Street Art

Street Art; Response Essay

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1st May 2019

Art is gripping and special no matter what form it takes. Be it abstract art, ancient art, or street art for that matter. The video about the creator of KRINK was inspirational and eye-opening. It showed that the street art which Craig initiated (Krink) was a form of expression of creativity, ("KRINK: The Best Drip Ink in Graffiti", 2012). It kind of mimics' poetry, for instance, the way poetry is music to the soul of the poets; similarly, Krink is soul food for the artists. As an individual, it is our responsibility to preserve street art as this adds to our cultural heritage. It might seem very vague and easy for the naked eye but practically producing a piece of art on the street walls is tougher than one could possibly imagine.

If it weren’t for these outburst of colors on the street walls, the everyday monotonous routine and stresses would catch up with people very fast. These black and white or colorful designs which engulf the damp and dull walls of different streets, buildings, restaurants would seem lifeless if Craig hadn’t bestowed his art on the walls. In the video, it shows how the business expanded for Krink, and he had no such initial intention for it. The feedback that he received over the years is proof of the optimistic and accepting attitude of people towards street art. Thus painting over the street art, and the beautiful scenic monuments would be in fact vandalism.

By protecting the street art we give out this message of freedom and equality between all races and genders. There is a democratic aroma and it indirectly has an overall positive impact on society. In a free country, where all you hear about is being free to say, do, eat speak whatever you please, it was surprising to hear that Craig had to paint illegally on the doors, walls, mailboxes because it was not permitted. However, people started to take notice and realized what an interesting thing he was doing. He utilized various tools such as fire extinguishers' and markers and pain boxes to paint wherever whenever whatever he pleased. Some people argue that it is vandalism to paint over walls, and they expect everything to be clean and proper. However, I am one of the people who think out of the box and have a staunch belief that it is important to preserve street art just as much as it is to breathe.

References

KRINK: The Best Drip Ink in Graffiti. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SK0zsNryFDA

Summer Essay

Summer Essay

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Summer Essay

Essay 1

Personality is something that arises from within the individual. It incorporates all the thoughts, feelings, and behavior patterns that impact one’s perspective of seeing the world. A good understanding personality allows psychologists to predict the preferences and behavior of an individual in certain situations.

The behavior of an individual depends upon the circumstances in which a person is. It also depends on a person’s cultural influences and other social factors. Every person is different from others and will behave accordingly (Bales, 1970). One of the major determinants of how a person behaves is our social roles. A social role is a pattern of behavior that is expected from an individual in a given group. These roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. For instance, a student is expected to engage in taking notes, doing an assignment, reading books, etc. However, in their leisure time, they tend to engage in social media and sports, etc. This happens because of the situation they are in as in school they are required to study while at home they have the opportunity to relax and play. Another example of a situation affecting our behavior is the way we dress. Dressing is something that we learn from the people around us. Every culture has different dress codes, yet the way we dress totally depends upon our situations. Typically, people choose white for their weddings and black for funerals.

Another factor that influences human behavior is feelings and emotions. The way an individual feels about something determines his or her behavior in a certain situation. For instance, during a fight, a person feels angry and irritated, but the way he behaves depends upon the situation and environment, that is if a person fought with his colleague he will behave calmly and respectfully while if the same person fought with a stranger, he might behave violently or rudely. Thus, it is evident that behavior a person does changes according to the circumstances.

Essay 2

Personality can be described as a set of behaviors and emotional patterns that depends upon biological and environmental factors. While personality traits are characteristic patterns of emotions, thoughts, and, behaviors. Trait differs from one person from another in terms of their perspective of a certain situation. In psychology, the most common system of traits is the “Five Factor Model” called “OCEAN” (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeable and neuroticism) (O'Keefe & Francis, 2012).

Openness to experience: It is observed that people with an openness to experience are typically very active and are extremely creative. They tend to listen to their hearts and follow their feelings and emotions. They are curious to learn new things and are generally broadminded and modern. They often seek adventures so that they can learn new things.

Conscientiousness: People having conscientiousness trait in their personality listen to their conscience and behave accordingly. These individuals are self-disciplined and cautious. They are not impulsive and think twice before doing anything as they are often considered perfectionists and are highly motivated to achieve their goals.

Extraversion and Introversion: Extraversion is a term that describes a state in which an individual is interested in his or her surroundings. People possessing this trait are highly gregarious and love interacting with others. They are mostly the center of attention at every gathering. On the other hand, Introversion is a state in which a person is not interested in his or her surroundings, rather than these individuals prefer to stay at home or they mind their own business. These people are usually shy and have fee friends.

Agreeableness: Individuals having this personality trait compromise on every situation they face. They are always ready to help others and are friendly.

Neuroticism: Individuals having this personality trait are vulnerable to negative thoughts like anger, envy, guilt, etc. They are usually depressed and stressed about their lives.

References

Bales, R. F. (1970). Personality and interpersonal behavior.

O'Keefe, D. F., Kelloway, E. K., & Francis, R. (2012). Introducing the OCEAN. 20: A 20-item Five-Factor personality measure based on the Trait Self-Descriptive Inventory. Military Psychology, 24(5), 433-460.

The Abortion Wars Part 1 & 2 The Last Clinic In Missouri/The Illinois Option

The abortion war

After listening to the podcast my views about abortion changed because it explains the future of abortion. Two states are working in opposite directions and Missouri is outlawing all abortions. I used to think that it is appropriate to pass laws for banning abortions. The podcast allowed me to change my views because I learned the implications of this law. It is not appropriate to eliminate the right of abortions because females are often entrapped in situations where abortion is the only solution. The women during the 1960s fought for abortions and it was recognized as their fundamental right. Rockefellers contributed to this by claiming that abortion is a right of every woman CITATION NYT19 \l 1033 (NYTimes).

The podcast changed my views regarding abortions because I learned that abortions are not unnecessary in many situations. Unwanted pregnancy results in negative consequences for the mother. Banning abortions deprives her of the right of taking the right decision. Sometimes the mother has to bear the burden of the unwanted child alone and lacks access to financial and moral support. This creates more difficulties for the child and the mother. In such situations, abortions can be justified CITATION NY19 \l 1033 (NY). The podcast also changed my view because I recognized that the decision of abortions depends on the situation and circumstances. It is not justified to ban abortions in all cases.

When the doctors identify the abnormal growth pattern of the fetus or when the child is more likely to develop terminal illness abortions must be allowed. I believe that abortions must be allowed because it will cause more negative consequences for women. The mother must possess the right to abortions and laws can be established for removing unnecessary abortions only.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY NY. The Abortion of Wars Part II. 2019. 06 05 2019 <https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/18/podcasts/the-daily/abortion-illinois-missouri.html?action=click&module=audio-series-bar%C2%AEion=header&pgtype=Article>.

NYTimes. The Abortion Wars. 2019. 06 05 2019 <https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/17/podcasts/the-daily/abortion-missouri.html?>.

The Attachments Of Hindu Or Indian Thoughts Through The Bhgava Gita

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[Subject]

[Date]

The attachments of Hindu or Indian thoughts through the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is a book about life, its mysteries and how to solve the problems in life. The questioner, Arjuna, is a characterization of the reader as he seeks to find answers to some important questions. Arjuna’s confusion can be summed up with one line form the third chapter, “Your advice seems inconsistent. Give me one path to follow to the supreme good.” (Bhagavad Gita, 3:2).

The path to self-realization is very evident in the text as it indicates that the material world is not the ultimate goal, neither is it a good thing to be sought. Rather, the book explains, one must free himself from the material world and its distractions and work towards self-realization. This can be achieved by looking within oneself rather than outside. It means that true happiness lies within oneself and that self-discovery should be the ultimate goal for everyone. The second chapter summarizes this when it says, “Neither agitated by grief nor hankering after pleasure, they live free from lust and fear and anger. Established in meditation, they are truly wise. Fettered no more by selfish attachments, they are neither elated by good fortune nor depressed by bad. Such are the seers.” (The Bhagavad Gita, 2:56-57). This implies that the noisy and distracting world has only served to further our confusion about reality and peace within. Therefore, the only way to free oneself from the anguish is to look within and venture into the journey of self-discovery.

Selfless service is another important aspect of the Bhagavad Gita as we are told two ways to attain enlightenment (ultimate state of peace and tranquility). Karma Yoga or selfless service is one of the two as the book explains that people should seek to help other living things. People are bound to work anyway for sustaining themselves financially and otherwise. Therefore, it is better to work towards helping others rather than oneself only because working only for the sake of selfish desires is akin to wasting one’s life. This is evident in the third chapter when the book says, “Strive constantly to serve the welfare of the world; by devotion to selfless work one attains the supreme goal of life” (The Bhagavad Gita, 3:19).

Works Cited

Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita:(Classics of Indian Spirituality). Vol. 1. Nilgiri Press, 2007.

Gandhi, Mahatma. The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi. North Atlantic Books, 2010.

The Danish Philosopher Soren Kierkegaard

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[Name of Professor]

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Introduction

The Sickness unto death is one of the remarkable works of the nineteenth century by Kierkegaard where he significantly explored the notion of ‘despair’. He has alerted the readers in various ways in which they could possibly live in a state of bleak abandonment and widely discussed the solution to eradicate this despair. The philosophical work offers great ideas about the nature of self and its connection to despair.

Description

He is of the view that an individual is “in despair” if he fails to align himself with God. When he aligns himself with God, he will lose his self. Humanity, according to the Kierkegaard, is as the tension between ‘possible and the necessary' and ‘finite and infinite' ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"m65GrHXw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hampson)","plainCitation":"(Hampson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":38,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/7U82CK4N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/7U82CK4N"],"itemData":{"id":38,"type":"book","title":"The Sickness Unto Death","publisher":"Oxford University Press","source":"www.oxfordscholarship.com","abstract":"This chapter offers a reading of Søren Kierkegaard's philosophical work The Sickness unto Death to illuminate his ideas about the nature of the self in contrast to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's understanding of the human being. More specifically, it examines Kierkegaard's argument that the self can only come to itself as it is open to transcendence. It compares the views of Hegel and Kierkegaard with the tradition of Martin Luther, with particular emphasis on the nature of the self in relation to God. It also expounds the phrase ‘sickness unto death’ and its connection to despair, along with Kierkegaard's comparison of Christianity with Socrates's definition of sin and his Lutheran statement that sin is the opposite of faith rather than virtue.","URL":"http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199673230.001.0001/acprof-9780199673230-chapter-7","ISBN":"978-0-19-180662-9","language":"en_US","author":[{"family":"Hampson","given":"Daphne"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",4,25]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hampson). While one can identify it with the act of dialectical balancing between these contradictory features. Moreover, human beings are inherently self-conscious and reflective. Therefore, if one wants to become a true self, he needs to be conscious of the self and he must be beached in love. The basis of this self is the power that has created and sustained it. When someone is a denial of the self or the power, then he is despair. Kierkegaard has pronounced kinds of despair according to Kierkegaard: wanting in despair to be oneself, not wanting to be oneself, and being unconscious in despair of having a self. Because of ignorance, this self has been created.

The only solution that Kierkegaard is discussed is that human being has to develop ties with the ‘power that has established it’ and to adopt the Christian faith ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ATgd66nb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hampson)","plainCitation":"(Hampson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":38,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/7U82CK4N"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/sj6ANS8g/items/7U82CK4N"],"itemData":{"id":38,"type":"book","title":"The Sickness Unto Death","publisher":"Oxford University Press","source":"www.oxfordscholarship.com","abstract":"This chapter offers a reading of Søren Kierkegaard's philosophical work The Sickness unto Death to illuminate his ideas about the nature of the self in contrast to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's understanding of the human being. More specifically, it examines Kierkegaard's argument that the self can only come to itself as it is open to transcendence. It compares the views of Hegel and Kierkegaard with the tradition of Martin Luther, with particular emphasis on the nature of the self in relation to God. It also expounds the phrase ‘sickness unto death’ and its connection to despair, along with Kierkegaard's comparison of Christianity with Socrates's definition of sin and his Lutheran statement that sin is the opposite of faith rather than virtue.","URL":"http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199673230.001.0001/acprof-9780199673230-chapter-7","ISBN":"978-0-19-180662-9","language":"en_US","author":[{"family":"Hampson","given":"Daphne"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",4,25]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hampson). Over facts of the world, people may appear to despair, but despair is continuously an internal problem and people himself are responsible for creating that problem. Although, this despair is a universal phenomenon and people may not realize it when they in a state of despair. But people would possibly be despair with an excessive concern, imagination about their material circumstances, sense of lack of options, and sense of vast possibilities. There are, however, the hierarchy of kinds of despair starting from weak desires.

The inability to get free oneself is also the reason for the sickness unto death. Often, the sickness unto death is viewed as a sickness in which death is ended, and the end is the death. If one view that death is the end is to despair, as death is a way into life. According to Christian worldview of the Kierkegaard, death equals redemption, and to be saved by God. To be prevented from redeemed, one needs to be despair. A self cannot be free in a state of despair. It is concerned with the self-awareness, but not unmistakably. Self-awareness and despair are integrated with each other, and constantly compelling into an intensified kind of despair.

Kierkegaard philosophy has been viewed as a stimulus to acquire deeper faith and reflective role religion in the contemporary world. He wants to show that scientific power as a tool to comprehend and control the world does not unavoidably eradicate the need for religion. But no doubt, science helps us to understand the universal natural phenomena and fails to explain that which religious views and morals are correct.

Conclusion

It has been seen in Kierkegaard's philosophy that the self is not itself, as it was created by God. While when one becomes unwilling to be oneself, the despair becomes sin. Both the sin and despaired have various kinds and degrees of intensity that are concerned with self-awareness. Thorough increasing self-consciousness, one can free himself. This is the absolute way through which one can realize that everything is possible for God.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Hampson, Daphne. The Sickness Unto Death. Oxford University Press, 2013. www.oxfordscholarship.com, http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199673230.001.0001/acprof-9780199673230-chapter-7.

THE DEATH PENALTY, RACE AND MASS INCARCERATION

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THE DEATH PENALTY, RACE AND MASS INCARCERATION

The booming population of prison in the United States is a major issue of conflict between masses and the criminal justice system. In 2016, it has been estimated that approximately 2.2 million incarcerated people are present in American jails or prisons. The numbers of people who graduate from honors degree are equal to people with criminal records. If the US contributes to the five percent of the world's population, then its prisons contain 25 % of the population (Bellin, p.835). This state of affairs is hugely disappointing for the social and political spectrum of the Americans, and they agree with the fact that mass incarcerations, the death penalty, or prosecution of criminals causes little good than bad and it also costs too much. The main argument of this essay is the inadequacy of the criminal justice system in punishing the law offenders and it is integrally flawed and corrupt. Therefore, this argumentative essay will analyze and explore the other arguments in view or in contrast to this argument.

The supporting fact of the flaws and corruption in the US criminal justice system and its faults include the category of financial demands capability. It means that if a person is rich and can afford bail it is easy for him to get out of jail than a poor person who is not capable of giving financial compensations. Statistically, it has been perceived that people who are convicted of felonies and crimes are usually poor and people from racial minorities (Spohn, p.330). The biases are shown from the attitudes of the judges for whom certain people are worthy of bail and others are not. Hence, people who cannot afford bail are subjugated to get imprisoned and around 6 million people are every year in jail just because they cannot afford bail. Even for minor offenses, the bail is so high that it is unaffordable for the poor persons to take bail and get out of the jail.

The criminals are not punished enough for the crimes they have committed or other people are punished more than its needed due to these unequal circumstances between both classes, i.e., upper and lower. The racial discrimination is another factor which is worth considering for while arguing about differential treatment on the bases of class, race or ethnicity. The US has been considered among the countries which have a dual system of criminal justice which has helped in maintaining the social and economic hierarchy based on the criminalization of blacks, known ad hyper-incarceration of black people (Alkon, p.191). It occurs due to the reason that society and criminal justice system chooses to be more punitive while dealing with the people of lower or racial backgrounds. The laws dealing with tough-on crimes are only maintainable through this dual system of legality which allowed the society in avoiding the trade-off among the society by enforcement of unequal treatment of law to retain the civil liberties.

There may be various counter-arguments in contradiction to the main argument that the US justice system is flawed and corrupt based on the practice of financial bail that I presented. Communities tend to sometimes financially or economically benefit from the practice of mass imprisonment and then bailing out on money. Firstly it helps in pushing the global markets and financial systems; secondly, it will help in circumventing the recession's threat (Covey, p.920). The financial bail from rich people will help in focusing on the rehabilitation of poor people and people who are from minority races and cultures and are subjugated to discrimination. The finances on the prisoners cost the whole country a lot, therefore such finances are equaled out when a rich person is out on bail. It helps in keeping the poor person good in jail. Then again I’ll argue that it will bring no good to the poor people as they are imprisoned.

Furthermore, there is no justifiable counterargument against the mass incarceration of poor or black people as what good will it bring to the country by incarcerating the people who cannot afford bail in contrast to the people who are rich and can afford plea bargain or bail ((Spohn, p.334). Children of black and poor people who are imprisoned suffer from homelessness, financial crisis and they are more likely to become criminals like their parents (Npr.org). This will bring no good to the community as well as those families who suffer at the hand of incarceration of their parents, siblings or relatives. The rehabilitation of incarcerated masses is not properly in action in the criminal justice system or else it would have been beneficial for the society.

In conclusion to this argumentative essay, it can be seen that there is no justification for the corrupt and flawed justice system in the US. No matter researchers and various studies have been defending the act of mass incarceration still it is not justifiable through any act or by any law. The bias and prejudice applied to the black people while in the criminal justice system is undeniably unjust and unfair. Therefore, the fairness of law and regulation is necessary for the betterment and wellbeing of society. The inadequacy of the criminal justice system in punishing the law offenders and it is integrally flawed and corrupt, thus there is need to eliminate the errors in the judicial system of criminals, as it will help in raising a crimeless country.

Works Cited

Alkon, Cynthia. "An overlooked key to reversing mass incarceration: Reforming the law to reduce prosecutorial power in plea bargaining." U. Md. LJ Race, Religion, Gender & Class 15 (2015): 191.

Bellin, Jeffrey. "Reassessing prosecutorial power through the lens of mass incarceration." Michigan Law Review 116 (2018): 835.

Covey, Russell D. "Plea Bargaining and Price Theory." Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 84 (2016): 920.

NPR Choice page. (2019). Npr.org. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2019/04/10/711654831/charged-explains-how-prosecutors-and-plea-bargains-drive-mass-incarceration

Spohn, Cassia. "Reflections on the exercise of prosecutorial discretion 50 years after the publication of The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society." Criminology & Public Policy 17.2 (2018): 321-340.

The Debate Over Utilitarianism

The Debate over Utilitarianism

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[Name of the Institution]

The Debate over Utilitarianism

Humans have been taught various ways to lead their lives; some of them have been guided by the religion, some have been taught by theology, and there are some that have been shown by philosophy. There are a number of theories in philosophy that guide an individual about what is right and wrong (Lyons, 2015). These theories are the beliefs that guide a person how to lead their lives in a moral and ethical way, which is why these theories are also known as moral theories. One of the most popular theories is utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism is one of the most popular and influential moral theories. It is one of the most popular forms of consequentialism. The theory defines that no matter whether the action is morally right or wrong, if its outcome is positive and benefits a large population, it is morally and ethically right. Utilitarianism explains that the most ethical choice is the one that will bring out the greatest good for a large number of people. Thus it can be said that utilitarianism focuses on the greater good and the benefit of masses.

Although the theory focusses on benefit at a large level, still there are some limitations that need to be implied while using the theory of utilitarianism. This theory cannot be applied anywhere and in all the cases (Fabian, & Fordyce, 1990). The most logical explanation of this is that people fail most of the time in judging what is best for them and what is not. They even cannot recognize what is best for society or the people around them. This is where the problem arises, and the concept of utilitarianism becomes confused. The best explanation of the limitations of utilitarianism is that the experiment of survival lottery.

References

Fabian, B., & Fordyce, D. (1990). The elements of moral philosophy. Georg Olms Verlag.

Lyons, D. (2015). Utilitarianism. Wiley Encyclopedia of Management, 1-4.

The Fight

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The Fight: Conflict and Brokenness in Abraham’s Family – Abraham, Sarah, and Hagar

“Behold, your maid is in your power; do to her what is good in your sight.”

Of all that I had to endure, of all that I had to suffer through, these lines by my master and my husband proved to be my undoing. I was born in Egypt, and given as a handmaiden to a gentle lady, who was to be called “Sarah” by God’s will. Abraham, her husband, was a kind and a gentle man as well, who cared for his household. Thus, when my lady presented me to him to bear his children, I was honor bound to comply with her wishes. It was our tenth year in Canaan, when I was given to my master, who took me as his wife under God’s will. Soon after my marriage, I was with child.

Both, my new husband and I were blissfully happy over the news. However, my mistress did not share in with our joy. The choice to give me to her husband was hers and hers alone, but the idea of having a child through me no longer made her happy. She had always been kind towards me and her other maids. We had heard tales of mistresses being cruel to their maids, of punishing them and treating them unjustly. Yet, we never witnessed such acts, since they never took place at our household. We loved our mistress and cared for her to the best of our ability and she cared for us in return. She was unfailingly kind to her, always.

However, she could barely stand my sight once I became pregnant. She couldn’t give her husband the one thing both of them yearned for, while I could and about to fulfill his wish of an heir. It broke my heart to see her hurting in the way that she did, but there wasn’t much I can do. I could only suffer quietly and bear my pain and the despise she felt for me silently. This silent suffering found a voice when she decided to tell her husband how she felt. She told our husband how my presence made her feel, despite trying not to feel the way it did.

She was 90 years old, and barren, never capable of having a child of her own. Being a woman myself, I could completely understand how she felt and the reasons she had for acting the way that she did. Thus, when my master spoke those fateful words that became my undoing, my mistress’ plight was lifted. He gave my mistress the choice of treating me the way she deemed fit and she, in response, began to treat me harshly. She asked me to do more than my fair share of work, even when I had a baby in my womb to care for. Thus, one day, when it all became too much for me, I ran away. I ran right into the desert away from everything and everyone that I knew or cared for. In my effort to get away, I did not see where I was going until my steps faltered near a spring. I was lost in my own pain when an angel sent from the Lord appeared to me. He was a brilliant and beautiful creature, dulling the beauty of everything around him. He asked me to return to my mistress so that I may bear a son, a son that would bring glad tidings for his father and be the blessing that the Lord had promised Abraham. He was to be named Ismael, according to the God’s will. This gave me courage, and I returned back to my household.

I bore my master a son, whom he loved greatly. He was a source of great joy to his father, who had yearned for an heir for so long. He was blessed by the Lord, just like his father and was to be a father of many nations. My son was my salvation. I had never beheld something so pure in my life and there was nothing more perfect than my son in my eyes. All went well for me from that point forward. My mistress still treated me badly, worse than any other maid. However, my son became my reprieve and my shelter, and I trusted my Lord to always be there for me and my son.

Years later, when my son became older and stronger, an angel brought glad tiding to my household once again, telling my master that he and my mistress Sarah were to have a child. Even though Abraham was 100 years old, with Sarah 90, God wanted them to have a child, which would be a boy who would be here by the next season. Here, I believed that the animosity between my mistress and I would reduce. However, the tensions only increased, especially after the birth of her son, which was called Isaac. There was a celebration on the birth of Isaac, where I, just like everyone else, was overjoyed at the birth of the baby. But, my son, in typical fashion of a teenage boy made faces at his little brother, which often made Isaac laugh, a sound that tinkled like bells around the household.

However, my mistress did not like the idea. She though Ishmael was mocking Isaac, an idea that was not tolerable by her. Thus, as soon as the celebrations weaned, Sarah demanded that my son and I be sent away. She also added that Ishmael was not to share in Isaac’s inheritance. I saw that these demands greatly distressed Abraham, but God told him to comply with Sarah wishes, and he did. The next day, he gave my son and I bread and water and send us off into the wilderness of Bersheba. Neither of us knew the land, so we wandered aimlessly until both food and water ran out.

Having been abandoned by my husband and sent off into the wild, I had no choice but to weep in despair. My son, aware of our predicament, began to cry as well and our cries were heard by none other than our Lords. He came to our rescue and as soon as be wiped the tears from our eyes, we saw a well of water before us. God saved us and gave us glad tidings that my son will have a great nation to himself.

Finally, I had something to call of my own. I settled with my son in Egypt, where I found him a wife. Life, unexpectedly moved on the way it always did.

The Good Life

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[Date]

The Good Life

Life is beautiful,having lots of ups and downs. People often underestimate themselves and this is when they become unable to recognize the actual value of their lives. After interviewing three participants including a coworker, manager, and crossing guard, I became able to understand how people consider life as a good life. On the question of the idea of a good life, a coworker explained that a good life should include access to education, a reasonable job that does not waste away time in office, financial stability, and family love and support. For the manager, a good life means financial stability, good health, and a healthy relationship with the family. On the other hand, the crossing guard believed that health is important for a good life. In addition, there should be no burden of debt or billing and one can live tension-free with the family. The reason for the idea of the good life was also different for all three. The coworker believed that idea came from people around me who have a good education and therefore they are not struggling for financial stability. The manager's idea for a good life came from the life experiences of his parents while the guard got this idea from his own life experience and struggles.

On the question of whether they are living a good life or not, the coworker gave a confusing answer asshe did not know exactly how or which way her life is going, butshe was happy for some aspect of life, on the other hand, was worried about various other things. The manager had a clear view that he is not living the good life at the moment. The guard believes that he is not living it either, but is proceeding towards a better one. The reason for the current situation of the coworker’s state of life, to her, was the political climate. She believed that politics play an important role in life and it isdifficult to navigate the world as a black female and find resources to do that. For the manager, reason for not having a good life is the issue of time management. This issue makes him stressed and unhappy. The guard believes that there is no factor, as such, that is holding him back and that he is moving towards happiness. I wanted to know whether the concept of the good life changed with age or not, on which the coworker told me that as a child, she assumed that as a female, married to a man with a good job is a good life, while the wife looks after the home. However, nowshe disagrees to this concept. She believes that everyone should have access to education, and everyone should be the “bread winner”. The manager said that his thoughtsabout a good life was mainly wealth, that one should have all the money in the world and be able to buy anything. However, now he realizes that health is more important, along with fare money. On the other hand, the guard has the same thoughts of life since his childhood. The last question from the participants was about Socrates' quote, "Building upon the idea that the unexamined life is not worth living.” Manager and guard both disagreed with the quote and its meaning, while the coworker agreed with it by saying that we cannot put price to other's life.

By analyzing the interviews, I understand that the most important elements in life for people are money and health. People want to acquire a better education so that they may get a good job. The reason for that, comes down to money. In other words, people are struggling to maximize their satisfaction by trying to balanced financial conditions in their lives. Life without financial stability is nothing for the interviewer. However, one thing I have learnedthrough the investigation is the positivity of the three people that I interviewed. For instance, the manager has more opportunities than the guard, but the guard showed a more positive attitude towards the future as he was hopeful for a better tomorrow. On the other hand, the manager who has a good job and financial stability,does not feel he is livingthe good life and is stressed. It highlights the fact that a good life cannot be obtained through material things, unless you are not satisfied or happy from within. In addition, gender plays an important role in the mindset of the people. The female coworker’s views for life is different due to the stereotypes of society while the guard had different ones. Gender has different roles in society and they are expected to fulfill certain tasks to live life. Therefore, gender plays an important role in acquiring a good and happy life, but in different ways. Lastly, family is the element that nearly every person wants in his life. All three participants showed love and affection towards their family which shows that family and relationships with loved ones play a vital role to make life good and beautiful. I have found a guard with the least opportunities but high in hope and positivity.

After getting an interview from the three participants and analyzing their information with their own idea of the good life, I came to know a different aspect of life that I did not consider before. First is that money can reduce your struggle, as I did believe earlier, but after the interview, I came to know that money is not everything. There are various other things that cannot be achieved with money like love, healthy relationship and peace of mind. A healthy life should be the priority of most people because money can do nothing if we do not have good health.

The Master

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Movie Review: The Master

The Master is a psychological American film released in 2012 which is written, co-produced and directed by Paul Thomas Anderson. The story surrounds between two characters the navy veteran Freddie's who meets with the religious movement ‘The Cause’ leader Lancaster Dodd after his return from WWII. Freddie joined the religious leader and traveled with his family across the Eastern Coast and spread the religious teachings.

After fighting the war Naval Veteran Freddie came home uncertain and unsure about his future he meets with the religious leader Lancaster Dodd who accepts him and he joined his wing. This film has a relationship with both a belief system and Scientology although Paul Anderson denied that this movie is based on religion. However, the co-producer and writer of the movie said that this movie is inspired partially from Scientology. Although, it is observed in the movie that it features various techniques of religion ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xPzB7Dz8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}THE MASTER Review. THE MASTER Stars Joaquin Phoenix, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Amy Adams | Collider})","plainCitation":"(THE MASTER Review. THE MASTER Stars Joaquin Phoenix, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Amy Adams | Collider)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":537,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/LGY9CHSI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/LGY9CHSI"],"itemData":{"id":537,"type":"webpage","title":"THE MASTER Review. THE MASTER Stars Joaquin Phoenix, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Amy Adams | Collider","URL":"https://collider.com/the-master-review/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (THE MASTER Review. THE MASTER Stars Joaquin Phoenix, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Amy Adams | Collider). Freddie was the disturbed sailor he was even not the right person before he left for World War II. His alcohol addiction and violent temper stop him from keeping his job and he ended up in leaving on the ship. On the board, he found the charismatic personality Lancaster Dodd who was the founder of ‘The Cause’ religious movement this movement helps people to free themselves from the past emotional pain. Freddie was inspired by the work of Dodd and accepted him as the mentor although they both have opposite personalities. Dodd calmed the tortured mind of Freddie but both characters scream on each other and occasionally lose their control and become violent.

Paul Anderson criticizes the controversial religion in The Master film, ‘The Cause’ is the gateway to observe people on how they could complement one another and ends up doing more harm rather than good. Dodd and Freddie need one another but their need destroyed both characters.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY THE MASTER Review. THE MASTER Stars Joaquin Phoenix, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Amy Adams | Collider. https://collider.com/the-master-review/. Accessed 3 Dec. 2019.

The Meaningful Of Socrates' Advice To Meno About Virtue In Life

Name

Professor name

Subject

April 30, 2019

The Meno

Introduction

Philosophical fiction “The Meno” is based on characters living in the real world whose part is illustrated in a historical setting. The Meno was written around 385 B.C. and its events took place in 402 B.C. In its introductory portion, Platonic epistemology and Socratic ethics in the form of fictional dialogues set the significant cultural and political concerns that took place at the end of Socrates' life era. The "Meno" begins as a debater challenge by Meno to Socrates on whether virtue could be taught, and suddenly becomes an inconclusive and open discussion about the more proper description of “virtue”. Socratic Method known as elenchus is employed in this setting which presents classical criteria of Socratic Definition goal setting. This dialogue shows some important aspects of Socratic ignorance followed by Socratic irony while its mission to expose some common arrogant ostentation and attaining virtue philosophical explanation that anyone hardly ever has. When the conversation comes to the initial point of defining virtue and whether it can be taught, another method was introduced by the Socrates which we now know as "hypotheses". By using this method Socrates argues that maybe we can weigh virtue as some sort of knowledge that can be taught. But on the contrary, Socrates argues that virtue could not be knowledge because virtue could never be taught like knowledge.

Plato’s Meno confers important life aspects such as virtue and knowledge. The book includes the argumentative methods used by Plato for supporting his claims. His style has relevance with the Socratic methods because he considers logic as an important aspect of the argument. The central concern of Plato is that understanding is an essential part of nature. His ideology stresses on happiness and claims that pleasure is linked with one's satisfaction. Justice can be seen as a virtue because it eliminates disparity or unfairness. The definition of virtue is not limited to any one aspect. Plato relies on Socratic ideology for explaining the true meaning of virtue. Socrates claims that virtue is one's desire for attaining beautiful and good things.

Dialogue Summary

This dialogue between Meno and Socrates is divided into three stages that conclude the main theme revolving around virtue's acquisition.

Stage 1

Initiation of dialogue takes place by debating challenge from Meno to Socrates about how to acquire virtue. Either virtue can be enquired through extensive training, taught or naturally possessed property. Socrates takes the discussion in some basic inquiry about what virtue basically is. Since Socrates shows his denial about virtue's nature, Meno who confidently claiming to know all about this topic get into argumentation by the Socrates to define it. Here in this part, we see the Socratic method of refuting claiming of knowledge by showing that other debaters have a contradiction in one of its claim. For example, By Meno's initial claim that different people possess different types of virtue, refutes by the Socrates that virtues have to of the same definition as they are virtues. In the first part, Socrates contradicted Meno's attempt to define virtue and contradicting his claim of possessing knowledge about what virtue truly is.

Stage 2

In the second stage initiation of dialogue, a twofold objection is raised that if someone does not know about what virtue is then how could one even look for it. Socrates reformulates his reply with the objection that it is basically a paradox which is based on a false dichotomy. First, the notion of learning in previous lives by the human souls is introduced and it is suggested that learning can be made by knowing what one forgets. He in his "theory of recollection" illustrates with geometric lesson make Meno's recognize that by implication of Meno's true belief, the correct answer can be answered.

Stage 3

In the third stage, Meno’s inquisition led him to question the same question that whether virtue is something that can be taught. By using the method of "hypotheses" Socrates make two opposing conclusions. His first argument was that if virtue is good then it may be a knowledge type thing and could be taught like knowledge. But if virtue cannot be taught by someone then it could not possibly be knowledge. Inconclusive arguments still dialogue gets stuck in Paradox dilemma.

Plato’s Assertion

Meno's paradox illustrates that knowledge is innate because either we know or don't know something, but if a human doesn't know what he wants, he would be unable to explore what he needs. Plato in his argument finds the answer to the existence of knowledge. The answers demonstrate the reality and truth of the knowledge. Does the knowledge lead to perfection or people are still unable to learn about entire information. Plato also finds the answers to the forms in which knowledge can exist. Plato mentions, “We do not learn, and that what we call learning is only a process of recollection” (Plato, Cooper, & Grube 2002). This proves that knowledge is innate because what human learns is a recollection.

Plato by answering the questions leads to the conclusion that recognizes knowledge as a rational belief and enduring truth. People possess the knowledge and it is existent in the form of humans. Plato relates knowledge with the other world and denies accepting the revelation of knowledge through people’s senses. The main conclusion that Plato draws from the questions is that humans lack complete knowledge. Though they possess some knowledge that knowledge is fallible and incomplete. If people would possess complete and authentic knowledge, they would also know about the other world. Plato claims, “if we indulged in the idle fancy that there was no knowing and no use in seeking to know what we do not know that is a theme upon which I am ready to fight, in word and deed, to the utmost of my power” (Plato, Cooper, & Grube 2002). Human already possesses some knowledge in their minds that allow them to explore further facts.

Plato uses the premises of the epistemological argument, metaphysical argument, and semantic argument to illustrate the reality of knowledge. The epistemological argument states that human senses lead to different realities regarding knowledge. Plato emphasizes on human behaviors. Plato mentions, “And that only these two things, true belief, and knowledge, guide correctly” (Plato, Cooper, & Grube 2002). He claims that human beings need to use their minds and remain a skeptic of philosophical findings. He rejects the mere acceptance of the philosophy without facts.CITATION Pla66 \l 1033 (Grube, 1981). The knowledge according to this claim is innate. The slave boy demonstration is also used by Plato for claiming that learning is a recollection. This is because he lacks mathematical training or ability to solve a problem of geometry. When the boy is asked to double the areas of the circle he fails to do that. After practice, he improved by 50%. This reflects that only way of overcoming slave state is by learning. The situation of a boy has close relevance with Meno because he develops awareness about his feelings, ignorance, and beliefs.

Plato’s Philosophy on Knowledge and Belief

The philosophy of Plato finds answers to some basic questions that intrigue the human mind such as the difference between knowledge and beliefs. About virtue he mentions, “We have been right in how we investigated and what we said, virtue turns out to be neither innate nor earned” (Plato, Cooper, & Grube 2002). It is difficult to find who is right among humans. What is knowledge and why do people assume that they have knowledge? At what point knowledge varies from belief and which one is more firms? Do people with knowledge know everything? Is knowledge real or not? Plato’s answers to these questions help people to understand the concept of knowledge and how it exists in people. The answers explain the reality of knowledge and make them clear about the limitations that a person of knowledge encounters CITATION Emr17 \l 1033 (Westacott, 2017).

Conclusion

The conclusion that Plato draws in regarding he argues that people with knowledge are known things, but their knowledge is based on assumptions and fallible. There are limitations to the knowledge that means people irrespective of their knowledge are not able to know everything. Plato’s theory of reality provides a solution to the problems. Using the premises of knowledge and opinion Plato explains the reality in them. The truth of knowledge lies in the midway as they are no one way. The reality gives an idea about the complex pattern of forms. Mathematics reveals the pattern of forms. The metaphysical argument emphasizes the similarity between nature and things. The semantic argument finds the reality of words that explains the claim. What people know is not complete and unreal in another form. People are also ignorant to the things when their knowledge fails to guide them. Completeness of knowledge also reflects from the virtues, but the human is also engaged in immoral acts that makes them less virtuous.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grube, M. A. (1981). PLATO'S FIVE DIALOGUES – MENO. Retrieved 2019 йил 30-04 from https://philosophicaljourney.wordpress.com/2015/03/01/platos-five-dialogues-part-ii/

Plato, Cooper, J., & Grube, G. M. (2002). Plato: Five Dialogues: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno, Phaedo (Hackett Classics) Second Edition,2 Edition. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

Westacott, E. (2017). https://www.thoughtco.com/platos-meno-2670343. Retrieved 04 30, 2019, from https://www.thoughtco.com/platos-meno-2670343

The Reflection On The Analects Of Confucius

[Dung Pham]

[Name of Instructor]

[Philosophy]

[May 29, 2019]

The Reflection on The Analects of Confucius

Introduction

Philosophy is a strange branch of study. It assimilates several kinds of ideologies in it, and yet they maintain their own distinct sense of individuality. Philosophy is the enlightenment of the mind, and living with accordance to the living traditions of the time. Most authors claim that philosophy dug its roots in the Athens, the civic-center of the Greek civilization. Undoubtedly, no one can deny the contributions of the most original philosopher Plato who carried on the process of his master Socrates. Plato’s Republic, Statesman and the Laws created an indelible impact on the world, and so is the case with his student, Aristotle, and his masterpiece Politics. Aristotle emerged as the first political scientist in the world. However, this progress of philosophy is not limited to the European continent only. Several other ideologies have left their mark on the study of philosophy, and it can be well associated with Confucian ideology, which imparted its own sense of morality into the study of philosophy. The Confucian ideology is well- represented in the book Analects of Confucius. It is an old school classic and packed with old school wisdom. Great ideas are the essence of this masterpiece. This book focuses on the concepts of good thoughts, practice, good government and the need of decorum and fairness in life.

Discussion

This book was not written in a short span of time. It is a masterpiece of literature that entails several diversified moral lessons. Morality is not an easy philosophy as morals are relative, and change their nature and spirit according to the context they are present in. So, developing such universal lessons of morality that have widespread applicability was a gigantic task. Hence, this task took around thirty to thirty-five years to complete. Moreover, the chapters in Analects are not in a sequence, and there are several versions of the Analects as well. This is, perhaps, due to the existence of several dynasties in china namely: the Han dynasty and Qi dynasty. This variety of versions makes some people opine that this literary piece is not written by a single author, however, this claim is yet to be verified. Despite whatever is being touted against the versions, there is no denying the fact that this book has a huge influence on Chinese ideals and its contemporary modus-operandi. Even other East Asian countries are affected by the morals of the noble preacher-Confucius. They are followed in the Chinese education system as well, where Confucius’ morals have become a part and parcel of the learning mechanism.

In this book, when Confucius was asked to present a gist of all his teachings, he stated, “let there be no evil in your thoughts.” This is such great idea if one wants to purify one’s own self. Confucius gave a simple remark that purity must start with the purification of one’s thoughts. The point is that when a person doesn’t think negatively, they want the good of others. This process advances his own personality, and he becomes a better version of his own self. This is the same lesson as revealed in other important scriptures of the world such as the religious book (The Dhammapada), which states that lives are shaped by the thoughts of the person. This is immensely important as whatever one thinks has a huge impact on his own self. A person become the reflection of his thoughts. This is the ruling ideal in the modern contemporary world, as the world is now following the edict of the Law of Attraction. It is even illustrated in the bestseller book ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jheOIQtP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Byrne)","plainCitation":"(Byrne)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":79,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/NTPGQ4M6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/NTPGQ4M6"],"itemData":{"id":79,"type":"book","title":"The Secret","publisher":"Atria Books/Beyond Words","number-of-pages":"217","source":"Google Books","abstract":"The tenth-anniversary edition of the book that changed lives in profound ways, now with a new foreword and afterword.In 2006, a groundbreaking feature-length film revealed the great mystery of the universe—The Secret—and, later that year, Rhonda Byrne followed with a book that became a worldwide bestseller. Fragments of a Great Secret have been found in the oral traditions, in literature, in religions and philosophies throughout the centuries. For the first time, all the pieces of The Secret come together in an incredible revelation that will be life-transforming for all who experience it. In this book, you’ll learn how to use The Secret in every aspect of your life—money, health, relationships, happiness, and in every interaction you have in the world. You’ll begin to understand the hidden, untapped power that’s within you, and this revelation can bring joy to every aspect of your life. The Secret contains wisdom from modern-day teachers—men and women who have used it to achieve health, wealth, and happiness. By applying the knowledge of The Secret, they bring to light compelling stories of eradicating disease, acquiring massive wealth, overcoming obstacles, and achieving what many would regard as impossible.","ISBN":"978-1-4165-5499-8","note":"Google-Books-ID: 4nW0TiWexX8C","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Byrne","given":"Rhonda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",2,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Byrne) that one’s thought are powerful enough to trigger the set of circumstances in his life. If one is occupied in negative thoughts, one will attract negativity. On the other hand, if one is optimistic and has a promising attitude towards life, one will have much better prospects in his life. Hence, the power of thoughts is revealed in the Analects of Confucius.

Furthermore, the Analects of Confucius reveal that practice is mandatory before preaching anything to the world. This is the lesson in the Confucian ideology that one should not preach what one does not follow himself whole-heartedly. It is commonly witnessed that people don’t practice themselves what they preach openly. Besides, they are more inclined to see the faults in others every now and then. This is the same concept of the shadow self as highlighted by Debbie Ford in her work ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Z65iNEJ3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Revealing The Secrets Of Your Shadow Self})","plainCitation":"(Revealing The Secrets Of Your Shadow Self)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":106,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/A5YRPR9V"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/A5YRPR9V"],"itemData":{"id":106,"type":"webpage","title":"Revealing The Secrets Of Your Shadow Self","abstract":"Most of us set out on the path to personal growth because at some point the burden of our pain becomes too much to bear. The Dark Side of the Light Chasers is about unmasking that aspect of ourselves which destroys our relationships, kills our spirit, and keeps us from fulfilling our dreams.","URL":"http://www.healyourlife.com/revealing-the-secrets-of-your-shadow-self","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Revealing The Secrets Of Your Shadow Self). She dwells on the point that when one points fingers at others for doing or not doing something, the other three fingers point back at one’s own self. So, one’s own adherence to that practice is the essence of this Confucian ideal of practice before preaching.

Confucius also dwells on the concept of justice and good government. He is the one who gave the idea that rulers must be just in their approach towards their people. The master should not behave arbitrarily or in a capricious manner. He is to be such a leader who focuses much on the concept of social welfare and justice in the society. Perhaps, this is the ideal that is common in socialism, which is a ruling system in communist countries. This socialistic idea is also mentioned by Marx and Engels. Karl Marx stated that, “from each according to his ability to each according to his need.” This is widespread concept of justice is prevalent in socialist countries that are followers of the Analects of Confucius.

Decorum and fairness are also trademarks of the Analects of Confucian. Here, the philosopher Confucius elaborates on the point that proper dignity is the essence of every noble deed. There should be no pomposity involved in the actions of individuals, and this is especially valid for those holding the higher ranks in the country. They must be fair and dignified in their character. This is a landmark of Confucius’ teaching, “hide your strength, and bide your time.” this is the advice of the preacher Confucius to the leaders that they must not be too confrontational and must respect human dignity and peace in their intercourse. Perhaps this concept is still widely applied in the Peoples’ Republic of China where its leaders avoid violent confrontations with their enemies. Hence, decorum and fairness have an adequate place in the Confucian ideology.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it may be fairly concluded from the above discussion that the Analects of Confucius is a literary masterpiece that is still widely applicable today in the modern globalized world. It is still popular in the world where mutually assured destruction is practiced as operational doctrine by some states. This masterpiece of morality and ethics depicts how to live life in a better way. It focuses on the concept of thoughts and a practice before preaching approach. Also, it elaborates the concept of good government and the notions of justice that must be employed by the masters of the land. Moreover, it sheds pomposity and adheres to the ideal of decorum and fairness in this world of nuclear weapons and animosity. This is undoubtedly a great contribution to the world of philosophy.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Byrne, Rhonda. The Secret. Atria Books/Beyond Words, 2007.

Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. Critique of the Gotha Programme. Foreign Languages Press, 1972.

Revealing The Secrets Of Your Shadow Self. http://www.healyourlife.com/revealing-the-secrets-of-your-shadow-self. Accessed 29 May 2019.

The Dhammapada. Penguin Books Limited, 2010.

The Social Contract Theory

The Social Contract Theory

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Social Contract Theory

For starters, what exactly is “Social Contract Theory?” It is a theory which basically represents the view that the political and moral obligation of a person depends on an agreement or contract. For instance, if a person is living in a society, they will be following the setup, rules and regulation that everyone within that community follows. One can have a better understanding through a supposed situation. Assume, that there is no God, there is no concept of reward and virtue, there are no natural functions, and human beings are self-centered naturally. What would be the means of morality after that? This is a tricky situation as mankind will not have a foundation to base morality on.

One of the leading British Philosophers Thomas Hobbes believed that morality is not dependent on any of the above-mentioned factors and determinants. He believed that morality should be looked at as a possible solution for issues that can arise due to self-centered humans. Further, Hobbes is a psychological egoist and one way or the other he believes the fact that in nature humans always act selfishly (Rachels, Rachels, 2019). However, there are certain limitations to what Hobbes has to say. He lived in a time when there were long religious fights in Europe. So, the people Hobbes observed were mostly young European men. Further, Hobbes personal experience might have added a bias to his theory as well. One of his biggest fears was political and social chaos, and Hobbes saw and suffered greatly in it as well. Another issue with psychological egoism is that it can be proven wrong since it is said to be an empty claim. The reason behind is the fact that no act can be deemed selfish as there is always a motivation behind whatever a person does.

Further, “state of nature” is a scary place to live. Imagine a place with no laws, regulations, and police. People would function mainly on desire. Hobbes believed that the fairness of need, scarcity, vital equality of human power and limited self-sacrifice will make things very difficult for everyone (Rachels, Rachels, 2019). Together these facts paint a very scary picture as we all need the basic necessities to live a good life.

References

Rachels, J., Rachels, S., (2019). The Elements of Moral Philosophy (9th ed.). Mc-Graw Hill Education.

The Utilitarian Approach

The Utilitarian Approach

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

The Utilitarian Approach

Utilitarianism theory identifies the maximization of happiness where it implies that every action that can increase the happiness of the human being without giving harm to other human or living being is right. It is considered a secular approach, however, it does not goes against religion. On the other hand, ethical covers the revolutionary idea that shows morality and happiness is acceptable. The principles of ethical theories are according to moral and religious teachings. There are various pros and cons of utilitarianism. It explains that any action that results in harm for other person or living thing is wrong. The main aim should be the increase in happiness for the maximum number of people which shows mutual interest rather than increasing self-interest in society. However, it has few cons as well like its rules only focus on humanity rather than religious perspective which indicates the unrealistic perspective for society. In addition, we cannot consider factors other than happiness while deciding about action.

The principle of utility explains that any decision, behavior or action made by a human should rely on pleasure and happiness. If actions turns into pain and unhappiness then it is considered as wrong. For instance, killing someone or using marijuana can also be right it the outcome of the actions result in maximization of happiness or pleasure. Utilitarianism and American society have a great connection for the betterment in society. The principles of utility-focused only on happiness where utilitarianism brought the change in perspective of the people. People who were suffering from the situation of the drug war, this theory identified the flaws of society. Anything that increases your happiness or pleasure can also be wrong if it gives you harm in the long term. In addition, it explains that not only humans have rights but also animals can feel pleasure and pain ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2hESZqfd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(BTNTHaM, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(BTNTHaM, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1402,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/ETMSCGGC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/ETMSCGGC"],"itemData":{"id":1402,"type":"article-journal","title":"Th, (Itilitarian Approach","page":"15","source":"Zotero","language":"en","author":[{"family":"BTNTHaM","given":"JrRrnry"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (BTNTHaM, n.d.).

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY BTNTHaM, J. (n.d.). Th, (Itilitarian Approach. 15.

The Writer Will Choose The Topic Himself

Author’s name

Instructor Name

Art 101

19 November 2018

Research Essay: Animal rights

The issue of animal rights has been contentious for centuries. Several philosophers have presented theories to explain the mode of behavior that human beings should adopt with animals, starting from Aristotle. In the contemporary world, there are three main types of theories. The indirect theories, “direct and equal” theories and the “direct but unequal” theories. The indirect theories suggest that animals should not be given any moral status as they are not rational abilities. Most religious worldviews, theory for animal rights by Emmanuel Kant and the cartesian theories, follow such an understanding of animal rights. The direct and equal theories present the idea that since animals are sentient entities, therefore they should be considered, in essence, equal to human beings when considering their moral standing. Contemporary theories used by animal rights activists, form a major part of such theories ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0Z6eSoYQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pohl)","plainCitation":"(Pohl)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":111,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/JKAUMTSL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/JKAUMTSL"],"itemData":{"id":111,"type":"post-weblog","title":"Theories on Animals and Ethics | Office of the Vice President for Research","abstract":"How would we define the issue of animals and ethics and the use of animals- whether in biomedical use, exhibition, or as pets? Does common sense play a role in this? Is it a philosophical issue or a moral debate? Is it a personal choice or a societal dilemma? These questions are not easily answe ...","URL":"https://ovpr.uchc.edu/services/rics/animal/iacuc/ethics/theories/","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Pohl","given":"Alison"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",8,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Pohl). The last type of theories presented over the years are known as direct but unequal theories. These theories suggest that animals do have a moral standing but that their intrinsic value should not be considered equal to human beings as they lack a rational thought process ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ibDY6tDn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Animals and Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy})","plainCitation":"(Animals and Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":113,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/JGKQS35X"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/JGKQS35X"],"itemData":{"id":113,"type":"webpage","title":"Animals and Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy","URL":"https://www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/#SH1b","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Animals and Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). I believe that the direct but unequal theories make the most sense out of the lot.

What makes the cutting down of a tree, much less of a crime than cutting down of a human being into two? I heard this question being asked once in a debate, in Speakers’ corner. A modified form of the same question makes the crux of the understanding of animal rights. That question can be formulated as, what makes human beings more valuable or different than animals or plants? If one can successfully answer this question, I believe that one can have a sound conceptualization of the issue. Before we get into the theory, let me clarify that the philosophical underpinning of induction exists in this theory, that is, in the future, a new research might appear and disprove parts of this theory or this theory as a whole.

There are three distinct types of living entities present on the Earth’s surface. Plants, animals and humans. We can analyze the similarities and differences between the three if we consider the properties of life, subjective experience and rational ability. Plants only have life while they lack in subjective experience and rational ability, as per the latest research. Similarly, animals have life and subjective experience while they lack rational ability. While human beings have all of the above-mentioned attributes. I believe that intrinsic value should be associated with the existence of these properties. Therefore, human beings should be given the highest value from a moral perspective, animals with the second highest, while plants with the least.

That does not mean to say that we should legalize deforestation or allow people to hunt for sport as that would be catastrophic for humanity, the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom. But the implications of this theory are that in scenarios where human beings require animals for food or transportation, they should be allowed to use them. At the same time, hunting only for the sake of fun should be banned in all circumstances. In cases where human rights and animal rights come at odds with each other, the moral preference should be given to human rights, as humans have the highest intrinsic value. Another reason for my belief in this theory is the implications of the other extreme narratives out there, such as those presented by the direct and equal theories. Such implications include overpopulation of animal species and the creation of imbalance in the ecosystem. Another line of argument, that can be provided in favor of this theory, is the argument from nature. A natural food chain exists in the natural world in which certain animals classified as herbivores feed on plants, while other animals classified as carnivores feed on these herbivores. Some of these animals are then eaten by humans, putting humans at the top of the food chain. An extreme approach towards animals can disturb this balance and destroy the ecosystem as a whole. An extreme abomination can increase the species of animals that human beings eat and thus decrease the other animals. At the same time, excessive hunting can cause extinction of certain species of animals. One thing that should also be take into consideration, while talking about animal rights, is the diversity of cultural and religious narratives around the globe, on this issue. This balanced approach will be the most fruitful and easiest in terms of implementation, as most cultures will not have any problem in accepting this methodology. Now, before someone accuses me of argument ad populum, that is to argue that since many people believe so therefore it is so ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JQJ34HGS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Weisberg)","plainCitation":"(Weisberg)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":117,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/TFZHZ4HX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/TFZHZ4HX"],"itemData":{"id":117,"type":"chapter","title":"Formal Epistemology","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2017","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Formal epistemology explores knowledge and reasoning using“formal” tools, tools from math and logic. For example, aformal epistemologist might use probability theory to explain howscientific reasoning works. Or she might use modal logic to defend aparticular theory of knowledge., The questions that drive formal epistemology are often the same asthose that drive “informal” epistemology. What isknowledge, and how is it different from mere opinion? What separatesscience from pseudoscience? When is a belief justified? What justifiesmy belief that the sun will rise tomorrow, or that the external worldis real and not an illusion induced by Descartes’ demon?, And yet, the tools formal epistemologists apply to these questionsshare much history and interest with other fields, both inside andoutside philosophy. So formal epistemologists often ask questions thataren’t part of the usual epistemological core, questions about decision-making (§5.1) or the meaning of hypothetical language (§5.3), for example., Perhaps the best way to get a feel for formal epistemology is tolook at concrete examples. We’ll take a few classic epistemologicalquestions and look at popular formal approaches to them, to see whatformal tools bring to the table. We’ll also look at some applicationsof these formal methods outside epistemology.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/formal-epistemology/","author":[{"family":"Weisberg","given":"Jonathan"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Weisberg). I should clarify that my argument for this theory is not based on this idea. But on the reality of cultural diversity around the globe, it should be considered in the debate of animal rights.

From a point of common sense as well, if a person makes a case for equal rights for animals, he should consider the fact that if his initial premise for the argument is that since animals are sentient beings, therefore, they should be given rights. Then using the same premise, one can argue that plants are living beings and that their feelings might be established by future research, and due to the same reason, plants should also be given equal rights. If one concedes to this argument, then the survival of human beings would be in jeopardy as human beings get their nutrition from plants and in some cases, animals. Such fundamental flaws in all of the other extreme narratives, compels us to take the middle ground and be balanced in the approach towards the issue of animal rights.

The best argument that can be presented against this theory is that of subjectivity. This theory leaves a lot of room for subjective interpretation. It suggests that the requirement of individuals for food and survival be fulfilled, but bans excessive animal hunting or torture. This short-coming can be understood very well when talking about the definition of requirement. The terms of requirement and excessiveness need to be defined in the book of law in clear wordings, for this theory to work. An example that can be used for the elaboration of the problem, caused by an ambiguous use of definitions, can be seen when a person who wants to slaughter animals excessively, might put an argument that he requires large amounts of cow skin to make the floormats of his car. Such an argument can place a problem in the hands of the court if the definition of such terms is not defined clearly.

This reasoning, however can be countered very well if the rule of law is used to regularize an interpretation of this theory and made known to everyone. The line of allowance that seems ambiguous can be made pretty clear if robust legislation is done in order to make the law as clear and well interpreted as possible. Another way to solve this issue is for the state to control all of the slaughterhouses and make sure that no other animals are being hurt.

Work cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHYAnimals and Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/#SH1b. Accessed 30 Nov. 2019.

Pohl, Alison. Theories on Animals and Ethics | Office of the Vice President for Research. 10 Aug. 2015, https://ovpr.uchc.edu/services/rics/animal/iacuc/ethics/theories/.

Weisberg, Jonathan. “Formal Epistemology.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2017, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2017. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/formal-epistemology/.

Thesis Essay

Steven Hinojosa

Enter Name of the Instructor

Philosophy

30 January 2020

Thesis Essay

The interpretation of Socrates’ thesis learning is; recollection remains continuous and varies significantly in its interpretation. About this thesis of Socrates, there are a few scholars who believe that these views about knowledge are related to Socrates. If assumed that it was Socrates’ view, it then ties into several other dialogues where Socrates and Plato seem to contradict significantly. In philosophy and literature, this is related to the concept of a priori knowledge. Socrates’ view of a priori knowledge exists in western philosophy today, and the concept still typically applies to formal domains such as logic and math, and some also use it to apply to internal psychological states where a priori applies to epistemic justification, but that’s not Socrates’ view. In order to understand Socrates’ view, one needs to understand that philosophers prior to Aristotle were struggling to figure out what sort of relations things had to each other, and how humans explain them. In a simple manner, humans were just busy in finding how is everything connected?

Phaedo, which is attributed to Plato’s views as it developed from the earlier Socratic dialogues. This is where one searches for a more developed view of knowledge as recollection. In order to understand the concept of knowledge as recollection, one needs to understand the theory of forms. This theory was developing at that time, and it helped to explain what was considered an illusion of change on top of fundamentally absolute and unchanging unity of everything. Humans usually understand change as compositional, however, a change in the smaller parts makes a difference for the larger whole. For Socrates, Plato, and most of the pre-Socratic, this is almost the opposite, but not quite. Some changes are illusions based on a human’s inability to see the whole. Humans see things in parts, not in their unity of everything. So those parts appear to change, but they are really just a part of the absolute which continues to unify everything by its unchanging principles. These principles are something like the necessary laws of logic and math, understanding that logic had not yet been formalized and math was still mostly geometry.

The second-way change appears is due to a sort of replication and this was really the contribution of the theory of forms. Perhaps borrowing from observations of familiar biological inheritance, the idea is that the forms of all things humans observe are imperfect replications of the original source, the perfect form of Unity. The translation for this replication process is usually “resemblance”, like a mirror image of the original, which continually repeats down to people. When one understands this theory down to the knowledge of things, being that they only view things in part and that everything humans observe is an imperfect replication of some perfect form, how is it that humans can know perfect things?

Given that humans’ knowledge is the original perfect form, Socrates’ solution is a remembrance of past lives which more closely participated in this ultimate Unity. If the idea were just something like entropy, the future might seem pretty bleak, as humans are destined to continually reincarnate into more imperfect forms for eternity. Socrates believes that right living, virtue, and reason, can bring humans back to the perfect form, something like Plato’s parable of the cave. Philosophical knowledge, for Socrates, is a method of transcending imperfection, recollecting perfection, and literally returning one’s soul to it, contrary to natural principles of imperfect replication.

Outside of the worldly views, this thesis and the motivation for them seems very imaginative and antiquated. Aristotle provided a seemingly much simpler explanation for our ability to conceive perfect forms in a fundamentally changing world via a mental skill of abstraction. The human mind has the capacity to abstract from the imperfections of things to imagine them in a perfect form. These perfect entities, along with the forms of things, logic, and math, are essentially conceptual entities that don’t and never have existed in the world. This is also, by the way, how Aristotle resolves Zeno’s paradoxes. The mind, for example, has the ability to infinitely divide space and time whereas, in reality, space and time are not infinitely divisible care of Zeno’s paradoxes. Unity is imagined otherwise no change is real.

In view of Aristotle’s explanation, there appears a sense in which Socrates’ and Plato’s earlier views are applicable to knowledge and knowledge acquisition. Any conceptual process of abstraction requires some discrimination. Even human sense organs biologically filter out much of what might be possible to sense given a different biological design. The most realistic view of the world is one which makes no discrimination and abstraction. Considering a realist perspective about the fundamental justification for knowledge, with the view that knowledge is just a tool evaluated on a case use basis, questions about the fundamental nature of reality and how to represent it are really secondary.

Whether reality is really compositionally bottom-up or top-down doesn’t really make much of a difference if they produce the same results. Discriminations are however important for knowledge because it provides humans with the building blocks to make the sorts of fine-grained changes they want or require. For many people, useful knowledge is just a tool to get things done. And for the most part, many think that it is acquired by remembrance, but rather it is acquired by discrimination of observable effects and mental abstraction of their potential function for humans’ desired use in a different case.

Thesis For Final Paper

Title page

Thesis

Initial post

The topic that I selected for my research is assisted suicide or the use of euthanasia. This topic involves ethical concerns because it requires identification of the probable outcomes. The research will deal with the question; is it ethical to use euthanasia on patients who are terminally ill and undergoing severe pain? This remained one of the controversial topics. Many states have banned assisted suicide in America and they deny granting such right even when patients give informed consent. Many doctors who practice euthanasia in case of terminal illness were jailed and charged will sentences. I think there is still a need for studying the impacts of euthanasia and how it can be made ethical.

My research will focus on determining situations where euthanasia can be made legal and ethical. Such as in case of chronic illness where patients have no chances of survival and they fail to tolerate pain, assisted suicide can be considered as ethical. I believe that unnecessary pain is useless because patients will not survive and the medication will only prolong their illness. Patient’s consent is another crucial factor that must be considered before deciding the role of euthanasia. When patients are willing to end their lives in case of severe illness it will be ethical to use euthanasia. However, this will require that the physicians must obtain signed consent from the patients. when doctors have informed the patients about their medical state and chances of recovery or survival, the decision made by the patient is sound and holds value. I think that the patients must be given the right to decide for their lives. this will allow them to get rid of pain and prolonged illness. I think euthanasia must be banned only in cases when patients are not undergoing deadly illness. When they have possibilities of survival and getting healthy, euthanasia must be considered as unethical CITATION Mon07 \l 1033 (Justia, 2017).

Although euthanasia involves many ethical and legal concerns it can be used for the welfare of society. When patients lack will power and exhibit lower threshold against pains they can be offered the option of euthanasia. The patient remains the deciding entity in all cases CITATION BFF15 \l 1033 (Fremgen, 2015). When a patient lacks soundness it is not possible to obtain informed consent so euthanasia will be unethical. It is important to consider the consent and willingness of the patient in all cases. I still believe that there is a need for identifying situations when euthanasia is illegal. Sometimes patients insist on assisted suicide because they lost interest in life. However, there are chances of survival are high so it is again unethical to use assisted suicide. I think that the use of euthanasia in unnecessary or less severe cases will promote negative culture in which physicians will use it. similarly, people will also prefer to choose euthanasia in case of minor illness that is unethical.

The overall assessment of the question depicts that the state must revise its standards for determining its impact on society and when it can be useful. The concept of euthanasia is controversial due to its exploitation in the past. It is appropriate to define the restrictions for euthanasia. This will discourage wrong use of assisted suicides. It is also critical to ensure that doctors use this option only when it is legal. I think that euthanasia can be used for the benefit of society and people. Without euthanasia, the terminally ill patients will continue to suffer irrespective of the fact that they lack survival opportunities.

Replies

I like the post of Katherine because she chose a controversial topic. However, she has selected a broader topic so it is more appropriate to specify the contents that she intends to cover in the thesis. I agree that abortion is still a debatable issue and needs attention. Researching some prominent aspects like ethics and its implications on society will be useful for understanding its actual role. There is a need for determining real-life situations in which abortion can be considered as an ethical choice. I agree with the author that women must be given a choice for deciding if they want to keep the baby or not. However, I still believe that there is a need for identifying restrictions because abortions that lack a proper reason to promote a negative trend. People will be encouraged to choose abortions unnecessarily that is unethical. It is thus critical to identify situations when abortions can be legal.

I like the post of Caroline A Munger because she selected an interesting topic for the thesis. Multi-Level Marketing (MLM) has become a critical issue due to the firm's involvement in aggressive marketing. I agree with Caroline that this is considered as an ethical issue because the firm must not adopt practices that are corrupt. The principle of MLM stresses on choosing effective marketing that increases the scope of profits. The companies are only aiming at earning maximum revenue by engaging in aggressive marketing. The firms neglect their corporate responsibility when they target for high returns and profits only. I agree that multi-level marketing is unethical because firms are not working for the welfare or benefit of the community. Such practices also promote negative effects such as exploitation of consumer rights and corrupt practices. There is thus need for addressing the legitimacy issues.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Fremgen, B. F. (2015). Medical Law and Ethics (5th Edition). Pearson.

Justia. (2017). Myers v. Schneiderman. Retrieved 04 17, 2019, from https://law.justia.com/cases/new-york/court-of-appeals/2017/77.html

Third Paper- Hobbes/Hume

Knahdeidnu

Instructor Name

Course Number

4 February 2019

Title: Third Paper- Hobbes/Hume

Hobbes argues that we have reason to keep our agreements (“covenants”), even in the State of Nature. What is his argument? Is it any good?

In his famous book, the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes talks about mankind’s natural state, which is a state that is packed with fear and is inherently violent, and uses that as the premises to form his arguments about the need for a commonwealth to protect man’s best interests. People in the state of nature, assumed to be driven by their passions and desires, would seek to destroy each other but because of the need to survive and live in peace, they would naturally strive towards a means of attaining it, a need which forms the basis for the social contract. In the paper, the assumptions and reasoning given by Hobbes to devise the different laws of nature will be discussed with special emphasis on Hobbes’ third law of nature, which I argue to be rational and reasonable. In this context, Hobbes’ attempt to respond to ‘The Fool’ will be explored to maintain that Hobbes’ arguments that it is reasonable to keep our agreements covenants even in the State of Nature are good and valid in the sense of maintaining every person’s best interest in their natural state.

The natural state which Hobbes refers to is a society where a government is non-existent, and wherein there are no formal rules or laws, and thus no common power that restrains human instincts or nature. He describes it as a state of “war of every man against every man” in which individuals in their quest for gains would be driven to destroy one another CITATION Hob99 \p 80 \l 1033 (Hobbes 80). In this state, life is "nasty, brutish and short" CITATION Hob99 \p 78 \l 1033 (Hobbes 78). In turn, a society is created in which each individual lives a life of perpetual war and constant fear. Although Hobbes' characterization of the state of nature is to a certain extent pessimistic, he provides a plausible and empirical basis upon which he constructs these assumptions. One of them is that people are hardly dissimilar in their key physical and mental attributes, and one cannot be expected to solely dominate the other for too long. No overarching authority exists to restrain their instinctual drives; the pursuit of power, self-preservation, and glory or reputation. This leads to a continual competition between individuals serving as a source of quarrel between them. The uncertainty of the behavior and character of every other person in the society leads to a lack of confidence and trust in each other’s motives, which further pits them against one another.

To overcome this unruly and violent state, Hobbes’ suggests relying upon two characteristics; reason and passion. In humans, the foremost passion is their fear of death and maintenance of their own life, followed by peace, comfort, and gaining resources. A state of war conflicts with man’s passions and thus reason would lead him to find it useless. Thus reason and fear help man escape such a state, by providing him a drive as well as a way to escape it. This forms the basis of natural laws that lay the foundations for peace. The first of these laws is that “every man, ought to endeavor peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it”CITATION Hob99 \p 80 \l 1033 (Hobbes 80) outlining that peace is necessary to improve man's chance for survival. The Second Law of Nature is that in order to attain peace, there is a need to create covenants or agreements. The third Law follows the second that it is not merely sufficient to form contracts or covenants, but to ensure that these contracts are kept and upheld.

According to Hobbes’ reasoning, the third law of nature lays the foundation for ‘Justice'. It binds us to keep to our agreements because these covenants or agreements serve as the critical vehicle by means of which our rights are formulated. However, there exists a ‘Fool' who questions the third law and argues on the basis of Hobbes' earlier reasoning that it can be sometimes rational to break covenants. The Fool bases his questions on Hobbes’ earlier premises that in a state of nature, wherein there is no power to enforce cooperation, no one will trust the other to do his part of the agreement or keep his promise. Therefore, a lack of trust would ensue; and so, how can it be always reasonable to maintain covenants? Hobbes however disagrees and argues that it will always be unreasonable to break covenants, despite the chance for apparent short-term benefits for a lucky individual.

In answering the Fool, Hobbes’ provides different reasons as to why maintaining contracts even in the state of nature would be rational, in light of the third law of nature. The first defense is the third law's basis within the first and second law, which obliges man to enter into covenants in order to maintain peace that everyone needs to survive. The covenant will involve a mutual transfer of rights, and thus, to not have something this important to become in vain, it is necessary for every individual to keep their agreements. Moreover, The Fool is foolish to think highly of the short term gains from not keeping one’s end of the deal when the other party has already acted because it would lead to bad consequences and adverse outcomes for those who break the contracts. These adverse outcomes can be in the form of social exclusion in a union, alliance or confederacy; something which too is necessary to survive in the state of nature. Additionally, breaking a covenant is a form of declaration that one finds the notion of keeping agreements as futile which leads to the creation of suspicion in existing and future confederates and allies that such an individual may not cooperate properly with them.

The other reason not to violate covenants in the state of nature is because it carries the risk for the contract-breaker to termed unjust by his society, which would associate the vice of injustice with him, and with that a social stigma. This would provide disadvantageous in a number of ways. First, it can put the life of such an (foolish) individual at risk. Secondly, it is beneficial for the individual to be seen embodying the virtue of justice, because only those who hold the virtue of justice can achieve or carry the one of the best possible felicity, which is happiness, and other things that a person desires greatly. Since justice is necessary for such a felicity, therefore justice is in the best interest of everyone, and hence reasonable. Hobbes’ suggestion, therefore, is that only a sincerely just individual, one who strives to always keep his agreements, could be perfectly reasonable. Conversely, a person associated with the vice of injustice would have his allies, contemporaries, or peers discover this trait in him and in consequence, potentially treat him in a terrible way including exiling him or taking his life. Thus, since it is contrary to benefit to be associated with vice, and because everyone values felicity, therefore it is never reasonable to violate a mutual agreement.

A person that does not develop in himself positive virtues and frequently engaging in vice would eventually be discovered. Since it is not possible to conceal his vices from his peers or allies, he may have to bear undesirable consequences for it. This is so because an individual's actions reveal his passions, opinions, and inclinations. It is for this reason that a person tries to speak with consideration since he fears offending someone CITATION Hob99 \p 55 \l 1033 (Hobbes 55). It is because actions can reveal a person’s beliefs and the inner truth about them, it will cause other people to reciprocate. A person that violates covenants will have this trait or vice discovered in him sooner or later, even if he manages to get away with it for a little while. It is this neither advisable nor rational to engage in such an act.

In the state of nature, one would be naturally reliant on the assistance and help of his allies or confederates. If they were to discover that he is one who breaks agreements, this would alienate him from his group and lessen his chances of survivability. To avoid the risk of such happening, it is reasonable to keep valid covenants when the first party is also keeping it. Moreover, it is always beneficial for a person to remain just and do whatever is required to be seen as such. Justice, in turn, requires one that he performs any duty that the covenant binds him to. Thus, if these two premises are valid, then it logically necessitates that it is beneficial for everyone to perform his covenants and hence it is perfectly reasonable to do so.

Furthermore, for Hobbes, a just man is one who is always reasonable and does not engage in unjust actions. A just person’s manners and actions thus conform to reason, and he is careful in maintaining all his actions to be just. If the “not-performance of a covenant” is injustice, then a just person would never break it because he does not engage in unreasonable actions CITATION Hob99 \p 88 \l 1033 (Hobbes 88). Moreover, any benefits that a fool would perceive from acting unjustly could pale in comparison to the inevitable bad treatment he would receive from his confederates or peers, when they discover that such a person can violate agreed upon terms at any moment. In case of no harsh or terrible punishment, such a person would at the very least find himself socially excluded from the group. Therefore it is better to behave justly rather than unjustly, which provides a solid rationale to uphold one’s covenant.

To conclude, Hobbes’ natural state, the fear of living in a perpetual state of war would drive men towards peace by engaging in a covenant, or social contract, in exchange for security, peace, and order. It is possible for people in the state of nature to act unjustly and violate agreements, but it would be unreasonable to do so. Hobbes’ successfully argues this case relying upon the concepts of justice, the need for social alliances, and adverse consequences of being discovered as acting upon foolish vices, and goes on to derive more natural laws that help him build the case for a commonwealth that would work to the benefit for all.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan: Or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil 1651. Ed. Rod Hay. Hamilton, ONT: Green Dragon, McMaster University Archive of the History of, 1999.

Title

Love of Wisdom

Ashley

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Love of Wisdom

The literal meaning of philosophy is said to be “love” (Philo in Greek) and “Wisdom” (Sophia). While philosopher is said to be a lover of wisdom. But the main concern is the concept of wisdom and philosophy as a thinking activity. Pythagoras was the first person to call himself as a philosopher who is said to be a lover of wisdom. This does not depict that he was considering himself as wise but he appreciated and valued wisdom. There are different perspectives on the concept of philosophy. These concepts are provided by Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, whereas these concepts also include philosophy as a thinking activity.

It is also important to explain the philosophy as a thinking activity. Thinking is an activity in which an individual assumes things about the surroundings and himself. Human thinking keeps on changing and every individual has his or her own thinking styles. Plato suggested that those individuals can lead and rule who have a vision, and they keep raising political questions. His philosophy was more oriented toward political activities. Whereas, Socrates suggests that, society is made up of different patterns and this society works collectively to achieve objectives. He also believed that individuals, life is important and that should be examined and determined to do something. Moreover, he believed in the consciousness and this is important to accomplish good things in society.

While the philosophy of Aristotle was comprised of the notions of the human body and soul, matter, and logical reasoning. Linking philosophy as a thinking activity it can be said that Aristotle’s philosophy was more oriented with philosophy as a thinking activity. He explained the concept of thinking activity by comparing humans with animals. He suggested that humans and animals are completely different because humans have the capacity to think while animals are not capable of thinking. These notions and perspectives about philosophies are different and they also contradict, whereas one links this with politics, and the other one links this with the human mind and soul.

References

Cohen, E. D. (Ed.). (2000). Philosophers at work: issues and practice of philosophy. Harcourt College

TOK Essay

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Theory of Knowledge

In order to deeply understand Theory of Knowledge (TOK) into this title, we need to unpack information in sub-questions: define what are personal circumstances? What is the influence of personal circumstances on our knowledge gain? Discuss this matter.

Personal circumstances play a vital role in our knowledge, so it is needed to know what is meant by it. Normally a set of personal circumstance are attached with every person. It plays a significant role in the image of ourselves, in how we feel, think and view the world CITATION Mil92 \l 1033 (Personal circumstances). Every person has some elements that are associated with personal circumstances, and many questions are about it such as:

Do you have wealth security like rich or poor? Do you belong to a country with strong economic conditions or poverty-stricken? Do you belong to minority group suffering from discrimination on the basis of skin color? Are you male or female? What is your religion? What are your talents, abilities, strength and weaknesses? What is your health condition? Which profession you have chosen for your living? What is your education level i.e. college degree, a high school diploma or illiterate? What is your marital status? How many children do u have? Do you have constructive or bad habits? What is extent of your knowledge? Is it broad, extensive or limited, superficial and conservative?

Personal circumstances have a great impact on our knowledge gain and capabilities CITATION Kal12 \l 1033 (Kalsi). Knowledge depends significantly on the experience of a particular individual. It is gained through practice and personal involvement associated with the circumstances such as interests, biography, values, culture, ethnicity and so on CITATION Ebn06 \l 1033 (Ebner, Freund and Baltes). Knowledge based on personal circumstances is a sum of skills and technical knowledge that I have developed by practice, habituation and experience of my life beyond academic circles. There are many Way of Knowing (WOK) by which knowledge becomes apparent to us. Some ways of knowing are through language, imagination, faith, emotion, reason, intuition, memory, and sense perception.

Language: Language plays an important role in transmitting knowledge in society and it determines the way we think. In a practical community, people speak in a particular way and their way of thinking is organized accordingly. For example, people who go to some eastern country for studies may feel hurdles in understanding because of language differences. Here we can argue that speaking in a specific language may limit our thinking ability. Moreover, someone else may argue that the way we understand and think about matters are not restricted to a particular culture, but are worldwide.

Imagination: Imagination is the capacity to create a mental representation of an intellect skill without the usual stimulus. For your ToK essays your imagination must be connected to real life. For example, medical conditions like autism that might affect the imagination. Schizophrenia can give some understanding of what misbeliefs and dangerous examples of imagination can lead to big losses. Imagination is often appreciated as a part of inspiration, problem solving and innovation.

Faith: Some people perceive faith as a religious aspect, like faith in God. But some people do not believe in God, so meaning of faith is lost here. Someone’s commitment with a philosophy that leads to their knowledge, can be their faith. It is a way of understanding the world that we have chosen to interpret things. Some people may think that there is a relationship between faith and reason and vice versa. However, in many religions’ faith and reason are considered as interdependent.

Emotion: In TOK there are two views of emotion i.e. naturalistic view and social constructionists CITATION Ric11 \l 1033 (Lagemaat). Naturalistic view of emotion says that, emotion is an outcome of our physical build, with physical effects and causes. Naturalistic view has practical implication universally and can be experienced across cultures. Social constructionists claim that emotions are socially constructed and ultimately comes from our social environment. A question may rise in our mind that whether emotion is a support or intrusion when it comes in TOK. Someone might claim that emotions can create problem while gaining information. For example, if you have a family member ill, and you love him a lot; you have emotions for him and it would be difficult in such circumstances to gain knowledge. However, someone might contradict with you. People with autism often try to recognize social conditions, to know what other people feel.

Reason: In WOK reason is very prominent way of knowledge. For a clear understanding about it we must understand it step wise. First step is the capability to use logical deduction. This allows us to go through from starting premises to reach valid conclusions. For example: Premises 1: Timmy is a cat. Premises 2: All cats have fur. Question: Does Timmy have fur on body? Valid Conclusion: Yes, Timmy has fur on body. Working from premises to conclusions like this is called logical deduction. Second step is the capability to do rational induction. We have used deductive logic and concluded a general statement about cats. However, it is not necessary that all cats have fur on their bodies. Logical induction: it is what we call inferential. It makes a declaration which is not severely provable. This idea of inference benefits to separate inductive and deductive reasoning.

Intuition: Intuition is consuming an instant sense of knowledge, without any previous thinking. Psychologists believe that in a given circumstance, an intuitive mind is able to make more observations than a conscious mind. This is commonly defined as, having a natural feeling about what is going to happen, or what is the solution of the problem. It is a influential way of knowing which is defined as instantaneous consciousness. A claim comes in our mind that how much this Way of Knowing is reliable and how we can use it to justify our actions?

Memory: Memory is a Way of Knowing that gives you the opportunity to say something unique for discussion of your TOK essays and presentations. One way of defining memory is the ability which allows us to recall information and recreate previous experiences. There is a significant importance of memory in acquiring new knowledge. Our past experiences impart on our new experiences and can be interpreted because of memory which is a vast part of how we gain knowledge at any moment of life.

Sense perception: Sense is the WOK that relates to the way a person understands and uses their senses. Conventionally we have only five senses: smell, sight, taste, touch, and hearing. With the passage of time more senses become part of life such as sense of movement, sense of pain, sense of heat, sense of balance, hunger and thirst has also been suggested. Moreover, it is generally thought that our expectations help us to shape our sense of experience. These senses are mostly invoked by our personal circumstances in which we live. Moreover, in TOK essays and presentation is a fascinating topic about deciding how beliefs and perceptions influence each other CITATION OBr16 \l 1033 (O'Brien).

To answer this question of TOK one must know biased perceptions and biased knowledge. Biases are personal circumstances that form the way in which we understand and perceive knowledge CITATION Bal17 \l 1033 (Balloo, Pauli and Worrell). We normally take knowledge from well-known biased sources like individuals, organizations or media sources. But we perceive knowledge from where we believe information is truly biased. This justifies our claim that personal circumstances effect on how seriously knowledge is acquired. Furthermore, many other questions may arise in our mind regarding personal circumstances when associated with knowledge. Do we rapidly accept specific knowledge as reality if personal circumstances of this source line up with your personal circumstances? Shall we terminate other knowledge, which may hold the same strength, simply because an individual’s personal circumstances cover our judgement of the knowledge formed by that individual? What consequences does this conveys in society? Can we relate this to alternative area of knowledge? Does this is makes us more ignorant as known persons?

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Balloo, Kieran, Regina Pauli and Marcia Worrell. "Undergraduates’ Personal Circumstances, Expectations and Reasons for Attending University." (2017).

Ebner, Natalie C., Alexandra M. Freund and Paul B. Baltes. "Developmental Changes in Personal Goal Orientation From Young to Late Adulthood: From Striving for Gains to Maintenance and Prevention of Losses." Psychology and Aging (2006): 664–678.

Kalsi, Marie-Luise Schubert. Meinong’s Theory of Knowledge. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.

Lagemaat, Richard van de. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma Full Colour Edition. Cambridge University Press, 2011.

O'Brien, Dan. An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge. John Wiley & Sons, 2016.

"Personal circumstances." August 1992. SolitaryRoad.com. Ed. James Miller. 7 November 2019. <https://solitaryroad.com/a560.html>.