned in his book that he and his friends used to steal peers from gardens. He confessed that he has Godless lust in his childhood period.

Human Philosophy

He discussed in his book that Godless behaviors and life would ultimately punish those people in the world. Later he developed a love for God and struggled very hard to spend his life in complete obedience of God. Augustine has described Human psychology as pessimistic since the age of Eve and Adam. He has explained that it is in the human psyche that they cannot control their feelings. Adam and Even have spent their extraordinary life in heaven in obeying their God; however, because of human nature, they were not able to control their desires and ultimately sin. He has associated his thoughts and opinions with the human philosophy linked with the original sin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). He has described concepts regarding the philosophy of human nature that they are rebellions and will be punished for their evil deeds. However, he has argued that God would not punish people for such feelings that they were not able to control.

Love of God and Faith

Augustine has reflected Love of God as the supreme most power that he loves his creation; therefore, he would not punish people for such things as it would be His Omnibenevolent ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TgtCxBrW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Elshtain)","plainCitation":"(Elshtain)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1107,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/3Q7WVSJD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/3Q7WVSJD"],"itemData":{"id":1107,"type":"article-journal","title":"Augustine","container-title":"The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Political Theology","page":"41-53","author":[{"family":"Elshtain","given":"Jean Bethke"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Elshtain). Augustine has emphasized in the texts that humans cannot preordained for natural sins, and only God can. According to roman 7, that states 'Humans want to do good deeds, but because of their nature, they usually do not carry it" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). This statement represents that human nature is weak, and therefore, they have to ask for redemption and forgiveness from God, and it represents the faith of Augustine.

Augustine’s Platonism

Augustine expresses his views regarding the age of eighteen Cicero’s protreptic discourse Hortensius irritated him for viewpoint that he has read Aristotle’s  and that his transformation was significantly advanced by his Neoplatonic comprehensions also by the literature of Paul. He is additionally believed about Manichean manuscripts, from around 390s forwards the Bible becomes significant for his feelings, in specific Genesis, the Psalms and the Pauline and Johannine texts (however his exegesis rests theoretically saturated), and the developed principle of elegance appears to have developed from a new appraisal of Paul ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau).

Cosmology and Ethics

Augustine has described that the human body is a composition of body and soul. According to ancient philosophers, the human body is flesh, and the actual life-giving element is the soul. Human behaviors are the modification and adaptation of the environment and society. By nature, the human being is pure though they are predestined and are associated with the original sin. This is a soul that controls desires and feelings, and it produces such emotions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). It is human nature to observe some behaviors of humans, and how they will interpret or perceive depends on human nature. God is the Supreme Good, and the Supreme Being and humans will ultimately become wise if they obey honestly to their God ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). It has been suggested in the texts of Augustine and ancient scriptures that the soul is a part or segment of God, and it will remain forever ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8M0MJJMC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Niebuhr)","plainCitation":"(Niebuhr)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1105,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/LKH665WS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/LKH665WS"],"itemData":{"id":1105,"type":"chapter","title":"Augustine’s political realism","container-title":"Augustine and Modern Law","publisher":"Routledge","page":"273-298","author":[{"family":"Niebuhr","given":"Reinhold"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Niebuhr). A human being is impatient by nature; however, it is not impossible to control one's thoughts and feelings to direct them towards God. Therefore, Augustine has described his faith that he was an impatient and violent person at the start, but he has ultimately started the struggle to become an obedient person. He has inspired many people through his book Confessions, and the texts were impressive and helpful in the conversion of people to become a sincere Christian ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau).

The simple assembly of Augustine's morals is that of antique eudemonism. Nonetheless, he accedes pleasure to the hereafter and blames the early ethicists for the conceited belief that resulted from their unawareness of the tumbled form of humanity. It states that they could spread pleasure in this life by ethical endeavor ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"79HVHBTj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tornau)","plainCitation":"(Tornau)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/9ANDS9LC"],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"chapter","title":"Saint Augustine","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2019","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquityand certainly the one who exerted the deepest and most lastinginfluence. He is a saint of the Catholic Church, and his authority intheological matters was universally accepted in the Latin Middle Agesand remained, in the Western Christian tradition, virtuallyuncontested till the nineteenth century. The impact of his views onsin, grace, freedom and sexuality on Western culture can hardly beoverrated. These views, deeply at variance with the ancientphilosophical and cultural tradition, provoked however fiercecriticism in Augustine’s lifetime and have, again, beenvigorously opposed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries fromvarious (e.g., humanist, liberal, feminist) standpoints. Philosopherskeep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas onlanguage, on skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, onfreedom and determinism and on the structure of the human mind and,last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, whichis—though of course committed to the truth of biblicalrevelation—surprisingly undogmatic and marked by a spirit ofrelentless inquiry. His most famous work, the Confessiones,is unique in the ancient literary tradition but greatly influenced themodern tradition of autobiography; it is an intriguing piece ofphilosophy from a first-person perspective. Because of his importancefor the philosophical tradition of the Middle Ages he is often listedas the first medieval philosopher. But even though he was born severaldecades after the emperor Constantine I had terminated theanti-Christian persecutions and, in his mature years, saw theanti-pagan and anti-heretic legislation of Theodosius I and his sons,which virtually made Catholic (i.e., Nicene) Christianity the officialreligion of the Roman Empire, Augustine did not live in a“medieval” Christian world. Pagan religious, cultural andsocial traditions were much alive in his congregation, as he oftendeplores in his sermons, and his own cultural outlook was, like thatof most of his learned upper-class contemporaries, shaped by theclassical Latin authors, poets and philosophers whom he studied in theschools of grammar and rhetoric long before he encountered the Bibleand Christian writers. Throughout his work he engages with pre- andnon-Christian philosophy, much of which he knew from firsthand.Platonism in particular remained a decisive ingredient of his thought.He is therefore best read as a Christian philosopher of late antiquityshaped by and in constant dialogue with the classical tradition., Translations from Greek or Latin texts in this entry are by theauthor, unless otherwise stated. Biblical quotations are translatedfrom Augustine’s Latin version; these may differ from the Greekor Hebrew original and/or from the Latin Vulgate.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/","author":[{"family":"Tornau","given":"Christian"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tornau). 

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Elshtain, Jean Bethke. “Augustine.” The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Political Theology, 2019, pp. 41–53.

Niebuhr, Reinhold. “Augustine’s Political Realism.” Augustine and Modern Law, Routledge, 2017, pp. 273–98.

Tornau, Christian. “Saint Augustine.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2019, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2019. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/augustine/.

Philosophy Essay

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Enter Name of the Instructor

Subject

Philosophy Essay

Introduction

Plato one of the famous Greek Philosopher, as well as a mathematician belonging to the Socratic period, has played a central role in the foundation of philosophical concepts making Western Philosophy. He is one of the most widely studied and influential philosophers of all time. Plato with his mentor Socrates came up with staunch opposition to the materialistic view of the world that was presented by Epicurus and Democritus. Plato merged different disciplines such as metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, and moral psychology into a single systematic and interconnected framework of philosophy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wPXnc1on","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Harper)","plainCitation":"(Harper)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Business Ethics","page":"1–17","source":"Google Scholar","title":"The Symbolic Imagination: Plato and Contemporary Business Ethics","title-short":"The Symbolic Imagination","author":[{"family":"Harper","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Harper). Plato is also the founder of Platonism that is an offshoot to Neo-Platonism, along with a number of writings that can be counted in superb pieces of literature.

Discussion

Today, students and other philosophers divide philosophy into three major parts, Ethics, Epistemology, and Metaphysics. According to Plato, Metaphysic is a branch of philosophy that tend to answer the questions of “there”. The etymology of “meta” is termed as Greek after and this treatise is titled as “Metaphysics” (Bonazzi et al.). Metaphysics tend to specify the ways in which anything is said to or thought to exist. In a nutshell, there are three major concepts that are embedded in metaphysics, such as the subject matter of “being as such”, the “first cause of things” and “which does not change” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sRjKRSWk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bonazzi et al.)","plainCitation":"(Bonazzi et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":209,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/CHZ583GX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/CHZ583GX"],"itemData":{"id":209,"type":"book","publisher":"Brill","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Thinking, Knowing, Acting: Epistemology and Ethics in Plato and Ancient Platonism","title-short":"Thinking, Knowing, Acting","author":[{"family":"Bonazzi","given":"Mauro"},{"family":"Ulacco","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Forcignanò","given":"Filippo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bonazzi et al.). According to Plato, metaphysics is more of Platonic Realism that inverts the intuition of common sense about which things in this world are knowable and which things are real. Plato was of the view that universals such as, properties of the objects that exist in more than one place at the same time or, also called the quality of redness exist both, on factual basis as well as in reality. Plato asserted that universals exist in a different way, as compared to the existence of ordinary physical objects. This variation of existence refers to the ghostly mode of existence or the things that are out of the measures of space and time along with the objects that are outside the range of temporal or spatial distances. As quoted, “The intellect grasps truths and lives together in eternity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"p7Ad7PEa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bonazzi et al.)","plainCitation":"(Bonazzi et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":209,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/CHZ583GX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/CHZ583GX"],"itemData":{"id":209,"type":"book","publisher":"Brill","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Thinking, Knowing, Acting: Epistemology and Ethics in Plato and Ancient Platonism","title-short":"Thinking, Knowing, Acting","author":[{"family":"Bonazzi","given":"Mauro"},{"family":"Ulacco","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Forcignanò","given":"Filippo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bonazzi et al.). It would not be wrong to add, Theory of forms and ideas with Platonic Realism that refers to the fact that the material world is not actually in the way it appears to us.

Epistemology for Plato is more like an account of defining knowledge. According to Plato, knowledge can only be understood by the understanding of different forms because forms are innate and they are located within our minds, also illustrated in the dialogue Meno ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oIXqYcbu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hetherington)","plainCitation":"(Hetherington)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":215,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"itemData":{"id":215,"type":"book","publisher":"Bloomsbury Publishing","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Epistemology: The key thinkers","title-short":"Epistemology","author":[{"family":"Hetherington","given":"Stephen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hetherington). The underlying concept of epistemology is the differentiation between knowledge and opinion and the justification of true knowledge. It would not be wrong to say that Plato’s epistemology is more like theory of knowledge that asserts that Platonic ideas are innate and learning is the development of a different idea that is buried in the soul. According to Plato, epistemology is more like a distinction between knowledge and opinion, where knowledge is certain and opinion is not certain. Also, opinions are the product of the world of sensation where knowledge is derived from different essences and forms. Plato says,  “The opinion is something intermediate between knowledge and ignorance” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"s9GAtOwF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hetherington)","plainCitation":"(Hetherington)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":215,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"itemData":{"id":215,"type":"book","publisher":"Bloomsbury Publishing","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Epistemology: The key thinkers","title-short":"Epistemology","author":[{"family":"Hetherington","given":"Stephen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hetherington). It is highlighted that to some extent Plato's notion and view of epistemology is more like a modern and analytic view of knowledge that is “Justified true belief”. In addition, Plat associated knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging forms, along with an analysis of their relationship with each other. According to Plato, knowledge is also proportionate to the realms from where it is attained or gained. He gave the example of knowledge that is gained from some experimental activity or something that is experiential, he asserted that the views will only be opinions because the world of senses is always in flux ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Pt7bdLXz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hetherington)","plainCitation":"(Hetherington)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":215,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"itemData":{"id":215,"type":"book","publisher":"Bloomsbury Publishing","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Epistemology: The key thinkers","title-short":"Epistemology","author":[{"family":"Hetherington","given":"Stephen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hetherington). Plato asserts, if one has attained knowledge or an account of something with the help of non-sensible form, then the attained views will be considered pure or unchanging. The effectiveness of this claim is traced from the fact that forms are themselves unchangeable. In a number of dialogues, Plato found that knowledge is just a matter of recollection which is also called anamnesis, that is not associated with study, observation or learning. Here, it is asserted that knowledge is never empirical in fact it is the product of divine insight. In broader understanding, epistemology is more like a combination or collection of perceptions, logic, science, knowledge, beliefs, and language ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TG3k6L5c","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hetherington)","plainCitation":"(Hetherington)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":215,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"itemData":{"id":215,"type":"book","publisher":"Bloomsbury Publishing","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Epistemology: The key thinkers","title-short":"Epistemology","author":[{"family":"Hetherington","given":"Stephen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hetherington). Plato never considered the global skeptical challenge because he assumed that knowledge is conditional taking into account that there are some conditions that facilitate the possibility of knowledge. On a broader level, the rational capacities of human beings or souls are associated with staunch matrices of knowledge. On the other hand, the context of objects highlighted that forms are certainly the objects of knowledge. An exegetical view proposed by Plato highlights that there is much dispute in defining and detaining the tag of object with anything that exists in the material world, where physical world is treated as an image along with an imperfect world of change ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ZbvDqScG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hetherington)","plainCitation":"(Hetherington)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":215,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/KMN9I7GR"],"itemData":{"id":215,"type":"book","publisher":"Bloomsbury Publishing","source":"Google Scholar","title":"Epistemology: The key thinkers","title-short":"Epistemology","author":[{"family":"Hetherington","given":"Stephen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hetherington).

In Ethics, Plato came up with a teleological or a goal-oriented approach, where the aim of his ethics was to outline the conditions that can help a society to function with harmony and homogeneity. Plato considered virtue to be one of the excellence of soul, which is a body comprising of reason, spirit and passion ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"w8nNSbOe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Harper)","plainCitation":"(Harper)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Business Ethics","page":"1–17","source":"Google Scholar","title":"The Symbolic Imagination: Plato and Contemporary Business Ethics","title-short":"The Symbolic Imagination","author":[{"family":"Harper","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Harper). The major concept of ethics taught by Plato is found in terms of an ideal state and the components of ethics. He defined the measure of excellence of an ethical soul, such as the excellence of reason is wisdom, while the excellence of passion is the personality attributes such as courage and the excellence of spirit is defined to be temperance. As quoted, “The body is the tomb of the soul” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qvSheoOw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Harper)","plainCitation":"(Harper)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Business Ethics","page":"1–17","source":"Google Scholar","title":"The Symbolic Imagination: Plato and Contemporary Business Ethics","title-short":"The Symbolic Imagination","author":[{"family":"Harper","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Harper). In addition, justice is also counted as one of the excellences that are the central bridge of promoting harmonious relations with the other measures of excellence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qvSheoOw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Harper)","plainCitation":"(Harper)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Business Ethics","page":"1–17","source":"Google Scholar","title":"The Symbolic Imagination: Plato and Contemporary Business Ethics","title-short":"The Symbolic Imagination","author":[{"family":"Harper","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Harper). Plato promoted a virtue-based eudemonistic conception of ethics, asserting that happiness or the well being of people, accompanied by high moral conduct and thought are the requisite skills and dispositions that are required to attain harmony in the society. Plato not only defined a true understating of utilitarian but he also initiated the idea that all the members of society longs for eudemonia which can help them reach ultimate good individually as well as being a member of society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NTLdMhCp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Harper)","plainCitation":"(Harper)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/6bWeQAmN/items/QWUR3BZL"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Business Ethics","page":"1–17","source":"Google Scholar","title":"The Symbolic Imagination: Plato and Contemporary Business Ethics","title-short":"The Symbolic Imagination","author":[{"family":"Harper","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Harper). Plato merged virtue with morality by considering happiness as an ultimate necessity because the virtue that fails to promote good and give happiness is failed in its real essence and crux. In a nutshell, Plato justified Ethics as a platform for enforcing social harmony with that of personal satisfaction.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is highlighted that Plato promoted and brought into insight some interesting arguments that deals with the study of knowledge, human and actual understanding of society and the theory of knowledge that can justify credibility of knowledge. It is also highlighted that these arguments not only pave the way for an exegetical analysis of differentiation between true and untrue, ethical and unethical and certain and uncertain in fact, his work and arguments are more like the spotlight that encourages to have a critical approach to the components of society and its impact on human life.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bonazzi, Mauro, et al. Thinking, Knowing, Acting: Epistemology and Ethics in Plato and Ancient Platonism. Brill, 2019.

Harper, Paul T. “The Symbolic Imagination: Plato and Contemporary Business Ethics.” Journal of Business Ethics, 2019, pp. 1–17.

Hetherington, Stephen. Epistemology: The Key Thinkers. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.

Philosophy Of Buddhism

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Philosophy of Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion that started from the Indian region by the teaching of Buddha. The real name of Buddha was Siddhartha Gautama. He was the prince who grew up in Kapilavasthu, Nepal. Before his birth, Buddha’s mother saw a dream which was interpreted as the baby will be either a king or a saint one day. Due to this reason, his father kept him away from the experience of ordinary life and gave him luxurious life within the palace. He wanted him to be a king who could conquer other regions. However, after his marriage, one day he left everything in the search of enlightenment. He sat in the meditation under a tree and finally found his answer regarding the reality of life and the solution to suffering. He was not ready for teaching initially as he believed that people acquire jealousy, greediness, and lies within them. However, with time, he started preaching his teachings to the people and Buddhism religion spread in India, Sri Lanka, China, Korea, Japan, and later in Europe and Africa. His message and preachings tell a lot about social justice, assisted suicide, ethics, good and evil, and afterlife without having much struggle.

Buddha who was the prince and had a luxurious life left his wealth, status, and family for enlightenment. Buddha got enlightenment and spread the message of peace, freedom, and equality. His teachings tell lots about social justice. He didn’t ask to leave everything to family, society, a normal lifestyle and spending life in isolation, nor he promoted self-interest. Instead, he taught people to live a normal life, in a normal environment, and like a normal human being. Humans have unlimited wishes for which they make choices. Within Buddhism, human choices are based on the concept of Karma. Karma is the process of reward that means whatever man does, either good deeds or bad deeds, he gets the same response in return from nature in the form of karma. In other words, if a person spent his life in society with compassion and wisdom, he will get happiness and peace but if he spent his life in delusion, greed, or hatred then, he will be suffered in return.

Buddha explained that a person cannot live alone or cannot leave his society. This world has a natural process and people are tied with each other in the form of family and society. Therefore, every person should spend his life in a way that does not spread sorrow, hate, or harm to the other person. The human brain acquires various wishes and wants which is not a bad thing but if he gets these things through lies, violence, and social injustice, then it is bad. Buddha said, "He who has renounced violence towards all living beings, weak or strong, who neither kills nor causes others to kill — him do I call a holy man." This indicates that Buddhism does not encourage people to spend life praying or performing rituals instead he asked to live peacefully and not to spread violence in society.

In the context of social justice Buddhism teaches us that it is an ordinary thing to acquire pleasure of life because conflicts arise only when the greed becomes excessive. This conflict has a correlation with limited resources. When an individual tries beyond what is equitable, then others lose their share. Therefore, greed, violence, lies, distrust, and crime is the stem of social injustice. It explains the duty and responsibility of the authority who should ensure the well-being and safety of the people as well as nature. This can understand the concept of dharma which explains that every individual should follow the principle of nature in his life and agreed to what is right for all. Buddha teachings tell that "Not by observing silence does one become a sage, if he be foolish and ignorant. But that man is wise who, as if holding a balance-scale accepts only the good,” which indicates that social justice does not mean that an individual stays quite or ignores inequality in the society, instead, he himself performs the act which is good for him and society.

Buddhism varies on three basic division which teaches about the process to attain social justice. First is the wisdom which means right view and right intention. People would believe in the afterlife and nothing ends with death unless one gets “nirvana”. This belief can lead to the right intention because with the belief in the afterlife and karma, individual does not make the decision on the basis of self-interest, cruelty, and greediness. Second is the moral virtue that is the right action, right speech, and right livelihood. When individuals consider moral virtue as a ritual and way of life, then factors like lying, rude speech, killing, violence, sexual abuse, and misconduct will eliminate from society. This will ensure social justice and people will be able to adopt the right livelihood which means satisfaction on the things which they acquire and no desire for more than what is right. The third is meditation which consists of the right concentration, right mindfulness, and right effort through which individuals can control their desires, thoughts, and behavior which are bad for society. Buddha said, "Good is restraint in the body; good is restraint in speech; good is restraint in thought. Restraint everywhere is good. The monk restrained in every way is freed from all suffering,” Therefore, by achieving these divisions through full devotion and considering the teaching of Buddha in daily life, social justice can be achieved. Equality is the main element that helps in social justice and it can be done by the right act of every single person living in society.

Philosophy Of Existentialism

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Philosophy of Existentialism

Thesis

Mankind did not create itself, therefore it is “condemned” to be and act free according to Sartre in his renowned article “Existentialism is a humanism”. Individuals are placed on this planet without their consent, therefore, they must be free to make choices and adopt actions according to their will in every situation they face. According to the implication that human beings have choice, every action and thought depends on the consequential result of being free. Everyone is condemned to display freedom because of two basic reasons; the choice of existence was not voluntary and human beings are the only creatures on this planet who are solely responsible for all of their actions. There is a fundamental question that interrogates the pre-planned determination of the human fate by God. How an individual can know that everything he does or says or even thinks in his life is a blind expression of our freedom? The concrete truth demonstrates that no one knows about this labyrinth.

It is totally up to human beings to finally decide if this undeniable freedom of choices is to be cherished and be solely responsible for the way one wants to deploy this freedom in any kind of behavior they want.

In the article, Existentialism is a Humanism; the primary point exudes the reality of the moment when a human being is sent in this world. That moment is crucial in defining and giving that individual the freedom and complete responsibility of all his actions. Once a human is in the world, he must take responsibility of all his present actions and those which he will undertake in the foreseeable future. Sartre makes a unique point and suggests that there is a lack of any ethics or values which can be considered as a standard. According to him, there is no concrete base or a yardstick approach which can be used as a prototype for all the humans. There is an absence of a model which has qualities and attributes that humans can apply to their lives. There is no rationality to hide behind the banner of unwillingness or utter determination for the actions that human beings adopt, because in the long run, everyone has a discrete choice for their thought, speech and action. The actions of the human beings pertaining to different styles and beliefs cannot be blamed or accredited to anyone other than their own self, therefore human beings have to take discrete and complete responsibility of their actions and people do not have a choice in this regard. A continuous implication drawing from this perspective is that a human cannot prove his choice of one action over the other by construing that this was God has pre-determined for me or that my inherent nature and personality attributes led me to do so. The authority of one’s actions is their own. Sartre in his article, propounds that throughout the course of their lives, human beings must strive for the creation and maintenance of meaning and this is the true essence of existence. An individual’s destiny is not the reason for his or her actions and consequences, rather it the nature of his or her actions, that in turn forms the lives.

According to the article, the question, “Are we free?” has been responded in positive affirmation by Sartre. Yet is seems like Sartre views this relentless freedom as a curse in disguise. The article is prevalent with the usage of a unique phrase, “condemned to be free”, which implies the nature of this freedom as a sheer inconvenience rather than a benevolence.

Sartre’s premises and notions largely arise from his staunch beliefs in atheism, therefore he views himself as solitary in the world and that his being has to depend only on himself. Sartre further purports that there is no existence of God or any other higher deity. This is a direct association to the nullification of the belief that is widely held by many people that their actions can be limited or fortified by God. This paves the way for a corollary that no one can hide behind excuses for their actions because everyone is responsible for their own choice of actions and there is no higher authority, to whom people should respond to.

Another pivotal idea of Existentialism has been probed into the article which delineates that human beings have the choice in everything that they do in this world. Existence precedes essence directly outlines the premise that due to a lack of pre-existing conceptualization of humanity, denotes that the true essence of every one’s life has to be created by that individual himself and this is not something which is pre-stated in advance. The idea that Sartre attempts to indicate is that first comes the existence of man and then chooses his fate through his actions by virtue of freedom.

The thesis indicates towards a suggestive premise that it is no longer beneficial to hide behind excuses or false meanings for the choice of actions that humans make. Everything that an individual does or say is his own choice and even though mankind is free to make anything out of his life, the one thing which bounds him is his inability to opt out of this freedom.

Sartre vs. Kant on freedom

The concept of free will advocated by Kant and the liberation proffered upon man by existentialism as suggested by Sartre are similar in nature in postulating that human beings are only restricted in their choice of actions due to their own conscience CITATION Bai16 \l 1033 (Baiasu). Both the philosophers have drawn their individual abstractions on freedom from the consequential nature of human choice.

Sartre vs. Buddha on freedom

Sartre and Buddha both have made use of a humanistic approach regarding the existential complications and in the suggestion of their solutions CITATION Fra12 \l 1033 (Franklin). Many questions that Sartre asked share a deep resonance with the prompts forwarded by Buddha which indicates their mutual experience in terms of existentialist problems. Both existentialism and Buddhism propound that mindfulness is essential and the main idea is “to become” as a direct outcome of the premise that existence precedes essence.

Sartre vs. Plato on freedom

Compared to Sartre, Plato only adopts those overtones of the language of freedom which are only favorable for him CITATION Sta98 \l 1033 (Stalley). Plato’s proposition that those people who choose to act against the contours of reason and logic are not living their life according to their choices and preferences, is partially similar to Sartre’s suggestive undertaking of holding complete responsibility of an individual’s own actions.

Conclusions

All the speculative philosophies are countered by existentialism which stresses on the importance of distinct qualities of human beings and their unique existence.

Finding self through the adoption of free-will and observation of personal responsibility is central to the basic profile of existentialism.

An individual can only get acquainted with the meaning in his life through his existential struggles.

Works Cited:

BIBLIOGRAPHY Baiasu, Sorin, ed. "Comparing Kant and Sartre." Springer (2016).

Franklin, J. Jeffrey. "Buddhism and Modern Existential Nihilism: Jean-Paul Sartre Meets Nagarjuna." Religion & Literature (2012): 73-96.

Stalley, Richard F. "Plato's doctrine of freedom." Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1998): 145-158.

Philosophy Of Kant

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Philosophy of Kant

Introduction

Our universe is huge, amazingly huge. There are numerous planets and hundreds of galaxies that spread on enormous distances in the universe. All these planets and heavenly bodies are being controlled and managed in a very delicate yet complex way. Not only the heavenly bodies but all the living beings on these bodies or planets are also a very sensitive matter. Humans are the perfect creation of Lord, but they are not the only ones living on this planet. There are hundreds and thousands of creations or living beings that live on our planet, the Planet Earth, only. There are many others that are doubted to contain life on them, in any form.

Humans have been striving to understand this delicate and complex phenomenon of the universe and its creation. In fact, humans have been trying to solve many puzzles regarding the creation of the universe, the initiation of life on the planet, the starting of various kinds of processes and phenomenons on the planet, and many more. As a matter of fact, this knowledge goes far beyond this and tries to uncover various other mysteries like how life should be led, how a person should behave in public and in society, what is ethical and what is unethical, and many more issues.

Two ways have been adopted by humans to unravel these mysteries; one of the paths is the way of science, and the one is philosophy. The way of science relies upon experimentation and rigorous testing of the various phenomenon so that they can be proven right or wrong. Another way requires deep thinking and pondering over the various phenomenon going on in the universe and then providing the results on the basis of observations. This method includes careful observations, in-depth analysis, and critical thinking, and is known as philosophy.

Different philosophers have provided their contributions in this respect that what constitutes ethical grounds and what is counted as unethical. One of the prominent names in this respect is Immanuel Kant. Immanuel Kant presented different theories that defined different areas of philosophy that how various aspects of life should be taken. Immanuel cant especially focusses on the aspects of Capital Punishment or the Death Penalty. This piece of writing

Discussion

Kant’s Theory of Good Will

By Goodwill, Kant means that which we actually value in moral decisions. According to him, whenever a person observes an action that is morally virtuous, what he or she regards as valuable is the will that has led to that action, instead of the consequence of that action. The reason for this is that the right action can be done for the wrong reasons, and sometimes good reasons might not suffice to bring about the intended consequences. In either case, consequences are significant only secondarily, while the will behind the action is the primary object of our moral assessment and criticism. The Good Will is the only good without any attributes or qualifications. It is guided by the moral law within. Despite all bearing on it, it will shine by itself, as it is done for the sake of duty itself, without any attachments.The Goodwill is a spontaneous force driven by the inner moral force, the force that binds humanity as such by the notion of duty for duty's sake. You can use wealth, courage, happiness, intelligence for any purpose, both good and bad. Once met with failures, they will also vanish. But the Goodwill is intrinsically good; it will remain even after failures. All other factors survive at the behest of Goodwill only.

Kant’s Theory of Duty

Kant's Ethics also surrounds the concept of duty. This tells how and when a specific duty should be performed. This theory explains that some actions should not be performed, no matter whatever the consequences are. Moreover, Kant was of the view that people do not perform their duties grudgingly. Kant was of the view that duty bounds a person and forces them to act against their will and inclinations.

Acting in Conformity with the Moral Law

Taking an action in accordance to the moral law or as per the moral values of a place refers to that a person should act exactly in accordance to moral values established at that place and society. The theory of acting in accordance with the moral values of a culture or the society states that no matter what the consequences are, a person should never forget to keep his or her actions according to moral values of that place.

Acting For The Sake Of Moral Law

Kant wrote the Critique of Pure Reason to secure the possibility of transcendental freedom. The moral law (in all its formulations) addresses the requirements of transcendental freedom: that action is autonomous and arise out of the practice of reason, and not be heteronomous influenced by empirical causality.

Difference between Acting In Conformity With the Moral Law and Acting For The Sake Of Moral Law

In the eyes of Immanuel Kant, the moral value of what a person does not depend on the actual action. An action is not actually good or bad. It is actually the results of those actions that decide whether these actions are good or bad. The only factor that decides that whether an action is morally good or bad is the intention or motive behind those actions. This is where the difference in the concept of acting out of conformity and acting out of moral laws lies.

Death Penalty or Capital Punishment

Death penalty, also known as capital punishment, is a government-sanctioned punishment or practice where a person is killed by the state as a punishment of a crime. The sentence that a person should be killed or murdered on the order of the government is known as death penalty and the process is known as execution. It is usually sanctioned to a person in the case of a very serious crime like murder. Capital punishment or death penalty is a very controversial topic and has been an issue of debate for a very long time.

Immanuel Kant’s views about the Death Penalty

Immanuel Kant had very clear and intricate views about the Death penalty. He was once found quoting:

“Even if a civil society were to be dissolved by the consent of all its members (e.g., if a people inhabiting an island decided to separate and disperse throughout the world), the last murderer remaining in the prison would first have to be executed, so that each has done to him what his deeds deserve and blood guilt does not cling to the people for not having insisted upon this punishment; for otherwise the people can be regarded as collaborators in this public violation of justice.” (Kant)

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it can be concluded that Kant had very intricate and elaborated views about ethics and morality. He had distinct views about the ethical perspectives of different actions. In this respect, he presented different theories that presented his various views regarding the multiple courses of actions that are performed by humans on various occasions. These theories were based on the consequences of these and how these actions affected the people around or society. Immanuel Kant had also very clear and explanatory views about the Death Penalty or Capital Punishment. He was clearly in favor of this kind of punishment and had the view that this was the best-served punishment for a murderer.

Works Cited

Kant, Immanuel. Moral Law: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Routledge, 2013.

Philosophy Paper

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Kant’s Categorical Imperative is one of theories that have been used for a long duration to try and determine if it if morally right or wrong to do a certain thing. This is a school of reason that does not categorize anything as either wrong or right. Kant believes that one has the ability to convince people about a certain topic depending on the statement that will follow the command. He states that most of the statements that can be defined as ethical statements are left hanging and one can easily manipulate them to get another meaning altogether. There is no universal way of doing things in this case. One only does the things that he or she believes that will offer the best returns. On the ethics of duty, he states that one can formulate more reasons not to follow a certain way of thinking as long as it does not affect other people. This is a free way of doing things and does not constrain people within a given line of thought. It gives every person the opportunity to decide what it good for them. There can be a universal and functional way but it does not imply that it is the universal way of doing things. There can still be other ways that people can use to reason and ensure that they are able to convince other people.

For this case, we have to look at the gains that the children will get in case they get vaccinated against the diseases. I believe that it will be important to vaccinate the children because it gives them good life in future. These are diseases that have been proved to be able to cause problems to the development of a child. It is therefore important that they get the vaccination so that they can avoid the deadly diseases in future. The method that I use to reach my final decision is by looking at the benefit of the whole process. It is common knowledge that vaccination is the act of preventing attacks that might occur in future. Measles and other diseases for which one is vaccinated when they are young have the tendency of attacking people when they are still young. I believe that what is good for the population is the vaccination because it ensures that every child can grow up well. It also ensures that every child does not have problem with development when they are attacked by the disease. The decision that I have made mainly relies on the benefits that the children will have when they take part in the vaccination. According to me, it would be morally upright for the children to get the vaccination because it will of great importance as they grow. I believe that Kant would also agree that it is morally right for the children to get the vaccination as a result of the benefits.

For those people who are opposed to the vaccination, it will important that they are educated on the benefits of the process. They will also have to be taught the problems that come with diseases such as measles. This will show that it is morally wrong to deny the children such things that will secure their future. This is the line of thought that can easily help in changing their views so that they allow the children to get the vaccination.

Analysis of the case by making use of the utilitarian law

Secondly, it would also be important to analyze the situation using the utilitarian law which states that one will choose to make use to make use of the decision that ensures a larger part of the population will gain. It is mainly based on the number of people who will gain from the decisions that are being made in this case. Decisions that are to be made in this case must look at the number of children that will gain from the process. It is based on the merit that there are people who will gain from the decision that will be made. To make the decision it is important to come up with the benefits of the process and whether it will be of great help to the society. If you are sure that majority of the children will gain from the process then it is important to make is a law. It is also important to have a look at what other people are saying about the vaccination and whether they believe it will be of great help to the children.

According to me, it will ethically right to make it a law that all the children must be vaccinated against mumps and measles because it will help to keep majority of the children safe from such diseases. There have been many cases of children dying just because they did not get the vaccination that they were supposed to get when they were young. To solve this problem, it is important to come up with ways of ensuring that you can take your child for vaccination. In case the vaccination is not carried out, it implies that there are many children who might end up dying. The vaccination will definitely save many children from the diseases and the risk of dying at a very tender age. It is a step that definitely has many advantages for majority of the children in the society.

Using this school of thought, it will be quite easy to convince the other people that this is the right step to take. Once you tell that once majority of the children get vaccination that they need then it will be easy to save them from the problems that come with missing out on the vaccination then they will easily change their minds. There are many cases when people have ended up joining into a certain course because they found out it is good for majority of the people. People always tend to avoid the things that will only benefit few of them. Once they learn that most of them will get the advantages when they decide to go for the vaccination then most of them will opt for it. You only need to convince the people that majority of the children under this rule. They will then see the important of ensuring that their children are vaccinated and will hence try and make an effort of taking their children for the vaccination. Under the utilitarian perspective, it I important to convince that the steps will of great importance towards ensuring that majority of their children live a healthy life that is free from the many diseases. To the people who are against the vaccination, they need to know that most of the children who do not get the vaccination always develop such diseases in future. The children will eventually gain from the process and this will ensure that they are able to stay long lives without any health issues. There are many of them who will change their minds because every person always wants the best for their children

On third way that can be used still to explain this situation is the cosmopolitanism as proposed by Kwame Apia. In this case, it is important to consider what other people feel about their culture and the history that they have. For the case of vaccination, a small community can decide to have their own way of doing things. According to him, it is important to respect the view of every person. There is always a tendency of the bog communities threatening the smaller communities with economic sanctions just because they have refused to follow what the other big communities are doing. In this case, they might not be interested in the whole thing and should therefore be left to go ahead with the practices that they would like to have. This is an accommodative type of reasoning that allows every person to go ahead with their practices. It is important o respect the culture of such small communities because they also do not interfere with the things that the big communities are doing.

The theory also suggests that just because a big part of the community engages in a certain practice, it does not mean that it the best thing that every community will have to follow. The small community should not be forced to practice the things that they do not really feel like doing. Just the same way the big communities have their own reasons of believing that their practice is the best, they should also be accommodative to allow the others to practice the things that they really wish to practice as a community. I believe that it is morally wrong for any big community to threaten such small countries just because they have decided that they are not going to follow the things that the big communities are doing. They should be left to do their own things until they feel that it is time to start practicing such things. Vaccination is one of the controversial things that require countries to be left to make decisions on their own. In most of the cases, the problems that countries have to deal with are always related to the sanctions and other things that the bigger countries impose on them.

References

Plato. 1991. The Republic, trans. Allan Bloom. Basic Books. ISBN–13: 978–0465069347

Kwame Anthony Appiah. 2007. Cosmopolitanism. W.W. Norton. ISBN-13: 978-0393329339

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Philosophy Take-home Final Exam

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Philosophy (Take- home Final exam)

Do you think that Malthusianism is one of the best solutions to the environmental crisis we experience today?

Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus in the first edition of ‘Essay on Population’ asseverated his principle on population:

“Population, when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence only in an arithmetical ratio”, CITATION Mal66 \p 14 \l 1033 (Malthus, 1966, p. 14)

Malthusian theory of population has been instrumental in exerting a major influence on the disciplines of biology, environmental sciences, politics, agricultural economics and various other discourses that impact the human circumstances in everyday life. This theory was originally propounded by Malthus in an attempt to disseminate understanding about the human demographics and population expansion. In the wake of changing dynamics, this theory gained wide recognition and crossed the boundaries in which it was originally advocated. The Malthusian theory has successfully landed a niche as a research paradigm in the horizons of dynamics regarding the general population. The growth of population in many parts of Europe and England since the advent of the industrial revolution can be accredited to increased technological progress and historically high levels of agricultural production. The rapid population growth pushed people to the boundaries of subsistence who were already fighting for resources in an impoverished environment. Climatic conditions were also unfavorable, and Europeans pushed agriculture into far-flung areas mainly in the country-side. The environment in the cities demonstrated a sheer lack of knowledge about hygienic practices which led to widespread endemic diseases, paving the way for high mortality rates. Thomas Malthus, at that time, was striving to find an instance of some ‘natural law’ so that he could propagate a righteous discernment about the perpetual nature of poverty. Accordingly, this principle of population advanced by him delineated that the increase in the human population is faster than that of food supplication for satisfying the physical needs of everyone. The occurrence of relative gain in the production of food predicts the stimulation of an even higher rate of population growth.

Many environmentalists in the twentieth century utilized the Malthusian theory to emphasize on the assertion that the exhaustion of resources is inevitable if the population growth will not be controlled. This premise eventually constituted the neo-Malthusian way of thinking and many advocates mirrored this notion in their works. Many famous works at the end of the twentieth century, for instance, Limits to Growth and The Population Bomb predicted that rapid explosion in the population can be a disaster for humanity because of the rapid stripping of the resource supply. In the latter source, Ehrlich forecasted that millions of people would face starvation and there will be a sheer lack of possibilities to avoid this disaster. In both these books, the context urged the masses to strive for radical actions for limiting the increasing population CITATION Pir05 \l 1033 (Pirages, 2005). Although the prediction of mass starvation in the last quarter of the twentieth century never occurred, the current global environmental crises and changing climatic patterns indicate the consequences of rapid population growth. Thomas Malthus and his contemporaries also failed to incorporate the technological improvements in their works, which led to the increasing rates of food production surpassing the levels of population growth.

The presence of Malthusianism is conspicuous in the contemporary quest for the solutions of environmental or ecological crises. Many sources have opined that one of the biggest pre-cursors behind the present era’s environmental problems is the human population. This is specifically true regarding the case of developing economies whereby the potential end to environmental destruction can only be brought by putting formal checks and balances to the population explosion. This measure is extremely difficult to impose because of religious and orthodox thinking and perspectives regarding the reproduction processes of mankind. Almost all the Abrahamic religions are pro-life and believe in the extensive propagation of humankind CITATION Mag16 \l 1033 (Maguire, 2016). Various religious institutions across the globe also have penalties and punishments which they administer on those people, specifically women who bluntly reject pro-life ideas. These practices mirror totalitarian regimes that have highly adverse effects on the well-being of the human population, therefore, putting checks and balances on the reproduction rates and creating awareness about population control is a goal that cannot be materialized in the next foreseeable future. The main premise advocated by Thomas Malthus and the conclusions that he set forth were universal in their essence. The main drawback was that he failed to incorporate the significant role of agricultural and industrial revolutions. Furthermore, he also did not reinstate the regular signs of progress in the field of medicine and technological efficiencies which increased the quality of human life. Medical advancement enabled majority of human population to break the vicious circle of poverty and attain a decent standard of living. In spite of the predominant relationship and association between the linear growth of resources and the supposed exponential growth of the human population, Malthusianism also could not successfully depict the root causes and underpinnings of growth in resources for feeding large populations. The interactions between human population dynamics and the environment have often been viewed mechanistically.

As a scientific topic of interrogation and deeper inquiry, the study of population and associated resources have managed to become a part of a venerable tradition in the environmental sciences. An encrustation of graphs and various models depicting global trends in population, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, energy consumption, or deforestation has frequently been utilized to reflect on the impact population on the changing environmental conditions. During the last twenty years, geographers, demographers, economists, and environmental scientists have strived to respond to an intricate set of questions. One of the most important questions which also introduces the basic direction of this essay is that whether Malthusianism can be regarded as one of the best solutions to cope with contemporary problems associated with environmental crises and climatic challenges. In turn, population dynamics affecting environmental degradation will also be analyzed. Since the advent of industrial revolution and prevalence of technology in every aspect of life, similar questions have been answered with the help of effective tools and theories shedding light on the interactions between humans and the environment that they live in.

Neo-Malthusians, who adhere to their stipulations largely with Malthusianism postulate that if the exponential increase in the human population would be left unchecked, it will lead to the outstripping of resources present on the Earth. One of the predominant scientific paradigms in the inter-disciplinary fields of environment and human demographics is the analysis of this prediction. Many research scholars and scientists have nullified this forecast because it largely treats human beings in the same way as it treats all the other species on this earth, advocating that the lifestyle of humans will outgrow the current carrying capacity of the Earth. The adherents of Neo-Malthusianism have frequently been critiqued by virtue of failing to observe some important milestones in the history of humankind, for instance, trade openness, technological signs of progress, adaptations in culture and institutional reforms. These accomplishments have assisted groups of human populations in increasing their living standards. One of the prominent hypotheses in this regard is the Boserupain hypothesis, which entails that production of agricultural produce also increases intensely with the rise in population growth because of the deployment of greater capital and labor inputs CITATION Bos87 \l 1033 (Boserup, 1987). Many studies have scrutinized the differences between theories proposed by Malthus and Boserup and reinstated that Boserup regards the factor of technology as endogenous to the overall model and Malthus saw it as exogenous to the model of interactions between population and resources CITATION Dem07 \l 1033 (Demont, 2007). Following these approaches, it can be suggested that the inappropriateness of technologies and the frequent market failures are majorly responsible for the current environmental crisis compared to the increase in population growth.

One strand of literature also maintains that Malthusianism is not the only factor for driving the on-going environmental crises and its implications cannot be regarded as the only solution for environmental degradation. Rather, it is one of the many precursors that give rise to events that have an impact on the improvement or degradation of the environment. Other than exponential population growth, there are many factors and variables that are of vital importance for understanding the ecological crises. These factors are inclusive of institutional elements such as federal and local governance systems, access to the resources and various regimes of land tenure. Apart from this, socio-economic factors, for instance, lack of education primarily among females, income inequality, and disparate holdings of land between the members of the same society can also be attributed to the global environmental crises CITATION Bri15 \l 1033 (Briassoulis, 2015). These additional factors give rise to the conception that population growth, according to Malthusianism, is not a sufficient or necessary decisive factor for the potential solutions or reasons explaining the dynamics of environmental degradation. Many pieces of research have established that exponential rise in population can be regarded as either a positivity in disguise as it assists the induction of intensified agricultural growth and on the other hand, it can also be taken as a negative factor as it exerts strain on the carrying capacity of the planet CITATION Hen19 \l 1033 (Henderson, 2019).

The interrelated crises in the linkages between human populations and their environment has been the focus of many esteemed symposiums, research paradigms and an ever-increasing snowball of books and articles. Malthusianism can be regarded as one of the best solutions for the environmental crises because of a large strand of theories contributing to this paradigm. The politics revolving around the environmental issues are highly polarized in nature. Many research scholars who probe into the dynamics of population affecting the environment also suggest that one of the most consequential social evils, poverty stems from the deeply anchored inequalities between the developed and developing countries. This can be observed from the instance whereby refugees in the regions facing deforestation are victims of deception because they are unable to practice their rights in the country’s interior agricultural areas. Similarly, environmental scientists deliberate over land deprivation to the farmers as a result of reduced access to credit or other agricultural technologies before considering the adverse consequences of population growth.

Several theories frequently proposed by many demographers are also instrumental in explaining the impact of the population on the environment. Distortionary strategies, civil conflicts, and poor governance with increasing injustice are some of the associated untoward circumstances that simultaneously surface with the rise in population growth.

During the 1970s and 1980s, the literary debates in the public policy and academic circles predominantly focused on the problems associated with population growth. Many world-renowned international organizations, including a multitude of think tanks, were of the opinion that the developing countries, specifically the low-income areas are facing more deleterious effects at the expense of a rapid increase in population rates. Unprecedented levels of hunger, unemployment, and other social evils are some of the adversities linked with the global inability to meet the requirements of everyone. Population growth is also appealing in its essence to the natural and social scientists because unlike other variables and conceptual dimensions, the data on environmental change is easily available. Culture, institutional structures and frameworks, and the commonly prevalent values and norms are comparatively difficult to gauge; therefore, the projections of the human population towards environmental degradation are chiefly reliable CITATION Lut17 \l 1033 (Lutz, 2017). Resultantly, the reductionist and empirical views of the interactions between the human population and its environment have been promoted. A growing and significant body of natural and social scientists are drawn towards the appreciation that various forms of correspondence between humans and their ecological surroundings have more than one interpretation. Although the statistics regarding the human population imply that population may exceed the natural resources and the carrying capacity of the earth, there is a symbiotic relationship between the two and is studied by many scholars in the contemporary arenas of environmental research. Malthusianism also fails to thoroughly analyze the underpinnings of the capitalist system in most economies and its detrimental effects on the environment CITATION Ama18 \l 1033 (Amaral, 2018). This renders the followers of Malthusianism unable to pinpoint and identify realistic options and alternatives for the environmental crisis. Darwin's thesis is inherited by them, and they also propound that this disequilibrium between population growth and the corresponding increase or maintenance of the resources is beyond repair CITATION Hea17 \l 1033 (Heath, 2017). Alterations in various frameworks and structures of society and their lasting effects on the behavior patterns of the population have been minimal attention by the descendants of Malthusianism. The deep issues and causes of environmental crises have also not been pro-actively examined by Malthusians because they have a tendency to overlook the fact that commodity production and prioritizing lucrative opportunities and profit margins is the true agenda of the capitalist system. Neo-Malthusians also structure their arguments mirroring the notions of political economists and pro-capitalist thinkers. The status of consumption is subordinate to all the production processes in the capitalist system. Therefore it can pose barriers to the propagation of environmental concerns among citizens of a capitalist economy. Many studies conducted to analyze the underlying factors of environmental degradation delineate that increase in ever-growing fictitious needs, and relentless mass production of various commodities are the actual causes that are further aggravating the situation. Opposing line of this approach, the neo-Malthusians stipulate that it is practically impossible for all the segments of society to live while earning the same level of income. The prevailing laws of the capitalist system are also overlooked by the adherents and followers of Malthusianism when they indicate the alteration of production and consumption patterns as an implication of Malthus's principle of population.

In a system where interactions between humans and their environments are studied, lasting impacts are reciprocal contrary to common understanding that there exists a uni-directionality between them. For instance, the effects of environmental change on the occurrences of morbidity and mortality are topics of scientific inquiry that are growing areas of interest. The environmentally induced increased rates of mortality have also attempted to look at the changing demographics of the various projections of population. For example, habitats that predominantly pave the way for life-threatening diseases like malaria have been studied as an implication of health impacts from environmental changes. Heat stress or famine as direct outcomes of environmental degradation, endangering the precious lives of human beings have also been examined through the lens of the Malthusian theory of population CITATION Cam06 \l 1033 (Campbell-Lendrum D, 2006). A growing interest in the research on the interactions between human beings and their environments utilizes new and innovative sources of data of bio-physical and geopolitical nature. Furthermore, spatial statistics and geographic systems of information have also been identified and deployed as new technologies in the pursuit of deconstructing the human population in further parts. This also enables researchers to understand the social and economic institutions with all their complexities. Policies made by the governmental authorities improving or degrading the environment can also be studied under the light of these models and theories. The degree of mediation by these policies in decreasing the impact of human population on the natural environment is also analyzed through these studies. The use of natural resources and generation/disposal of waste material is also comprehended by these research studies and associated implications. A lot of studies in the paradigm of association between the human population and environment are also triggered by the largely prevalent broader and necessary concerns for sustainability. The sample populations have been employed both on a regional and global scale to study and analyze the effects in-depth. Regardless of the scale at which these studies are conducted, these implications also shape the thought process of Malthusian adherents and those people who view the increasing trends of the population as a threat to the carrying capacity of this planet. Distributional justice has also been analyzed from various perspectives in this regard illustrating that a major portion of citizens in the developing economies are in the pursuit of raising their living standards. The unprivileged segments of developing economies want to transition their lifestyles from a low-income to a middle or upper-middle income lifestyle. It is also implied by a plethora of studies that the cost of adapting to a climate change and the conservation of biodiversity cannot be borne by the lower income groups. On the other hand, they seem to be the most vulnerable groups facing the disadvantages and adverse impacts of the climatic changes CITATION Cur04 \l 1033 (Curran, 2004).

Irrespective of the results of growing literature illuminating the association between human population and environment, which can either prove the presence of negligible or dominant effects by humans on the outcomes of environmental degradation, the issue is still largely up to the discretion of humans. The pursuit of seeking long-term solutions following the approach of Malthusian theory and addressing the prevalent inequalities between the patterns of production costs and conspicuous consumption is impossible without deeper reflection on all the other factors which are firmly anchored in the dynamics of a global society. Attainment of sustainable development and the transition from worsening environmental degradation to a fairly acceptable environmental quality cannot be truly realized without proper research on the alternative options for various economic systems and Malthusianism.

The ethical foundations of capitalism must be critiqued upon so that various emancipatory alternatives can be presented to deconstruct the root causes of ecological crises. Another imperative is to meticulously reflect upon the lasting consequences of dispensable patterns of consumption and production. Various instances, whereby the interactions between the human population and its nature fortify the inherent sense of human disengagement from the respect and potential maintenance of nature can also prove to be instrumental in proving the efficacious nature of Malthusianism as a solution to overcome the ecological problems.

Finally, it can be suggested that an extensive anatomization of the true character of the interactions between human society and its nature is also required to understand how Malthusianism can be differently interpreted as a solution to overcome the problems arising from the environmental crisis. There is a need to explore new possibilities as the Malthusian paradigm has been scrutinized from various perspectives and appears insufficient for the research scholars of human demographics and environmental sciences in their attempts to view it from a corrective lens.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Amaral, E. F. (2018). Theories of demography. Population.

Boserup, E. (1987). Agricultural development and demographic growth: a conclusion. Ordina Éditions, Liège, 385-389.

Briassoulis, H. (2015). The socio-ecological fit of human responses to environmental degradation: an integrated assessment methodology. Environmental management, 1448-1466.

Campbell-Lendrum D, W. R. (2006). Comparative risk assessment of the burden of disease from climate change. Environmental Health Perspectives, 1935-1941.

Curran, S. R. (2004). Completing the picture: the challenges of bringing “consumption” into the population–environment equation. Population and Environment, 107-131.

Demont, M. J. (2007). Boserup versus Malthus revisited: Evolution of farming systems in northern Côte d’Ivoire. Agricultural Systems, 215-228.

Heath, S. (2017). Malthus's doctrine in historical perspective. Libertarian Papers, 78.

Henderson, K. &. (2019). An ecological theory of changing human population dynamics. People and Nature, 31-43.

Lutz, W. W. (2017). World population & human capital in the twenty-first century: An overview. Oxford University Press.

Maguire, D. C. (2016). Abortion and religion. The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, 1-5.

Malthus, T. R. (1966). First Essay on Population.

Pirages, D. &. (2005). From resource scarcity to ecological security: exploring new limits to growth. MIT Press.

Philosophy Term Paper

Name

Professor name

Subject

May 15, 2019

Freedom of will

Aristotle said that we are not free if our actions are caused by ‘external compulsion'. His treatment of force and compulsion identifies if it is possible to hold an agent responsible for his actions. The concept is used for building a relationship of free will with moral responsibility. Aristotle has relied on a causal chain for identifying four major causes as; material, efficient, formal and final. He has reckoned that chances that cause accidents. Chance according to him is the fifth cause among all causes. The causal chain becomes visible in response to an accident. Although decisions are predictable when they are based on human behavior but if they were not developed freely it confirms the role of external compulsion.

The central argument of Aristotle claims that human beings lack free will due to external compulsion. The choices made by humans are influenced by compulsion or external events that undermine the concept of freedom. Aristotle emphasizes on the inevitability of actual events and rejects the conclusiveness of theory. The view rejects the belief that the consequences of actions are the result of free actions. Desires and circumstances have a strong role in defining actions. The concept of free will vanishes when a person performs under the influence of coercion or hypnosis. Under such circumstances, he is unable to act morally, but the choice does not free him from moral responsibility CITATION WFR68 \l 1033 (Hardie). Aristotle was not a determinist but he identified indefinite causes that contribute to free will. He mentions, “causes from which chance results might happen are indeterminate; hence chance is obscure to human calculation and is a cause by accident” CITATION Ari11 \l 1033 (Aristotle). The concept of accidents is used to explain that actions are responses to certain events. His argument thus presents chances as uncaused causes that means they are not the product of one’s decisions.

External compulsion represents vivid reasoning in discussing freedom and self compared to the deterministic perspective. Freedom, self, and moral responsibility become incompatible according to Aristotle’s views. Aristotle has rejected the philosophy of determinists that claims that actions or decisions are caused by behaviours. The strength of determinism and free will is apparent in Aristotle’s discussion of human choices and free will. The general idea of external compulsion states that humans lack free will. Views of Aristotle support the external however his suggestions represent him as a soft determinist. His ideas of liberty and necessity explain the reasons behind human actions. In his theory of liberty and necessity, he reveals the role of liberty as a negotiation that leads to certain causes. He mentions, “it is universally allowed, that matter in all its operations, is actuated by a necessary force, and that every natural effect is so precisely determined by the energy of its cause, that no other effect, in such particular circumstances, could have resulted from it” CITATION Joe11 \l 1033 (Feinberg). He promotes the idea of necessities and causation. The idea of causation becomes the same as explained under deterministic view. He uses induction and causation to explain the reasons for human actions. He considers nature's laws as immutable and determines the need for proving cause. Necessity defines the force that promotes actions and present cause depending on the circumstances.

The central claims presented by Aristotle is that if behavior causes actions and that behavior is not one’s choice, then there is no free will. This also states that everything that occurs is a response to necessity. There are principles and causes that are general and deductible but there are also some events that are accidental. Aristotle has focused on the events that occur accidentally. The determinist philosopher has rejected the idea of Aristotle by explaining the role of causal chains. Contrary to that Aristotle based his ideology on the principle of chance and rejected the claims of determinist philosophers. He claims that chances are obscure and occur themselves. He further explains that when we desire at our ends the means to our ends become deliberation or choice. When actions follow desires they are done in a voluntary manner CITATION WFR68 \l 1033 (Hardie). But in cases when we exercise virtue and think about our moral responsibility the role of free will again becomes less visible.

The argument of Aristotle claims that moral responsibility also acts as an external compulsion because it prevents human from taking an independent decision. When human beings are influenced by the philosophy of morality they are less likely to make an independent choice. This again reflects the absence of freedom and free will. The concept of morality states that an individual is never free to take any decision that is solely the product of their desires. I consider that morality acts as an internal compulsion because it prevents an individual from following his personal wish. This brings human beings to an internal state of conflict where they need to choose between self and good CITATION Ari11 \l 1033 (Aristotle). Free will cannot be practised under the influence of moral philosophy because if an individual enjoyed the freedom he would prefer his personal desire. However, in a real-life scenario, people always think about good and bad that affect their choices in different situations.

Aristotle represents strong debate on freedom by considering the role of circumstances. Indeterminism situations play a crucial role in determining actions and behaviours. It confers the view that humans are irresistible to inductive reasoning reflects the role of free will becomes less significant due to circumstances. The view is useful in understanding that humans are incapable of choosing between different events. External compulsion approach states that desire and will not cause free actions. According to present ideology, an agent is the responsible entity that leads to certain causes and actions. A necessary action under the present proposition provoked by desires is not a free action. The view presents the common example of actions that are caused by violence. Determination of will explains the power of action while he uses hypothetical liberty to further explain the choice. Aristotle’s concept of ‘compulsion’, can be associated with external and internal causation leading to actions CITATION WFR68 \l 1033 (Hardie). He states that it is not appropriate to judge people for immoral actions that are not the outcome of their faults. When external factors control the actions of individuals, they don't hold the responsibility for their actions CITATION Joe11 \l 1033 (Feinberg).

External compulsion is apparent in ‘Human freedom and self’ that solves the metaphysical problem of human freedom by considering them, responsible agents. The philosophical view is not against the ideology of freedom as the belief promotes the idea that every event is the outcome of every other event. The view confers the idea that events and actions have close relevance. The approach conveys the belief that proceeding factors are vital in causing behaviors CITATION Ari11 \l 1033 (Aristotle). Aristotle’s view follows causal laws and considers them responsible for generating behaviors. Free will reflects the belief that people can make some choices under the assumption that people can choose their actions. The concept of free choice also states that people can choose whether or not to commit the crime. Aristotle’s theory suggests that circumstances and events promote certain behaviors. Behaviorists are determinists because they focus on identifying the reason behind actions. The view focus on identifying the role of free will and responsibility of humans in taking different actions. The theory conveys the belief that law of regularity is the central force behind the occurrence of events. Following the deterministic view, philosophy states that human desires and choices are also caused. The free action relies on the choice of an individual and will be choosing mechanisms.

Internal compulsion empathizes on the proposition that we have no free will, and we can live without it. It accepts the reality of causal determinism but also states that humans lack the complete free will. This kind of free will requires moral responsibility allowing humans to make choices. The philosopher affirms the truth of free will that determinism identifies. Lack of moral responsibility and the impact of judgments on human actions also supports compulsion. The view suggests modifying determinism by including moral philosophy as the absence of moral responsibility does not change values. Aristotle uses the ideology of causation to explain free will. To explain compulsion consider the scenario of murder that a person commits freely CITATION Rob89 \l 1033 (Roberts). External compulsion represents the strongest justification with the explanation; when a person kills someone for personal gain that is compatible with determinism. In such a situation, desire becomes that reason causing murder. Under determinism, the concept of free will is more dominant when the cause of action is second-order desires. It also recognizes a distal cause as the murderer is unable to control his desires, leading to the act of murder. Under such conditions, the control agent becomes the weaker affecting the ability of an individual to control his actions.

I believe that compulsion can be internal because any action that occurs in response to internal desires lacks free will. The action that is then performed in response to internal feelings is not free. An individual who is unable to control his desires or inner emotions will not be able to take independent decisions. In real life I encountered situations in which people limit my freedom such as my desire was to choose Arts for graduation but my parents convinced me to pick science. Although they didn't impose their decision when I shared my personal desire they told me to choose something that ensures career prospects. The suggestion of career acted as an external compulsion because it prevented me from taking an independent decision. I realized that free will is a rare phenomenon in real life. There are events when one cannot practice that they want to due to the external compulsion.

Another thing that allowed me to experience the limitation of free will is moral responsibility. In many situations, I was unable to make an independent choice because I was influenced by moral philosophy. At different incidents, I am told by people not to do this because it is wrong. Similarly, I receive suggestions about choosing right over wrong. Such attitude or responses from people become part of my unconscious thoughts and influence my decision whenever I have to make a choice. This reflects that people always act in a way to limit my freedom or free will.

I think I can only free myself to the extent when I am alone by focusing on my desires and myself. In can free me from the thoughts of others or what others tells me. This can only be practiced when I am alone such as by listening to the music and forgetting everything and every person. I think that such freedom is short term and cannot be attained in real life.

Work Cited

Aristotle. Free will. 2011. 15 05 2019 <http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/aristotle/>.

Feinberg, Joel. Reason and Responsibility. Wadsworth, 2011.

Hardie, W. F. R. "Aristotle and the Freewill Problem ." Philosophy 43.165 (1968): 274-278.

Roberts, Jean. "Aristotle on Responsibility for Action and Character." Ancient Philosophy 9 (1989): 23-36.

Plastic Surgery

Plastic Surgery

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Plastic Surgery

Plastic surgery refers to the surgical specialty comprising the reconstruction, alteration or restoration of the human body. Primarily, it is classified into two kinds as aesthetic surgery and reconstructive surgery including the hand surgery. It is essential to underpin various contentious elements, moral and ethical dilemmas pertinent to the framework of plastic surgery. A wide range of people deems the individuals aspiring to undergo plastic surgery as insecure, deprived and having low self-esteem. On the contrary, there exists dogma that plastic surgery is the potential source of sanctioning a person with self-esteem, confidence and it is the fundamental right of every human being to appear the in the manner wherein he desires. Meanwhile, the surgical procedures pose several ethical dilemmas for the surgeons as they have to be equipped with the experience and skill besides making the patient familiar with the risk factors and intricate aspects involved in the plastic surgery. Irrefutably, plastic surgery is a mean to enhance self-esteem and confidence, and the views of the cynics cannot eradicate the need for plastic surgery.

To begin, various reasons cause people to undergo the procedures of plastic surgery. Form the victims of car accidents to looking attractive, various manifestations urge people to change their appearance and looks. Since people have the fundamental right to decide how they should appear, plastic surgery is the appropriate option to accomplish the objective. They can change their body which is their own decision and it never implies they are succumbed by the lack of confidence or insecurity. The advocates of plastic surgery have advanced to underpin empirical evidence to illustrate the significance and the need for plastic surgery in the contemporary era. For instance, not every person aspires to replicate the looks of a pop star. People with uncommon features often utilize plastic surgery to accomplish the objectives in their life as the body and appearance of a person contribute significantly toward enhancing and restructuring their self-esteem.

On the contrary, the proponents of plastic surgery consider plastic surgery a radical practice as it highlights the insecure nature of a person. Most of the people even call the entrenched inclination of people to undergo plastic surgery as a psychological disorder. They nurture the extremist views that the practice of plastic surgery lies at the very heart of desecrating the fundamental human rights in true letter and spirits ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"W2RpHgt9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sterodimas, Radwanski, & Pitanguy, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Sterodimas, Radwanski, & Pitanguy, 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":102,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/MR426T2R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/MR426T2R"],"itemData":{"id":102,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ethical issues in plastic and reconstructive surgery","container-title":"Aesthetic Plastic Surgery","page":"262-267","volume":"35","issue":"2","source":"PubMed","abstract":"Plastic, reconstructive, and cosmetic surgery refers to a variety of operations performed in order to repair or restore body parts to look normal or to enhance a certain structure or anatomy that is already normal. Several ethical considerations such as a patient's right for autonomy, informed consent, beneficence, and nonmalfeasance need to be given careful consideration. The principal objective of the medical profession is to render services to humanity with full respect for human dignity. Plastic surgeons should merit the confidence of patients entrusted to their care, rendering to each a full measure of service and devotion. They require an extensive amount of education and training. The increases in demand for aesthetic plastic surgery and the advocacy of practice in the media have raised concerns about the circumstances under which cosmetic surgery is ethical and permissible. Innovative research, and new technologies derived from such research, almost always raises ethical and policy concerns. Medical ethics regulate what is, and what is not, correct in promoting plastic surgery to the public. It is essential to create an educated and informed public about the ethical issues in the plastic and reconstructive surgery field. Plastic surgeons need to carefully evaluate the degree of deformity, physical and emotional maturity, and desired outcome of patients who request plastic surgery procedures. Science is a powerful force for change in modern society and plastic surgeons have a responsibility to shepherd that change with thoughtful advocacy and careful ethical scrutiny of their own behavior.","DOI":"10.1007/s00266-011-9674-3","ISSN":"1432-5241","note":"PMID: 21336881","journalAbbreviation":"Aesthetic Plast Surg","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Sterodimas","given":"Aris"},{"family":"Radwanski","given":"Henrique N."},{"family":"Pitanguy","given":"Ivo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sterodimas, Radwanski, & Pitanguy, 2011). For instance, it is a plausible indicator of shallow people who prefer not to adhere to the natural spirits and instead cultivate radical and irrational ways to combat nature. The views of cynics cannot be nullified entirely but the aspect of desecration of human rights needs to be confronted. The fundamental human rights offer each person the prerogative to exercise their rational will independently. Plastic surgery thus ought not to be bashed in light of the provisions of free will in the charter of the fundamental human rights. However, the reality cannot be shunned that people often strive to change their appearance needlessly which supplements some of the views of cynics.

In addition, a wide range of research has offered an explicit illustration of the betterment in the quality of life (QOL) of the people who underwent the procedures of plastic surgery ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YcGsP0yQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Flawed perceptions | APS,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Flawed perceptions | APS,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":109,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/N79YBU4L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/N79YBU4L"],"itemData":{"id":109,"type":"webpage","title":"Flawed perceptions | APS","URL":"https://www.psychology.org.au/for-members/publications/inpsych/2018/June-Issue-3/Flawed-perceptions","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Flawed perceptions | APS,” n.d.). However, it is worthy to mention that these instances involve cases which manifested in the desired outcome for the patient. There exist instances where patients shape unrealistic and irrational expectations from the procedure. For instance, getting the love of life or changing a relationship entirely are the common flawed expectations of people. When these expectations are not met after the procedure, they fell distressed and depressed which does not enhance the quality of life of such patients. The trend of plastic surgery is growing rapidly because of the improvement acknowledgment in the field related to the perfect execution of the surgery.

Moreover, the cost factor is often highlighted by the proponents as a waste of money in an unproductive venture. The critical procedures require spending an exorbitant amount of money and that too includes cases where the desired outcomes were not accomplished ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"78m7eBJJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nejadsarvari, Ebrahimi, Ebrahimi, & Hashem-Zade, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Nejadsarvari, Ebrahimi, Ebrahimi, & Hashem-Zade, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":100,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/T8UJNWGQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/T8UJNWGQ"],"itemData":{"id":100,"type":"article-journal","title":"Medical Ethics in Plastic Surgery: A Mini Review","container-title":"World Journal of Plastic Surgery","page":"207-212","volume":"5","issue":"3","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"Currently, cosmetic surgery is spread around the world. Several factors are involved in this rapidly evolving field such as socio-economic development, changes in cultural norms, globalization and the effects of Western culture, advertising, media, and mental disorders. Nowadays the cosmetic surgery is becoming a profitable business, which deals exclusively with human appearance and less from the perspective of beauty based on physical protests and considering factors such as sex, age, and race. The morality of plastic surgery subspecialty has undergone many moral dilemmas in the past few years. The role of the patient regardless of his unrealistic dreams has questionable ethical dimension. The problem is the loss of human values and replacing them with false values, of pride and glory to a charismatic person of higher status, that may underlie some of the posed ethical dilemmas. Cosmetic surgery has huge difference with the general principle of legal liability in professional orientation, because the objective for cosmetic surgeries is different from common therapeutic purposes. To observe excellence in the medical profession, we should always keep in mind that these service providers, often as a therapist (healer) must maintain a commitment and priority for patient safety and prior to any action, a real apply for this service recipient should be present. Also, patient–physician confidentiality is the cornerstone of medical ethics. In this review, we study the issues addressed and the ways that they can be resolved.","ISSN":"2228-7914","note":"PMID: 27853683\nPMCID: PMC5109381","title-short":"Medical Ethics in Plastic Surgery","journalAbbreviation":"World J Plast Surg","author":[{"family":"Nejadsarvari","given":"Nasrin"},{"family":"Ebrahimi","given":"Ali"},{"family":"Ebrahimi","given":"Azin"},{"family":"Hashem-Zade","given":"Haleh"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nejadsarvari, Ebrahimi, Ebrahimi, & Hashem-Zade, 2016). People can invest their money somewhere else or at least assist someone who is in dire need of surgery as the patients suffering from excessive burns. However, these views can be refuted by offering a rational argument supplemented with solid evidence. It is the very will of a person to spend the money the way he desires. If he feels it imperative to restructure his appearance, none can prevent him from spending the money he earned. Besides, the person may possibly be financially assisting someone else even after spending an exorbitant sum of money on the procedure. Therefore, the criticism established by the cynics on the financial grounds is shallow and lacks the substance to make it a convincing argument.

A critical appraisal of the matters reflects that the importance of attractiveness is often overlooked in academic, scientific or philosophical discourse. The body of a human being cast immense impressions as the gesture, posture and even the manner to chew food speaks volumes about a person ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EcP2FdsP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}The Psycho-Social Impact of Facial Reconstructive Surgery \\uc0\\u8226{} theGIST,\\uc0\\u8221{} 2011)","plainCitation":"(“The Psycho-Social Impact of Facial Reconstructive Surgery • theGIST,” 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":110,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/TNJ2JWKN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/TNJ2JWKN"],"itemData":{"id":110,"type":"post-weblog","title":"The Psycho-Social Impact of Facial Reconstructive Surgery • theGIST","container-title":"theGIST","abstract":"Clare Allely faces up to what it means to have a new face.","URL":"https://the-gist.org/2011/03/the-psycho-social-impact-of-facial-reconstructive-surgery/","language":"en-GB","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",3,16]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The Psycho-Social Impact of Facial Reconstructive Surgery • theGIST,” 2011). All these values are the manifestations of the constructivism and materialism which is becoming pervasive in the society. Irrefutably, rich persons advance to undergo surgical procedures to look attractive and cherish an enhanced their self-esteem. It is imperative to highlight the intricate aspects involve in plastic surgery. The success and accomplishment of the explicit goals are not necessary in each case. This makes the surgical procedure doubtful and contentious. It is one of the most threatening risks of plastic surgery in addition to other complications ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"AKXQjJ2N","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(JAVANBAKHT, NAZARI, JAVANBAKHT, & MOGHADDAM, 2012)","plainCitation":"(JAVANBAKHT, NAZARI, JAVANBAKHT, & MOGHADDAM, 2012)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":105,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/9XS3PJNI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/9XS3PJNI"],"itemData":{"id":105,"type":"article-journal","title":"Body dysmorphic factors and mental health problems in people seeking rhinoplastic surgery","container-title":"Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica","page":"37-40","volume":"32","issue":"1","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"There has been increasing number of requests for cosmetic rhinoplastic surgery among Iranian people in different age groups in recent years. One risk for people who undergo such plastic operations is the presence of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), which can complicate the result and decrease the rate of satisfaction from surgery. This study aimed to investigate mental health problems in people seeking rhinoplastic surgery. In this case-control study, the scores of General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and DCQ (Dysmorphic Concerns Questionnaire) were obtained from 50 individuals who were candidates for rhinoplasty, and the results were compared with a normal control group. The total GHQ score and scores in anxiety, depression, and social dysfunction sub-scales were higher among the study group. This was the same for the DCQ score. However, the scores of somatization sub-scale of GHQ were not significantly different between the two groups. Psychiatric evaluation of candidates for rhinoplasty seems necessary for prevention of unnecessary and repetitive surgical operations.","ISSN":"0392-100X","note":"PMID: 22500065\nPMCID: PMC3324957","journalAbbreviation":"Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital","author":[{"family":"JAVANBAKHT","given":"M."},{"family":"NAZARI","given":"A."},{"family":"JAVANBAKHT","given":"A."},{"family":"MOGHADDAM","given":"L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (JAVANBAKHT, NAZARI, JAVANBAKHT, & MOGHADDAM, 2012). None can aspire to spend an immense amount of money in an attempt to look ugly or worse than before. Here, the primary onus lies on the doctor or surgeon to reveal the risk factors and complexities involved in the procedure. Various other ethical dilemmas rise amid these critical circumstances which are essential to be deliberated thoroughly.

Despite the vigorous advancement of technology, surgical procedures can still prove to be detrimental for the patients ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qL0Pr0aO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rashid & Brennen, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Rashid & Brennen, 2006)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":107,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/3NL2CBAE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/3NL2CBAE"],"itemData":{"id":107,"type":"article-journal","title":"Psychiatric assessment of patients with self-inflicted lacerations to the wrist and forearm admitted to a nonpsychiatric ward: The experience of a regional plastic surgery unit","container-title":"Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery","page":"266-271","volume":"59","issue":"3","source":"www.jprasurg.com","abstract":"<h2>Summary</h2><p>In 1984, the Department of Health (DoH) recommended that all patients with deliberate self-harm (DSH) must have a mental assessment before discharge. DSH patients, especially those with lacerations to wrist and forearm, are a regular source of admission to plastic surgery units. In Northern Ireland, the regional plastic surgery service is provided at the Ulster Hospital, which does not have an on-site psychiatric department. Consequently, it was often difficult to arrange a psychiatrist assessment for these patients on the ward even when the assessment was required urgently.</p><p>The objective of this study was to develop and validate a protocol that would ensure that these patients were assessed and followed up for their mental health as recommended by the DoH. In the absence of clear guidelines from the DoH and utilising the existing arrangement between Accident and Emergency (A&E) and the psychiatric services, all referring A&E departments were instructed at the time of referring patients with DSH to wrist and forearm to arrange a psychiatric examination before transferring the patient to the plastic surgery unit.</p><p>Data were collected retrospectively (August 2002–October 2002) and prospectively (November 2002–October 2003) and comprised demographic features, previous history of self-harm, conduct of the patient in A&E and the ward, length of stay in the hospital and various aspects of psychiatric assessment and follow-up.</p><p>In total, 42 referrals were made during the period studied. The average age was 28 years with a male to female ratio of 2:1. The average hospital stay was two days. Despite difficulties, our practice was found effective in ensuring psychiatry assessment and follow-up without risking the patient's physical health. The study also highlighted the need for collaboration between plastic surgeons and psychiatrists to improve services in regards to DSH patients.</p>","DOI":"10.1016/j.bjps.2005.09.013","ISSN":"1748-6815, 1878-0539","title-short":"Psychiatric assessment of patients with self-inflicted lacerations to the wrist and forearm admitted to a nonpsychiatric ward","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Rashid","given":"A."},{"family":"Brennen","given":"M. D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rashid & Brennen, 2006). Many ethical considerations as the patient’s right to autonomy, beneficence, informed consent and non-malfeasance need to be critically assessed. Since the primary purpose of the medical profession is dispensing the services to humans by honoring their dignity, plastic surgeons ought to render each patient an extensive measure of care, devotion and attention. The surge in the demand for aesthetic surgery and the widespread advocacy of the practice in mass media have enhanced the concerns related to the instances where cosmetic surgery is permissible and ethical. New technologies and innovative research have emphasized the need for addressing the policy and ethical concern in detail. In these circumstances, the medical ethics promulgate the rightful and wrongful in promoting and spreading the practice in the public ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FuCW1oKc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lee, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Lee, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":97,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/G6JJ2AUM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/G6JJ2AUM"],"itemData":{"id":97,"type":"article-journal","title":"Research, Plastic Surgery, and Archives of Plastic Surgery","container-title":"Archives of Plastic Surgery","page":"359-360","volume":"44","issue":"5","source":"PubMed Central","DOI":"10.5999/aps.2017.44.5.359","ISSN":"2234-6163","note":"PMID: 28946715\nPMCID: PMC5621814","journalAbbreviation":"Arch Plast Surg","author":[{"family":"Lee","given":"Won Jai"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lee, 2017). In addition, it is essential to sustain an informed and educated public about the ethical issues in the paradigm of reconstructive and plastic surgery. The plastic surgeons should critically evaluate the physical and emotional maturity degree of deformity and the desired results of patients who are willing to take the plastic surgery procedures. Science is a potential tool for changing the modern society and surgeons assume an instrumental role to shape the change through ethical scrutiny of their acts and thoughtful advocacy. In the contemporary era, scams and frauds have approached the procedures of plastic surgery where photo shopped pictures are shown to the patients as their own work. Such radical has been the implications of deviating from the ethical code of conduct in the dimensions of plastic surgery.

To conclude, contrasting views are presented on whether or not plastic surgery is a rational viable or irrational and radical practice. The proponents term such patient as suffering from several mental issues and in some low self-esteem. The fundamental human rights are deemed to be desecrated by reconstructing the natural body and shape of a person. On the contrary, the advocates negate these irrational arguments through a logical explanation. For instance, it is the essential right of each human being to exercise the will independently. They can resort to plastic surgery to alleviate their long-term worries and can have the outcomes which can enhance their self-esteem and make them succeed in all ventures of their life. Moreover, the exorbitant sum of cost is paid by the patient and as long as he is paying from his own account, it should not be a concern for the cynics. Another critical element involved in the practice of plastic surgery is the role of the surgeon to enlighten the patient about the intricate and complex matters involved in the process. The seasoned specialist ought to be experienced and should never keep the patient in the dark. The bottom line is that plastic surgery is a potential mean to enhance the self-esteem and equality of life of a person potentially.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Flawed perceptions | APS. (n.d.). Retrieved April 27, 2019, from https://www.psychology.org.au/for-members/publications/inpsych/2018/June-Issue-3/Flawed-perceptions

JAVANBAKHT, M., NAZARI, A., JAVANBAKHT, A., & MOGHADDAM, L. (2012). Body dysmorphic factors and mental health problems in people seeking rhinoplastic surgery. Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica, 32(1), 37–40.

Lee, W. J. (2017). Research, Plastic Surgery, and Archives of Plastic Surgery. Archives of Plastic Surgery, 44(5), 359–360. https://doi.org/10.5999/aps.2017.44.5.359

Nejadsarvari, N., Ebrahimi, A., Ebrahimi, A., & Hashem-Zade, H. (2016). Medical Ethics in Plastic Surgery: A Mini Review. World Journal of Plastic Surgery, 5(3), 207–212.

Rashid, A., & Brennen, M. D. (2006). Psychiatric assessment of patients with self-inflicted lacerations to the wrist and forearm admitted to a nonpsychiatric ward: The experience of a regional plastic surgery unit. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery, 59(3), 266–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2005.09.013

Sterodimas, A., Radwanski, H. N., & Pitanguy, I. (2011). Ethical issues in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 35(2), 262–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-011-9674-3

The Psycho-Social Impact of Facial Reconstructive Surgery • theGIST. (2011, March 16). Retrieved April 27, 2019, from theGIST website: https://the-gist.org/2011/03/the-psycho-social-impact-of-facial-reconstructive-surgery/

Position Paper 2

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Position Paper 2

Hume’s Thoughts

Hume's thoughts were simple that testimony could not justify the fact that a miracle has happened. Even we as human beings think twice for believing or trusting anyone. It is human nature to question and doubt things that have not been witnessed by us. Hume’s views on the Indian Prince's story was that the lakes freezing in Northern Europe were not at all miraculous but somewhat an abuse of an experienced consistency ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jXSeyPK4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hume)","plainCitation":"(Hume)"},"citationItems":[{"id":185,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zTPHp9Do/items/D82GM9KD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zTPHp9Do/items/D82GM9KD"],"itemData":{"id":185,"type":"chapter","title":"An enquiry concerning human understanding","container-title":"Seven Masterpieces of Philosophy","publisher":"Routledge","page":"191-284","author":[{"family":"Hume","given":"David"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hume 191-284). Since the Prince never saw it for himself, he was justified to deny what people told him. Technically he never experienced such a situation; the water never froze when it was very cold in India. How could he believe the fact that water got so hard that elephants could walk on it? The Prince had an unchanging experience of the water in India; the water never got hard even in winters.

Factors Impacting the Prince Thoughts

Yes, the knowledge that was being poured in front of the Prince was very much correct. The only thing that was stopping him from believing was his own experience. India also got very cold, so his idea of the cold was limited to what he had seen. He never saw the water freezing or even getting slightly hard where he lived. People tend to have belief in the things based on what they have seen in their life; the mind is only open to what it has seen. This impacted the Prince's belief. Beside that fact, the Prince had never been to Northern Europe in winters. However, He cannot claim that the frozen lakes in Northern Europe in the winter time are contradicting to his experience. Yes, it happened but the fact the Prince had never heard or seen such a thing made him deny it. It was a strange occurrence for him as he never believed in it, so that is how he reacted the way Hume thought was correct. Nonetheless, Hume suggests that the experiences that are universally understood like the dead staying dead are what should be kept in mind. If something went against that thought, then it can be called a miracle.

Conclusion

The Prince made a mistake because of not having the experience, to begin with. It might be a worldly fact, but he had seen it for himself. For him it was something against Mother Nature. Miracle or no miracle, what he had not seen could not be proven to him with the help of a simple testimony alone (Larmer 97-110). It took a lot of witnesses to make him believe what he had not seen. His idea of winters was what he had himself seen. Hume’s thoughts are in sync with the Prince here. He gave the same school of thought that testimony cannot provide evidence to a miracle that has occurred.

Works Cited

Larmer, Robert A. "Everlasting check or philosophical fiasco: a response to Alexander George’s interpretation of Hume’s ‘Of Miracles’." International Journal for Philosophy of Religion83.1 (2018): 97-110.

Hume, David. "An enquiry concerning human understanding." Seven Masterpieces of Philosophy. Routledge, 2016. 191-284.

Position Paper: Personal Identity

Personal Identity

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Self-consciousness is essential for Personal Identity

Introduction

Personal identity refers to self-consciousness, memory, and diversity as a faculty to facilitate the transfer of memories across soul and body. John Lock has profoundly asserted, “Everyman has a property in his person. This nobody has a right to, but himself”. It would not be wrong to say that man is intelligent and thinking being having the attributes of reflection and reasons. Consciousness of self acts as a baseline of existence because all the paradigms of faculties associated with identity are depended on the measure of responsiveness. It is the immediate knowledge of purposes and personal thoughts. In accordance with John Lock’s view on “The Self”, it can be affirmed that consciousness for self is essential for personal identity, taking into account that personal identity is actually determined by the continued subjective consciousness. It is a common statement that man is the product of his actions and self-consciousness is essential in determining the stance of identity by creating a bridge between memories that enforce perceptions.

Discussion

There are several justifications that are given in terms of “personality identity" and "self-consciousness”, taking into account that it is interesting and equally absurd.

Lockean identity

In order to understand the necessity of self-consciousness in terms of personal identity, it is essential to undergo an analysis of Lockean identity. According to him, memory of the past episodes and equip humans with a sense of personal identity, taking into account that man is the same identity as he was in the past. It is evident that a person remembers and is well known to his past relationships, and school days that plays a major role in formulating self-identity. (Hall & Richard, 2018, pp. 187-211).

Cognitive psychology and Philosophy of mind

The relationship between cognitive psychology and philosophy of mind plays a major role in determining the importance of self-consciousness in terms of personal identity. Cognitive psychology deals with the faculties of visions, language learning, and memory while consciousness is the stance of awareness adhering to the paradigms of space, time, free will and identity. This statement highlights that personal identity is actually the matter of psychological continuity; there is a natural instinct in human beings that guide them regarding the perceptions. (Robbins & Michael, 2018). Man is called an intelligent identity because of the interference of an analytical approach that is guided by consciousness. It is the stance of consciousness that guide judgments. (Sperry, et, al. 2018.pp. 219-228). John Lock has actively asserted that memory does not comprise of the similitude of body but when consciousness is brought into consideration, the past actions of an individual can be backdated that can have an effect of touching the identity of an individual. It profoundly leads to the notion of self-identity that is evaluated in terms of a series of linked memories.

Perseverance of self-identity

“Identity and Diversity” by John Lock is a clear demonstration of the fact that a self-consciousness is a major tool that can provide necessary conditions for the identification of person. It has been asserted that “all human beings have an intuitive knowledge of the existence and there is an internal infallible perception that makes an individual conscious of its own being”. (Shoemaker, et, al. 2018). It is assertive that it is the stance of consciousness that accompanies thinking. Man has the potential to shift his consciousness retaining identity. Lock quoted the example of a prince and cobbler. According to him, if the conscious of a prince is transferred into a cobbler, the cobbler will retain princely personality attributes. (Shoemaker, et, al. 2018).

Illusion and Reality

David Hume inferred that self-identity is an illusion. (Hume, pp. 331-332). According to him, there is no self that can persist through time and space. He asserted that there is a constant flux in personal identity. In contrast, Lock asserted that personal identity is the continuity of self-consciousness or memory that has a realist interference in terms of different places and time. Lock asserted that there is no existence without perception, and perceptions are guided by consciousness, adhering to the fact that consciousness can't be started without cognition. (Robbins & Michael, 2018).

Conclusion

From the above discussion it is justified that self conciseness is essential for self-identity because the shift of functionality of memory and nature has highlighted that autobiographic memory is not like a warehouse of data, in fact, it is the continuity of psychological inferences that act as a depository of events and experiences. This depository facilitates human with summarised and condensed story of life as a consistent narrative, stressing the role of self-consciousness in future perceptions.

References

Hall, Richard. "Identity." The Alienated Academic. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018. 187-211.

Hume, David. A treatise of human nature: Being an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects. The Floating Press, 2009.

Robbins, Michael. Consciousness, language, and self: Psychoanalytic, linguistic, and anthropological explorations of the dual nature of mind. Routledge, 2018.

Shoemaker, David, and Kevin P. Tobia. "Personal identity." (2018).

Sperry, Roger W. "Consciousness, free will and personal identity 1." Brain, Behaviour, and Evolution. Routledge, 2018. 219-228.