Trolleyology Response

Trolleyology Response

Trolleyology is an ethical dilemma which is greatly responded by the people from the Utilitarian frame of mind. The chapter by Joshua Greene in the book title “Moral Tribes Emotion, Reason, And The Gap Between Us And Them” sufficiently explains the decision making ability. The author in this chapter comprehended on two ethical dilemmas that are switch dilemma and footbridge dilemma. In the switch dilemma, there is a person who saw a trolley coming towards five men on the railroad. The person can switch the track of the train, and only one man will be killed since on the other side there is one man working. Most people respond to this as a good idea. The footbridge dilemma is also similar but to save the lives of five men one man with the bag pack is to be pushed from the footbridge and most people respond to this as a bad decision.

The author effectively explained about the difference of opinion through the notion of a dual-process theory of moral judgment. Through this theory, the author explained that in both the dilemma the people use (Greene). Utilitarian frame of decision making which means that action which benefits more people like saving five and killing one is a better decision. But when emotions get attached to the situation, people negate the Utilitarianism. It is known as the dual-process of moral judgment. By this, the author meant that people use abstract thinking when the emotions are absent like in the switch dilemma, and they use sympathetic thinking when emotions are attached.

Adding to this viewpoint by Greene I believe that the reason of using sympathetic thinking in the footbridge dilemma is because more efforts are required in pushing a man from the footbridge and there is a physical contact which is missing in the switch dilemma.

References

Greene, J. (2014). Moral tribes: Emotion, reason, and the gap between us and them. Penguin.

Understanding Memory Loss

Understanding Memory Loss

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Understanding Memory Loss

Introduction

For this part of the assignment, the movie that I have chosen is Christopher Nolan’s “Memento”. This movie was released in the year 2000 and is regarded as of the psychological genre movie. The main psychological disorder that has been represented in the movie is anterograde amnesia which was displayed by the movie’s main character, Leonard. Anterograde amnesia is a type of psychological disorder of memory in which the tentative memory cannot be created after an event which leads to amnesia. This leads to the inability, partial or full in recalling the previous occasions that have been elapsed in recent times. While the long-term recollections that is previous to the event causing amnesia remain intact. In the movie, Leonard, the main lead of the movie got the amnesia from the gun butted injury on his head by two criminals who were masked and came into his home. During the incident that led to amnesia, Leonhard wife, was raped and was almost murdered. This is the most recent memory that was transmitted into his brain’s long term memory.

Discussion

Throughout the film, he was unable to make new memories and it was found impossible for him to recall memory prior to every 20 seconds that is apart from his memories of long-term nature. Another thing that is important in the movie is that he takes pictures of events in order to remember what happened at that time. He wrote a note with the pictures, but later when he tried to use those pictures and notes, he clearly misinterprets the events.

Basically, the movie is based partially on the famous case of H.M. who was also affected by the anterograde amnesia and was studied by nearly 100 investigators. H.M. became amnesic in the year 1953(Corkin, 2002). Scoville and Milner wrote the first research paper on the H.M case in the Journal of Psychiatry, Neurosurgery, and Neurology. After the publication of the paper, it has since been cited around 1,750 times. This paper was published in 1957 and is on the same level as the paper published by Gage and colleagues' in the year 1998. The H.M. amnesia manifests as acquisition deficiency of semantic and episodic knowledge that is similar to the representation in the movie. While H.M. can understand the context of the joke and the talks, which is a contrasting feature with the movie. But later studies suggest that H.M can understand the context because of the lower extent of damage to lateral neocortex temporal. Christof Koch, who is a neuroscientist in Caltech, called the movie Memento to be the best and accurate memory system portrayal in the popular media. While Esther M. Sternberg, who is a physician and Director in the National Institute of Mental Health of Immune Integral Neural Program identified the film as close to the perfect portrayal of memory and neurobiology. He concludes that this movie keeps on influencing thought provocation in the viewer's mind, and every iteration makes people imagine about the notion that is preconceived in a different view.

One inaccuracy that is represented in the movie was the Sammy Jankis inability to evolve procedural memory. This concept is presented in the movie when the main lead of the movie was tried with electrified shapes so that to ask him repeatedly to pick up the particular electrified shape. This concept is an inaccurate demonstration of procedural memory because it is not stored in the damaged area of the brain (hippocampus) but is stored rather in the cerebellum, putamen, caudate nucleus, and motor cortex(Hilts, Hammett & Dick, 2004). Another inaccuracy in the film is the mislabeling of Leonard's condition as a short term memory loss and not particularly amnesia when the matter of fact is that it is amnesia.

Conclusion

Although the movie represents many of the amnesia features with accuracy, but still a deep understanding of the procedural memory was not clearly depicted in the movie which leads to many of the inaccuracies. If these inaccuracies were addressed in the movie, it would not only be a perfect reflection of the memory condition but would be a source of information for generations of neuropsychologists to come.

References

Corkin, S. (2002). What's new with the amnesic patient HM?. Nature reviews neuroscience, 3(2), 153.

Hilts, P. J., Hammett, D., & Dick, H. (2004). Remembering the Future: Memento, the Reverse of Time's Arrow, and the Defects of Memory. Kronoscope, 4(2).

Unit 5

Unit 5

Name (First M_Last)

Institution Name

Introduction

This great world of humans can be destroyed in a day if the concept of right and wrong is eradicated from it. It can shake the balance of positivity and negativity inside every individual. Its consequences will be horrible beyond imaginations. There are always some standards set by religion, society, or organization to declare what is right and what is wrong according to their perspectives, philosophy, ideas and requirements. Morals set by religion and society are the outcome of social culture, moral standards and protracted religious norms. They are the backbone of maintaining the moralities of this world.

However, the definition of morality is different in different places and perspectives. Alfred Whitehead has demonstrated it well that what makes up a morality. He explained that power of the majority is what matters a lot in laying the foundation of moralities, any standard or rule of morality is set by the majority, if the majority is unlinking it, there is no chance that particular rule can survive ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"asotd9a345","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Alfred North Whitehead Quotes,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)}","plainCitation":"(“Alfred North Whitehead Quotes,” n.d.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":552,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/9EQSBF7E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/9EQSBF7E"],"itemData":{"id":552,"type":"webpage","title":"Alfred North Whitehead Quotes","container-title":"BrainyQuote","abstract":"\"What is morality in any given time or place? It is what the majority then and there happen to like and immorality is what they dislike.\" - Alfred North Whitehead quotes from BrainyQuote.com","URL":"https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/alfred_north_whitehead_133258","language":"en"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (BrainyQuote,” 2018).

Nowadays, many organizations have started putting their interests and profits above everything ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2llj0h0k5o","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Opinion | Sunday Dialogue,\\uc0\\u8221{} 2012)}","plainCitation":"(“Opinion | Sunday Dialogue,” 2012)"},"citationItems":[{"id":554,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/HXT9CI6A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/HXT9CI6A"],"itemData":{"id":554,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"Opinion | Sunday Dialogue: How Corporations Behave","container-title":"The New York Times","section":"Opinion","source":"NYTimes.com","abstract":"Readers discuss business ethics and priorities over the years.","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/02/opinion/sunday/sunday-dialogue-how-corporations-behave.html","ISSN":"0362-4331","shortTitle":"Opinion | Sunday Dialogue","language":"en-US","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",9,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Opinion | Sunday Dialogue,” 2012). They are neglecting the values of moralities, leaving a large community to suffer because of its negative influences and outcomes. That is where the demand arises that why should a corporation or organization be moral?

Body

Humans have been ruling as a master specie on this planet since the very beginning. It has been witnessed that ethics and morality was the only thing that was responsible for their survival and kept their societies together. The reason is simple and straight, human nature and personality is a complex cluster of infinite loops that have positive and negative energies both. There is a constant battle inside every individual in which beasts of negative energies try to engulf the positivity. On the other hand, ethical values and moralities strengthen the roots of positivity and help an individual to become a better person. Similarly, organizations that are run by these humans need ethical and moral values as their core foundation too. There are countless reasons that enlighten the horrible and threatening consequences of organizations that fail to adopt morality.

Today, there are number of organizations that aim to achieve nothing but profit. They do not care about the suffering of their employees, surroundings, and society. People of today’s world are either jobless, doing a job that is unfit for them just to survive, or even if they have a good job, they feel insecure about it all the times. Moreover, there is a number of those actively working organizations and corporations too, that are constantly harming the environment and disturbing ecosystem, but they just don’t care because they are getting a bulky prize as an output. This ugly reality is getting stronger and stronger each day because of the emergence of an organization that only prioritize ways through which they can earn more and more profit.

As there is no way bad input and horrible actions get good output and marvelous reactions respectively. Similarly, it is a fact that these organizations get only trouble and ugly outcomes that influence them as well as whatever that is in their interaction. Let’s understand it with a simple example if there is a corporation which is running the business of manufacturing soap. If it stays stubborn enough and throw its raw wastes of toxic chemicals into water bodies and soil, and it does not provide its workers precautionary equipment to wear and use while they are working, it will not only harm aquatic and land species but it will also be unsafe for workers and it may cause severe and dangerous effects on the health of the corporation’s employees. Furthermore, it is predictable that the corporation’s staff will get less active and it will be a clear loss for authorities because it is not easy to hire new and experienced staff.

No business can run for a long time if its employees and stakeholders are unhappy because they are the backbone of the business. If the corporation is continuously unethical with its employees and stakeholders, they will react to such signals too. Employees will not enjoy working at their workplaces and consider it foolish to work hard for that particular organization because they get it that whoever they are working for is not fair with them, as a result, it will start delivering poor quality work and products. In addition, all the stakeholders will be repelled in a very short time and business could not stand in the market and will be flopped. Also, it is expected that there will be leg-pulling and many disputes among the staff because it is the nature of almost all the humans, if they are left without imposing ethical rules, their ego boils up even in little arguments. Furthermore, it is also predictable that the organization will be feeling the hot breath of racism, sexism, and homophobia on its neck. Things will get rough and out of control, making work environment complicated and suffocating for workers.

Such organizations are in clear misconception that it will cost them more budget, labor burden or they will get less profit. They need to understand that morals are not just set to benefit others (although it is the most amazing thing), they are set to raise the standard of the business and to make it progress leaps and bounds. Adopting ethics and morality does not mean that an organization will be in clear loss. Instead, it has a number of benefits that will give more fruits to the organization than anything or anyone else.

The more organizations will take it seriously, the more good it will spread in the society. Furthermore, businesses of corporations and organizations that follow morals and ethics, have a noble and good reputation in society. Organizations need to make sure that they are doing justice with their employees and whatever and whoever is under influence of what they are doing. If they set their foundation by endorsing rules of ethics and morality, they will find it easy to handle their employees and staff. Moreover, it will also be easy for them to control racism, sexism, and homophobia in their work environment. If the employees are informed that this kind of bullying and narrow-mindedness is not allowed in their organization, they will take care of it and avoid offending each other. In addition, an organization with the ethical and moral standard is heartened by employees and stakeholders so there will be a stop to its success.

There is also a misconception among different organizations that whatever they are doing, a lot of other people out there in the market are doing the same thing too, what difference it will create if they don’t follow ethics and morals like others. It is utterly wrong, the change starts from individuality, a single organization can make a clear difference and set example for others to follow too. There are many organizations that betray others by portraying and coating unethical values with the covering of morality. As Whitehead said in his quote that majority defines the morality so organizations need to come up with new standards of ethics and morality that are in reality good too.

Conclusion It is of utmost necessity for organizations and corporations to set their ethical and moral values first, even before laying the foundation of their businesses. Doing that will water the roots of their business, make it grow and expand, set a pathway towards success, and of course, it will be beneficial for all those that are connected with it. Moreover, there are many people who want to start a business of their own and for that, they look up to those who are already in it. Therefore, the organization’s morals and ethical values will be the inspiration for so many and it will be a source of spreading the good cause. In this respect, Whitehead’s quote makes total sense, that majority is what driving everything in the world, if the majority is after the good cause, it will set a noble morality standard instead of setting wicked standards and hypocritically representing it as good ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"asotd9a345","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Alfred North Whitehead Quotes,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)}","plainCitation":"(“Alfred North Whitehead Quotes,” n.d.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":552,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/9EQSBF7E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/9EQSBF7E"],"itemData":{"id":552,"type":"webpage","title":"Alfred North Whitehead Quotes","container-title":"BrainyQuote","abstract":"\"What is morality in any given time or place? It is what the majority then and there happen to like and immorality is what they dislike.\" - Alfred North Whitehead quotes from BrainyQuote.com","URL":"https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/alfred_north_whitehead_133258","language":"en"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (BrainyQuote,” 2018). The more organizations will take it seriously, the more good it will spread in the society. Furthermore, businesses of corporations and organizations that follow morals and ethics, have a noble and good reputation in society. They are not looked as greedy and self-centered organizations, they get the trust of the society.

It is true that not every organization embraces morals but as a result, sooner or later they pay for it. Agreeing to Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative, organizations need to treat their employees and stakeholders as they wish to be treated themselves, they need to make sure that they treat others well else, it will not take long and they’ll be facing horrible consequences in many folds ("Kant's Moral Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia Of Philosophy)").

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Alfred North Whitehead Quotes. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/alfred_north_whitehead_133258

"Kant's Moral Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia Of Philosophy)." Plato.stanford.edu. N.p., 2019. Web. 29 Jan. 2019.

Opinion | Sunday Dialogue: How Corporations Behave. (2012, September 1). The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/02/opinion/sunday/sunday-dialogue-how-corporations-behave.html

Utilitarianism

Name of Student

Name of Professor

Name of Class

Day Month Year

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is recognized as one of the most powerful ethical theory in the paradigm of philosophical history. The theory underpins the belief that the morally right deed is the action which manifests the most productive element. The classical advocates of the theory were John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. However, the theory witnessed several changes over the years to remove the plausible controversies present in the theory. The cynics have highlighted several adverse ramifications of the ethical theory. The fundamental complexity is the comparison between value of time and the potential of human beings to postulate the ramifications of the actions.

Both Mill and Bentham were fundamentally cornered with social and legal reform in order to provide a basis to end corrupt social practices and laws. For Bentham, utilitarianism was based on the greatest happiness principle. He held that an individual must always act in a manner, within reason, which would result into the maximum greatest happiness. Conversely, Mill formulated his idea of utilitarianism based on a qualitative distinction between pleasures. Both sought to answer the question about what makes a policy, law, or an act a fundamentally moral one; for utilitarians, it was the lack of utility. The ethical theory proposed by Bentham was grounded on the presumption that human actions have to be evaluated according to the consequences they produce, and the only consequences which matter are those that help achieve happiness, in the sense of achieving maximum pleasure and minimizing or avoiding pain.

Mill's utilitarianism was thus not hedonistic and significantly departed from Bentham's theory; however, he still accepted good to exist in the psychological state of pleasure. This led him to understand the rationale for having rights to be utility, which was in contrast to the indiscriminate hedonistic view of Bentham, and to many seems more plausible to be institutionally implemented. Since the middle 20th century, it has been recognized as Consequentialist because only a few philosophers have agreed to the principles of the classical utilitarianism potentially. The classical approach was shunned by Moore and he presented an innovative account of the theory. For instance, he pursued the belief that beauty is always intrinsic ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mVwDvKbv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Driver)","plainCitation":"(Driver)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2246,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/H8YOvGFC/items/8ZIC9FZM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/H8YOvGFC/items/8ZIC9FZM"],"itemData":{"id":2246,"type":"chapter","title":"The History of Utilitarianism","container-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","publisher":"Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University","edition":"Winter 2014","source":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","abstract":"Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approachesto normative ethics in the history of philosophy. Though notfully articulated until the 19th century, proto-utilitarianpositions can be discerned throughout the history of ethicaltheory., Though there are many varieties of the view discussed,utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally rightaction is the action that produces the most good. There are manyways to spell out this general claim. One thing to note is thatthe theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action isunderstood entirely in terms of consequences produced. Whatdistinguishes utilitarianism from egoism has to do with the scope ofthe relevant consequences. On the utilitarian view one ought tomaximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of othersas well as one's own good., The Classical Utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill,identified the good with pleasure, so, like Epicurus, were hedonistsabout value. They also held that we ought to maximize the good,that is, bring about ‘the greatest amount of good for thegreatest number’., Utilitarianism is also distinguished by impartiality andagent-neutrality. Everyone's happiness counts thesame. When one maximizes the good, it is the goodimpartially considered. My good counts for no more thananyone else's good. Further, the reason I have to promotethe overall good is the same reason anyone else has to so promote thegood. It is not peculiar to me., All of these features of this approach to moral evaluation and/ormoral decision-making have proven to be somewhat controversial andsubsequent controversies have led to changes in the Classical versionof the theory.","URL":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/utilitarianism-history/","author":[{"family":"Driver","given":"Julia"}],"editor":[{"family":"Zalta","given":"Edward N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Driver). Good is not generally constituted in the consciousness of a person. The good will and courteous deed committed by a person is not different or superior from the good deeds performed by other members in the society. It is the moral obligation of the human beings to promote the moral good regardless of the circumstances. Individuals should never believe that the preservation of good values is a particular trait which is solely perpetuated by them.

First, several moral complexities are encountered related to the popular ethical theory of utilitarianism. It postulates that humans possess the tendency to measure the ramifications of their consequences. The error of judgment is significant and the humans are not equipped with the tendency to determine the fate of their consequences. The problem with utilitarianism is opposite to those of deontology. The challenge to comprehend the moral calculus is very rare to be overcome. The moral system can never answer each question in detail. The maximization of happiness cannot be accomplished without plausible adversities. For instance, the principles of utilitarianism will suggest that when humans find a way to make pleasant robots, then the moral duty will assert that they must be constructed in great numbers. Since the major aspect is maximizing the happiness, the whole universe will have to be filled with the robots.

In addition, utilitarianism specifies that pleasure is the perception of humans. It is apparent that the best life lived by people is not essentially the pleasurable one. They are faced with detrimental adversities to adhere to the moral principles and accomplish their ambitions. The consequences of actions cannot be predicted based on the circumstances and will. Thus, the predictability of a good or bad deed is not in control of human beings. If utilitarianism is deemed the rationale approach, humans may never advance to discern the extent of the moral behavior. However, the major pillar of ethical values is shunning the immoral act and commending the courteous moral values. Utilitarianism will struggle to manifest the ethical worth of deeds which cannot be controlled by the humans. Thus, it appears to offer a distorted account of ethical values.

Besides, the ramifications of actions are persistently changing under the influence of certain intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The paradigm of utilitarianism will permit the actions to keep alternating with time. The actions of humans must be measured and accounted by using a definite and prudent instrumental approach. As the consequence and actions are not static, the utilitarian approach cannot precisely predict the values of actions to be bad or good. It is one of the most highlighted criticisms made by the opponent of the utilitarian approach.

Each ethical theory is criticized by the schools of thoughts. Similarly, each theory has advocates and staunch supporters. Utilitarianism, in essence, is a peculiar paradigm which receives the least amount of criticism in comparison to the rest of the theories. The pursuit of happiness and the investigation of the investigation of the moral values make it the optimal theory to be applied in every walk of life. However, it does not state that the theory is flawless. None of the ethical theories can be implemented in the world without complexities, ambiguities and conflicts. Similar is the case with utilitarianism. For instance, not each action is capable to maximize happiness even when it is not wrong. The standards of righteousness promulgated in the theory are mystical in the contemporary age.

In the contemporary age, the moral competency of happiness cannot be taken into account. Pleasure and the good will are critical matters which cannot be explicitly measured as highlighted in the utilitarianism approach. The fundamental problem of the theory lies at the heart of justice and discrimination. A standard criticism is made as it requires the violation of standards of justice. The theory fails to recognize whether humans can adhere to obligations or duties. The moral values and ethical values cannot be identified as per the paradigm of utilitarianism. Moreover, happiness is considered subjective in nature. The theoretical framework of utilitarianism cannot claim that happiness has a definite form.

Humans cannot identify whether or not the happiness of other person is transparent. Nevertheless, utilitarianism cannot understand the nature of human in terms of happiness. It is a subjective matter which cannot be identified by any of the theories. Therefore, it is a contentious matter which cannot be working

Utilitarianism is the theory which focuses on the all the possible outcome of the action. The main aim of the theory is to provide the happiness to most of the people. It emphasize over the mutual interest rather than the self-interest. In other words, while making decision people simply follow the greatest happiness for maximum number of people. Besides lots of strong points theory have some drawback as well. For instance, Utilitarianism approach tries to predict the significances of the behavior and action; in reality it is not possible. Also the approach also fails to indicate the actual rules and obligation that individual should follow for others. Happiness is the main goal of the approach but unfortunately not everyone happiness lies on the same outcome. In other word an action can make someone happy but it is also possible that someone else find that action offensive. Therefore, the concept of mutual happiness or happiness for majority is not exactly possible. Lastly, this approach uses hedonic calculus to measure the level of happiness for the greatest number which is actually impractical.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Driver, Julia. “The History of Utilitarianism.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2014, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2014. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/utilitarianism-history/.

Utilitarianism

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Utilitarianism

Introduction

Utilitarianism is a moral theory which explains why actions, in particular, are right or wrong, and the outcomes that are focused based on the decision-making procedure which the theory advise people to engage in. This particular form of consequentialism also refers to as making a choice that produces an overall greater good and maximizes its positive consequences to people. This theory is the only moral form of justification for the use of military force, and it consists of some common characteristics which explain its costs and benefits in different scenarios. One of these scenarios can be referred to as doing business, and the conventional approach used while doing an activity. It separates the world of philosophies as morals usually make the essential philosophies of life through defining the decision-making mechanism that reflects on right and wrong (Mill, pp. 382). This essay would analyze this ethical theory by presenting a lived experience that I have lived in.

Discussion

Identification

Mill defines the theory of Utilitarianism as a principle of doing the right action that tends to promote happiness amongst a group of people, and a wrong move can manage to produce discomfort and sadness. He defines this term as a mix of pleasure and pain which separates one response from the other depending on the course of action adopted in life. If I consider myself in life who is following Mill's theory of Utilitarianism, and living as one, I can merely quote myself through discussing the three things which I have done in life as a utilitarian. The first decision that I have made in accordance with this theory was to bring an increment on the salaries of all the employees who were working under me even when the company was going under loss. This decision may have reflected on the assessment of the company's status but was a good action and decision which brought collective happiness and benefited for many people.

Another decision which was made by me in accordance with the theory was providing an underprivileged yet highly successful and wealthy family with a child as they were having difficulty bearing one on their own. This decision although cost me my child but it brought great happiness for the family who was having trouble with getting pregnant due to some health issues (Felzmann, pp. 40). This kind of pragmatic approach is often the most widely used and significant approach. Lastly, the third decision which I made following the theory was to petition in the "leaving no child left to act” that helped the underprivileged and deprived children get homes and education for free by donating some amount of money in the petition. This choice even though it may have cost me money but have contributed to the collective good and has brought great happiness to those children.

Now each of these decisions that I have made in life as a utilitarian might have taken something from me, but in part, it gave a lot of emotions and happiness back to a group of people or a specific individual. Having to think about collective good at the lowest cost or consequence is the most common approach for a utilitarian. To have made all these decisions following my theory, I expect it was not that hard to think of the joy and wishes my decision was bringing for the group of people or individuals. Every choice I made might have put me in a fragile yet hard spot, but it brought a greater good to the people for whom these decisions were made. The reflection of each decision might have elaborated the factor of joy, depends on each decision (Baron, pp. 268). Partitioning for the underprivileged was a decision which I enjoyed, along with providing salary increment to all employees even when the company was going in loss.

However, the one thing which I could not enjoy was the thought of giving my child away to someone who could not bear a family of their own. This decision was a hard one to make, even though it came with a cost and was bringing joy and happiness to this couple. But a considerable sacrifice and an expense of life were being paid to produce this greatest good in return. Each choice is dependent on whether those were all acceptable course of actions or ethical decisions. Philosophy puts greats emphasize the normative ethics and the act of morality while focusing on the aspect of utilitarianism. There is a strong objection to the use of this theory in real life as it comes with a moral cost. The objection can be stated in terms of a person who is willing to donate his or her organs for many patients, and this would mean losing their own life.

This type of thing is missing from the theory, and even though it addresses the positive aspects, it fails to capture the consequences. It tends to deliver a wrong verdict as too its position where it is difficult to apply. This kind of objection made by a person using the theory of utilitarianism in real life can have serious problems. These problems are what causes a misunderstanding of the theory and limit the thought towards thinking what it means. The utility achieved will be much higher than the guilt which I would be facing in the opposite situation according to the theory of Utilitarianism that resembles the concept of the principle of utility. Our goodwill action will make him believe in morality, and he will do the same with others; consequently, continuing the good act chain (Rajczi, pp. 872). My life will be saved because of my presence at that moment and doing something about it.

Although a supporter would try to miss his chance of impressing that person with his appearance, life will give him many opportunities in the future to ask others out on another occasion. Similarly, we should even not lie when we are stealing money from someone. As in the former context, the consequence of the action was good, and in the latter regard, it was terrible. But here Mill's concept will remain the same for all the contexts, and we should not lie in any situation according to him. It is not necessary to name any action right or wrong based on its consequences but the motives it fulfills for us as Mill said. Because sometimes we give preference to ourselves despite all the conditions we are facing. We prioritize ourselves, and there is nothing wrong with taking care of ourselves first. However, that is the very reason that is mostly objectified and spoken in defense of the strategy.

Conclusion

The aforementioned analysis of the Utilitarianism theory and the objection presented in last discusses the misunderstanding of the theory rather than evaluating its positive aspects. It delivers a more flexible and emotional background to every decision that is made. This theory and the people who follow it such as myself, often succeed in life because of its more comprehensive response and the happiness to involves with not just the person who understands the theory but the people for whom the decisions are being intended for. In my personal opinion, the aforementioned defense against the objection outlines a successful approach towards understanding the theory. The reason why it successfully defends it is because of the number of people who statistically follow and choose this theory over other relevant theories such as the Kantian or other theories.

Works Cited

Baron, Jonathan, et al. "Why does the Cognitive Reflection Test (sometimes) predict utilitarian moral judgment (and other things)?." Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 4.3 (2015): 265-284.

Felzmann, Heike. "Utilitarianism as an Approach to Ethical Decision Making in Health Care." Key Concepts and Issues in Nursing Ethics. Springer, Cham, 2017. 29-41.

Mill, John Stuart. "Utilitarianism." Seven masterpieces of philosophy. Routledge, 2016. 337-383.

Rajczi, Alex. "On the incoherence objection to rule-utilitarianism." Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 19.4 (2016): 857-876.

Utilitarianism

Savannah

John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism

Introduction to Philosophy

30 October 2019

Introduction to Philosophy: Ethics

The reading from John Stuart Mill’s “Utilitarianism” is a chapter from a larger work CITATION Joh61 \l 1033 (Mill). In the section we are reading, Mill attempts to respond to and correct some misunderstandings about utilitarianism. Below are some questions to answer to guide your reading and understanding of Mill's version of the utilitarian moral theory.

1. What is the Greatest Happiness Principle according to Mill, and what does it have to do with the way Mill connects “desirable ends” to the standard of morality? (see p. 140-141)

In pages 140- 141 of his essay Utilitarianism, Mills tries to reply to what he considers to be misunderstandings about utilitarianism, trying to bring the theory into the mainstream process. Mill has a different viewpoint regarding Utilitarianism as compared to other people. He believes that utility does not stand in opposition to pleasure. It terms the concept as General Happiness Principle. He believes that both the pleasure and absence of pain are the basic desire in every human inherently. Any events that happen are directly or indirectly connected to the pursuit of pleasure is deemed as "Good", otherwise, it is considered bad. Another criticism that he makes during his argument is that it is demeaning to reduce the role of seeking pleasure in one's lifetime. He believes that seeking pleasure is the basic animalistic desire embedded deep within our conscious. In my opinion, that does not make us selfish or immoral. But it should be noted that utilitarianism focuses on both the quantity and quality of the pleasure that we seek from any action.

2. What is Mill’s point when he says, “It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied?” (see p. 143), and what does it have to do with Mill’s point about higher and lower pleasures?

There is an utter misunderstanding regarding the concept of utilitarianism that happiness is the road to contentment. We can easily observe that people with higher abilities are often less happy with themselves. The golden example that is cited against this situation is the famous Greek Philosopher Socrates. The man who was declared the wisest man of the time by the oracles of Delphi remained dissatisfied throughout his life due to his ability to think outside the box. Mill holds him in high esteem. His reference to him better than a "fool satisfied" speaks volumes. He also thinks that the level of pleasure in a man is different and superior to that of animals due to his superior senses. It is simply because the man has a superior sense of judgment regarding pleasure.

3. How does Mill attempt to demonstrate that only happiness is desirable as an ultimate end?

Mills upholds not only that happiness is to be wanted, but it is to be wanted impartially. Whatsoever may be the view of utilitarian philosophers as to the original circumstances by which happiness is made important, that certain activities are only righteous because they lead to another conclusion besides virtue, yet this being decided, not only place happiness and pleasure at the center of things which are good as means to the ultimate end, but they also identify as a spiritual fact the likelihood of its being, to a person, a good feeling in itself, without looking to any end beyond it. He argues that the mind is aligned with the state relatable to Utility, not in the state most favorable to the point of contentment unless it does love virtue in this manner.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. 1861.

Utilitarianism And Kantian Ethics

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Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics

Utilitarianism and Kantian ethics are the two main theories of ethics that are widely discussed and accepted. There are fundamental differences in both the theories based on how on action and consequences of the action. The Kantian theory is very close to deontology as both are based on the principles which govern the action. On the other hand, utilitarianism is based on the action which results in maximum pleasure. It is based on grater pleasure for a greater number of people irrespective of the harm that may be inflicted on a lesser number of people. In utilitarianism, the end result justify the right or wrong of any action. By deep analysis through a critical understanding of both the theories of ethics, we will take an overview of a case study and determine which ethical theory fits here.

Alex is a lady who promised her spouse that she will continue to visit her grave at every anniversary no matter how much time passes. After her death, she remains stick to her pledge and continues to visit her grave. After some years, due to Alex’s deteriorating health and aging, it became difficult for her to remain true to her pledge. As mentioned in the case study, Alex believes in utilitarianism so she does a hedonistic calculus in her mind and decided that she will not be able to continue visiting her dead spouse anymore.

Is Alex’s abandoning an annual visit to her spouse true according to the utilitarian theory of ethics? According to consequentialism, Alex is very right in giving up visits to her spouse’s grave because in consequentialism actions are justified that their consequences, not intentions. It is possible that her intentions are against the decision. The utilitarian approach is characterized by the pleasure at the end of action and if it is present in a greater amount for a greater number of people it is fair and justified. In this case, she was not getting enough pleasure in doing continuous visits rather it was becoming painful owing to her age and illness. She made a felicific calculus inside her head and the result was in favor of giving up. Felicific calculus is a formulated algorithm presented by Jeremy Bentham, a utilitarian philosopher to calculate the amount or degree of pleasure that is specific to a particular action.

Now if we relate Alex’s decision with that of Kantian theory of ethics, her action is not justified at all. Immanuel Kant, who presented this theory believes that this theory is based on two fundamental capacities that are rationality and freedom ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"d5CvWnj6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Kant, Immanuel | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy})","plainCitation":"(Kant, Immanuel | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":278,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/9DT25CD2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/9DT25CD2"],"itemData":{"id":278,"type":"webpage","title":"Kant, Immanuel | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy","URL":"https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,25]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kant, Immanuel | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Freedom does not mean that everybody has the freedom to do whatever he considers true based on his own free will. A free-will is one which is under moral laws and happiness, sufferings, pain, and pleasure are not the sovereign masters. As far as rationality is concerned, it is judged by the inherent dignity of a person which is an end result in itself. A man’s reason determines his will which then ultimately effects on a bigger scale and affects the inclination, natural circumstances, and interests. In Alex’s case, her decision to visit her spouse on every anniversary after her death was not only based on good moral grounds but also it was a promise which she is liable to fulfill. Irrespective of the consequences and end results she must fulfill her oath and continue visiting her spouse’s grave.

Comparing similarities and differences when applying both the theories of ethics to Alex’s case, her decision to stay true to her promise was according to the principles of Kantian theory of ethics. Because the moral worth of an action is based on the intention or motive of the action, even if the consequences are not favorable for the majority of the people or a single person. The consequences were not as good in this case as far as the health of Alex is concerned. While on the other case, her decision to abandon visiting her grave every year was due to achieve comfort at the end which is the purpose of utilitarianism. In utilitarianism, moral autonomy is restrained that means it is the responsibility of a person to choose only path that leads benefit and if an action results in a loss, the person is to be blamed for not making the right decision. On the contrary, in Kantian ethics, a person is not restricted to make a judgment or make a decision that necessarily has to produce good and beneficial results. He just has to make a true decision and must not worry about the results because he will not be considered guilty. Alex has taken a decision and made a promise and if for some reason that is out of her control, she cannot fulfill her oath she is not guilty according to Kantian ethics. Another relation between the two theories is moral reasoning. The reasoning in utilitarian is more conditional and hypothetical which suggests that to acquire a particular result, one must behave in a certain way to get that. As an example, if somebody does not want to get caught, he must not commit theft. On the contrary, moral reasoning is just categorical which suggests that it is independent of itself. It has no reference or dependency on any other purpose. For example, you should not commit theft, in any case, irrespective of the fear to get caught or left.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Kant, Immanuel | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/. Accessed 25 Nov. 2019.

Utilitarianism Response

Utilitarianism

(Response)

[Name of the Writer]

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Utilitarianism

Response

Utilitarianism is profoundly themed around the ideals of happiness and its

achievement based upon the consequences involved. John Stuart Mill states that the

idea of utilitarianism is that of joy being equivalent to morality and hence maximization of

a greater good for a more significant number of people. He also suggests that pleasure equating happiness shall be equal to prior experiences or not at all, elevating the level of happiness humans desire and create; i.e., preferably intellectual. He says humans would not settle for a lesser degree of happiness than they have experienced. Moreover, explaining “Act utilitarianism” J.J.Smart creates an understanding that the action is right when it concludes in bringing the most happiness to a greater number of people while “Rule utilitarianism” makes an action permissible if it is morally correct.

I think utilitarianism develops a gap between moral correctness of an act and an act being goodaltogether, meaning that it is difficult to distinguish between specific actions for instance lying. It develops ambiguity when it comes to personal good and the public good; it profoundly ignores own happiness and satisfaction in the pursuit of achieving maximum good for all. Utilitarianism incorporates unemotional connotations with no responsible attitude and regard towards relations and those close to them as the focus is primarily on maximizing the good only. It ignores the personal preferences and needs of an individual. Utilitarians do not undertake the importance of intention. The theory that greater good for all however that may not be possible to achieve as humans may not always want to produce greater good for all, maximizing happiness and good. Sometimes achieving greater good can have dire consequences as well. In addition to this if one practices good for all and sacrifices, it is not guaranteed that the good will be reciprocated. Utilitarianism is unachievable as one cannot always weigh the consequences before performing an act; it is not humanly possible mostly because humans operate on instinct. Although utilitarianism brings the ideal environment for all good and minimizing bad, it contradicts the nature of humans to err.

Values For A Good Life

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Values for a good life

A good life is characterized by a sense of self-awareness, giving meaning to life and an undying passion of service to others. Self-awareness is a central part around which the whole game of life revolves. When a person consciously absorbs the reality of life by understanding his own reality, he starts living differently as compared to the other people. It may seem a big ask in a pre-dominant materialistic society where the rat-race for money has shunned the human’s ability to comprehend the reality of his own life. When this level of understanding is achieved, a person’s world view is changed and a passion for service to others is developed. This purposeful life experience is a concept of a good life.

Self-awareness covers many aspects of human thinking. One is the complete understanding of his status in the world including what is his origin, where is he now and where is he going? Further, a sense of mental presence in dealing with everyday affairs enables a man to live in the present most of the time. Helping others believe in service to others is such a powerful core value of life, which has a special attribute of giving oneself satisfaction and strength. Furthermore, increased happiness as a result of acquiring empathy from the one who he helps.

We will now compare these above-mentioned core values of life with the popular theories of ethics in order to determine that are these core values supported by ethical theories and how they are aligned with them. And if they are not aligned, how do they oppose the ethical theories.

The first theory under investigation is deontology which shows a kind of a universal approach. The theory states as “the idea that people should be treated with dignity and respect CITATION Lar \l 1033 (Larry Chonko)”. Irrespective of color, caste, and backgrounds, everybody has an intrinsic demand of respect. This theory not only gives a right of self-respect and dignity to everyone without any discrimination but also identify one’s responsibilities accordingly. The core ideas for a good life given above were self-awareness and a passion to help others without any discrimination. This theory of ethics seems to perfectly align with the core values of life. This ethical model has been considered as one of the strongest models for public relations ethics.

The second theory of ethics that we are going to discuss is the theory of “Virtue ethics”. Virtue ethics is a character-based theory of ethics. It deals with the person rather than circumstances and situations. The theory states that “A right act is an action of a virtuous person who would do that in the same circumstances ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KCEbRJEH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Ethical Theories})","plainCitation":"(Ethical Theories)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":133,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/DYBHIPMM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/DYBHIPMM"],"itemData":{"id":133,"type":"webpage","title":"Ethical Theories","URL":"https://pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/introduction-to-public-relations-ethics/lesson-1/ethical-theories/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ethical Theories)”. Virtual ethics is more concerned with a person’s life rather than events which means that a person’s intention is more important than the action. The reason is that intentions shape a person’s deeds and actions. The theory also discusses the decisions which are to be adopted in the case when the assigned duties have conflicts. As an example, if the virtue of justice is essential for the public’s interest, then all the decisions will be made by undertaking this attribute as the core values mentioned above which determine the quality of a good life are in accordance with the philosophy of this ethical theory. The sincerity of a person with his cause comes from the clarity of thoughts. To obtain clarity in thoughts, self-awareness is very necessary. Not only the information about self but also being deeply conscious of present and performing actions while in a mindful state. So, this theory of ethics supports the core moral value of life which is stated above.

The last theory of ethics in the discussion is the theory of utilitarianism which is based on utility. Its statement is “ the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ywtjfpG4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}BBC - Ethics - Introduction to Ethics})","plainCitation":"(BBC - Ethics - Introduction to Ethics)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":135,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/UV3IQS6E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/UV3IQS6E"],"itemData":{"id":135,"type":"webpage","title":"BBC - Ethics - Introduction to ethics: Virtue ethics","abstract":"Virtue ethics is person rather than action based. It looks at the moral character of the person carrying out an action.","URL":"http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/virtue.shtml","title-short":"BBC - Ethics - Introduction to ethics","language":"en-GB","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (BBC - Ethics - Introduction to Ethics)”. This theory supports the majority and according to this theory, if a minority is to be inflicted with harm at the expense of saving the majority, it is acceptable. The theory may be found attractive because of the fact that it supports a greater good for the greater number of people, however by reading and analyzing closely, one gets to know that the theory does not fulfill the basic requirements of the judgement. The rights of the minority are not entertained at all. The modern world is greatly influenced by the idea of utilitarianism. There are a lot of examples of utilitarian approach which are present in the word and justified. This approach is also called consequentialism because the theory is based on consequences. If the result of a certain action is good and brings some kind of profit, it must be adopted. Irrespective of the fact that as a result of this implementation, the rights of a section are violated. The theory can also be objected by the fact that consequences cannot always be predicted. The core value for a good life which are discussed in the topic is not in accordance with this theory of ethics. Self-awareness installs a sense of feeling for others. This attribute is opposite to that of the consequentialist’s approach of dealing with matters of life. The theory of utilitarianism is based on a materialistic approach with all the focus on physical outcomes. On the other hand, helping people inspired by an understanding of the self is a trait that is selfless and finds happiness and satisfaction without associating any kind of material benefits.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY BBC - Ethics - Introduction to Ethics: Virtue Ethics. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/virtue.shtml. Accessed 4 Nov. 2019.

Ethical Theories. https://pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/introduction-to-public-relations-ethics/lesson-1/ethical-theories/. Accessed 4 Nov. 2019.

Kaptein, Muel, and Johan Wempe. “Three General Theories of Ethics and the Integrative Role of Integrity Theory.” SSRN Electronic Journal, July 2002. ResearchGate, doi:10.2139/ssrn.1940393.

Video Games

Video Games

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Video Games

How might the notion of interactivity contribute to the Video Game as an art form?

Like other forms of visual arts, we can consider games a form of art due to the visuals and storytelling telling techniques that are becoming part of the modern game design culture. Game interactivity can be described as the human interaction with the players and the scenes that are depicted on screen. In order to increase the interactive experience of the user, the gaming companies are trying to introduce the concept of storytelling in video games, to allow the player to relate to the story.

Interactive visuals and stories regarding the characters of the game have taken an artistic form to increase the user interactive experience while playing ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0E99HAPK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Matt, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Matt, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1925,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/ZJ6MNHXX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/ZJ6MNHXX"],"itemData":{"id":1925,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Ideology of Interactivity (or Video Games and Taylorization of Leisure)","URL":"http://www.digra.org/wp-content/uploads/digital-library/05150.15436.pdf","author":[{"family":"Matt","given":"Garite"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Matt, 2003). This association of interactivity with art is difficult to portray on screen, this is the reason that many famous games have a disconnection between the storylines and the game design. In an ideal case, the storytelling should be able to increase the interactivity of the user with the game but in reality lack of connection exists between the story and the physical interactive experiences of the player. Despite the fact that storytelling is becoming part of the modern game culture but still game makers are focusing more of the user game experience than on the creating strong connection between the artistic visuals, gaming experience, and storytelling.

A famous game ‘Last of us’ that has a strong storyline and amazing visuals seem like a work of art, but still, it has failed to build the connection between the story and actual gaming interactions. The game pauses in the middle to tell the story. This disconnection between the gaming interactions and story compromises the artistry of the game. But the gap between the artistry and interactive gaming experience is minimizing and the example of it is game ‘Journey'. This game depicts the perfect union of artistry and interactive gaming experience. Player feels all the emotional roller coaster that a player goes through in journey to reach the destination. This game tells all the story through scenes and visuals without verbally saying anything. It can be said that interactivity and artistry are interlinked in the games. Adding artistry and storytelling to support it increases the player’s interaction with the game ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"M3es5mUR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Brandon M. Jacobs, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Brandon M. Jacobs, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1927,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/ULLNVFZX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/ULLNVFZX"],"itemData":{"id":1927,"type":"motion_picture","title":"Journey - The Artistry of Game Design (Review/Analysis)","source":"YouTube","dimensions":"574 seconds","URL":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJyGpVmkewU","author":[{"literal":"Brandon M. Jacobs"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,22]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Brandon M. Jacobs, n.d.).

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Brandon M. Jacobs. (n.d.). Journey - The Artistry of Game Design (Review/Analysis). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJyGpVmkewU

Matt, G. (2003). The Ideology of Interactivity (or Video Games and Taylorization of Leisure). Retrieved from http://www.digra.org/wp-content/uploads/digital-library/05150.15436.pdf

Virtue Ethics

Virtue Ethics

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Virtue Ethics

Response one

Individuals in societies live according to social patterns or people tend to live according to their lifestyles. Now the matter of concern is that how one should act, and what is good, and how to live a happy life within the patterns of the society. The Ancient Ethical theories state that how an individual should act to live a happy life, and by choosing the appropriate actions. While, the Modern Ethical theories also state that, in what ways an individual must act in society. The Modern Ethical Theory looks into the discussion of what is wrong, and right for an individual living in a society. According to Ancient Ethics, decision-making is based on rationality where the requirement is to look at these decisions very sensitively. The modern theory suggests that rationality is the capacity of an individual to carry out the interpretations with the help of abstract propositions.

Response two

It is believed that the ethics of a subject is based on the characteristics, rather than on actions. Ethics cannot be limited to the concerns of what is right or wrong but also it guides the subject to be a good person and what behaviors should a subject possesses to be morally and ethically good. Ethics is more concerned about the characteristics of virtues, and a person is considered as good when he/she spends life according to the virtues. If a person possesses good behavior than, that person would be a good human being, because, it is not always about the right and wrong actions which an individual performs. The ethics based on the characteristics of the subjects serve as those triggers, which directs the subject to act accordingly and create an understanding. It is important to follow the patterns, and the obligations being set to the society because it will help an individual to increase the sources for their survival.

Response three

Virtues and the vices are related to the social behaviors which refer to the moral excellence of the individuals in society. The virtues, and the vices vary with the cultures, and places of the individuals. Virtues are considered to be those behaviors which reflects the higher moral standards of an individuals, and the examples which can be related to the virtues are good deeds like charity, love compassion, etc. These are mostly the good and the positive qualities which people possess, and these are the sources to make life easier by sharing the values, and moral responsibilities. While vices are also the traits of individuals manifested in their actions and these are the bad traits of the individuals which they have. These are the qualities, that attract and repel us towards the bad things happening around us, and they can be witnessed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CRP3kVra","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rachels & Rachels, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Rachels & Rachels, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":342,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/smYQhi21/items/HPG8M8W3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/smYQhi21/items/HPG8M8W3"],"itemData":{"id":342,"type":"book","title":"The Elements of Moral Philosophy","publisher":"McGraw-Hill Education","number-of-pages":"224","source":"Google Books","abstract":"The Elements of Moral Philosophy 9e by James Rachels and Stuart Rachels is a best-selling text for undergraduate courses in ethics. Thirteen thought-provoking chapters introduce readers to major moral concepts and theories in philosophy through clear, understandable explanations and compelling discussions. Chapters are written so that they may be read independently of one another thus providing greater flexibility for students and instructors.","ISBN":"978-1-260-09167-0","note":"Google-Books-ID: k2w7tAEACAAJ","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Rachels","given":"James"},{"family":"Rachels","given":"Stuart"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",3,20]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rachels & Rachels, 2018).

Response three

Eudaimonia meant long-lasting happiness, and this is a state, when an individual feels happy for a lifetime, and considers them as the permeant serene. These serene pleasures will subject individuals to act in good and bad ways and these actions depend on the consequences of the actions performed to achieve the goals ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QQQfoK0V","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Charles, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Charles, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":345,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/smYQhi21/items/6RC3BLSM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/smYQhi21/items/6RC3BLSM"],"itemData":{"id":345,"type":"article-journal","title":"Aristotle’s Nicomachean Function Argument: Some Issues","container-title":"Philosophical Inquiry","page":"95-104","volume":"41","issue":"2/3","author":[{"family":"Charles","given":"David"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Charles, 2017). One of the issues is that, the pleasures do not last for a longer period because the life of individuals is not static, and the responsibilities of individuals also change. They keep on changing with the time frames and vary from culture to culture and nation to nations because individuals cannot live in one state. Another issue with the Eudaimonia is that one cannot be always in a state of attempting the right actions, an individual can act wrong to achieve his/her goals.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Charles, D. (2017). Aristotle’s Nicomachean Function Argument: Some Issues. Philosophical Inquiry, 41(2/3), 95–104.

Rachels, J., & Rachels, S. (2018). The Elements of Moral Philosophy. McGraw-Hill Education.

WCA-5

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WCA-5

Traditions have a stronghold among indigenous colonies and are part of their cultural and spiritual beliefs. One such tradition is Gray Whale hunting by the Makah Tribe of the northwest tip of Washington. The traditionalists believe that whaling brings about happiness and sentiments of revitalizing that instill healing and growth in the tribe. They believe that hunting whales bring their spirits into our world and share their strength and courage. It helps them fight against social evils like drug abuse, suicide, violence and heals the intergenerational trauma. Then these spirits return to the seas and reappear as new whales, the unending cycle of reincarnation that has been going on for a thousand years now. However, the tribe voluntarily gave up the hunting practice in the 1920s when excessive whaling almost reduced the population ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3q4cny03","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(NOAA Fisheries)","plainCitation":"(NOAA Fisheries)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":120,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/WYQBCY9I"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/WYQBCY9I"],"itemData":{"id":120,"type":"webpage","title":"Makah Tribe’s Request to Hunt Gray Whales Moves Forward | NOAA Fisheries","container-title":"NOAA Fisheries U.S. Department of Commerce","abstract":"The Makah Tribe of Washington could hunt and land up to two gray whales on average per year over a 10-year period for ceremonial and subsistence purposes under a proposal that NOAA Fisheries’ West Coast Region announced today.","URL":"/feature-story/makah-tribes-request-hunt-gray-whales-moves-forward","language":"EN-US","author":[{"family":"NOAA Fisheries","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,2]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (NOAA Fisheries). Now with the plea of the elders to restore the tradition, several ethical and environmentalist concerns have begun to surface about Makah whaling.

Ethical apprehensions over this centuries-old tradition can be explained by the principle of utilitarianism. It states that any action that promotes utility and happiness among people is morally right. According to this theory, the act of hunting the whale is justified as it brings joy, cultural integrity, and revitalization in the tribe. It fuels their cultural renaissance and inspires people to focus on well-being and righteousness. The sole purpose of morality is utility and anything that scores people’s motives and virtues are considered as a moral act. Thus, a morally right action must maximize happiness and minimize the pain from society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QIev9NxK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vaughn)","plainCitation":"(Vaughn)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":122,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/82REINNM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/82REINNM"],"itemData":{"id":122,"type":"article-journal","title":"Contemporary Moral Arguments: Readings in Ethical Issues","author":[{"family":"Vaughn","given":"Lewis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vaughn). As long as hunting the whale does not harm anyone else, rather is the cause of pleasure for a tribe, it should not be criticized or banned. Besides, as per the new bill, the tribe will make sure that the whale at the time of hunting is not pregnant, thus minimizing the harm. They will only hunt one whale in the odd years and three in the even years ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oS6g1TrJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Browning)","plainCitation":"(Browning)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":118,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/VWM5GR52"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/VWM5GR52"],"itemData":{"id":118,"type":"webpage","title":"Makah Tribe could again hunt whales off Washington coast","container-title":"KUOW","URL":"https://www.kuow.org/stories/makah-tribe-could-again-hunt-whales-off-washington-coast","author":[{"family":"Browning","given":"Paige"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,4]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Browning). The overall consequences of this tradition bring happiness among Makah people.

Conversely, understating of the categorical imperative of the Kantian ethics suggests that an action is morally right only if it can be justified and reasoned by what drives that action. It does not rely on the consequences defined based on sensual impulses. If morality is universal, that means the reason is the same for all people at all times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"R95tbeBx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vaughn)","plainCitation":"(Vaughn)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":122,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/82REINNM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/82REINNM"],"itemData":{"id":122,"type":"article-journal","title":"Contemporary Moral Arguments: Readings in Ethical Issues","author":[{"family":"Vaughn","given":"Lewis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vaughn). Thus, the reasoning behind hunting the whale is nothing but following an old tradition which according to the people of the tribe is a spiritual act. However, morality demands that the right action is justified and universally applicable to all mankind. The whale hunting is a controversial issue for the environmentalists and they believe Makah people must stop hunting and let the whale live.

Whereas animal rights activists and environment conservation societies oppose the hunting of Gray whales by Makah tribe. They sued the federal government to make the tribe stop the hunting. According to the environmentalists, the killing of any endangered or endemic animal is not approved to conserve the diversity and population of the species. Conversely, animal right activists disapprove of hunting of all kinds of animals. They believe animals have as much right of existence on this land as we do. And by killing them, we humans violate their rights of individualism ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yZY0dpfG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hopper)","plainCitation":"(Hopper)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":123,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/PGZJ66H3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/PGZJ66H3"],"itemData":{"id":123,"type":"webpage","title":"Makah one step closer to hunting whales: Animal rights extremists continue to oppose it","container-title":"IndianCountryToday.com","abstract":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration support whaling as a spiritual rite for the Makah. Revitalizing that tradition has already brought them healing and growth.","URL":"https://newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/news/makah-one-step-closer-to-hunting-whales-animal-rights-extremists-continue-to-oppose-it-7MQeI68h2Uqei2TsZbxvqw/","title-short":"Makah one step closer to hunting whales","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hopper","given":"Frank"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",5]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,30]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hopper). Therefore, if all living organisms’ individuality is respected, we have no right to kill any animal and thus whaling by Makah people is not justified by any means. Though the debate continues among activists and environmentalist, ethicists still strive to ensure morally right actions within society.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Browning, Paige. “Makah Tribe Could Again Hunt Whales off Washington Coast.” KUOW, 4 Apr. 2019, https://www.kuow.org/stories/makah-tribe-could-again-hunt-whales-off-washington-coast.

Hopper, Frank. “Makah One Step Closer to Hunting Whales: Animal Rights Extremists Continue to Oppose It.” IndianCountryToday.Com, May 2019, https://newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/news/makah-one-step-closer-to-hunting-whales-animal-rights-extremists-continue-to-oppose-it-7MQeI68h2Uqei2TsZbxvqw/.

NOAA Fisheries. “Makah Tribe’s Request to Hunt Gray Whales Moves Forward | NOAA Fisheries.” NOAA Fisheries U.S. Department of Commerce, 2 May 2019, /feature-story/makah-tribes-request-hunt-gray-whales-moves-forward.

Vaughn, Lewis. Contemporary Moral Arguments: Readings in Ethical Issues. 2009.

WCA-7

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

WCA-7

Pornography has, as a whole, been shown to reduce sexual violence. Similarly, BDSM and other fetish activities, by acknowledging the participants proclivities rather than shame them, allow them to be expressed in a safe and consensual manner. Most of the people hold the view that sexual attraction to children is little different from other preferences in that regard, with one major exception; there is no way to have safe, consensual, etc. sex with children who cannot consent (and unlike, say, necrophilia, you can’t just have an average adult convincingly pretend to be a kid like they can “play dead”). This means there is no way to play out pedophilia. However, fake porn, that doesn’t involve actual children, gets them somewhere. If letting them have fake porn helps them keep away from abusing real kids, so be it.

The United States supreme court held in Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition (2002), and again in United States v. Williams (2008), that virtual child pornography was constitutionally protected speech under the first amendment to the United States Constitution - Essentially holding that the governmental interests in banning child pornography were in preventing the actual harm it causes to actual victims. While such materials may be considered obscene under the Miller doctrine (Derived from Miller v. California), the states are prohibited from banning mere possession of obscene materials. Therefore, the only law that bans virtual child pornography in the United states is a federal law that only does so to the extent that materials are produced or transmitted through interstate commerce. (and even then- it’s likely that the supreme court could find that such materials aren’t obscene under the Miller doctrine, as in the few cases that have been prosecuted under the Protect Act involving Virtual Child Pornography, all of those cases plead out for little jail time because the government wished to avoid a direct appeal from the District Court). The supreme court of the United States has also acknowledged in New York v. Ferber case that Child Pornography is not necessarily obscene- but acknowledged that obscenity was not the governmental interest served by outlawing actual child pornography.

Virtual Child Pornography could not necessarily reduce rates of real-life child sexual abuse. Virtual child pornography provides motivational material and fuel the sexual inspiration. Besides, children should never be portrayed sexually in any way, including the simulated child pornography. There have been attempts to make “virtual” child porn outright illegal, but they have failed due to the inability to craft a law that wouldn’t run afoul of the First Amendment due to vagueness. This virtual pornography, as well as other objectionable real-life content such as bestiality, necrophilia, gore, and so forth, may eventually be ruled obscene by a court if someone is prosecuted for distributing or producing them, but they’re all legal to possess.

Laws prohibiting child pornography should not be considered a violation of the 1st amendment of American constitution because child pornography by definition victimizes a child. All right, delineated under the 1st amendment of American constitution, have unwritten limits. The most basic of these is that the rights extend only until they interfere with someone else's rights. For instance, Americans have the right to keep and bear arms, provided those arms are only used peacefully (meaning, only ever used in self-defense or for legal sporting activities). The First Amendment is no different and people have the right to create and distribute whatever foul and depraved pornography they want unless in the course of that venture, they victimize someone else.

Pornography should not even be looked at as an obscenity because if the person in question is willing and fully able to make the decision to pose nude, then there is no reason why this should upset anyone other than himself or herself. One person can believe something is pornography and in direct violation with women’s civil rights, but another person can believe that it is an expression of one’s beliefs. Erotica is sexually explicit materials premised on equality but is still offensive to people who dislike pornography. There are some forms of pornography that people do find offensive and child pornography, either real or virtual, is offensive. Besides, there are exceptions to the First Amendment right to free speech. Libel, slander, and fraud are deemed 'unprotected speech'. Likewise, child porn is considered 'unprotected speech' as defined by the courts and congress - not to mention the vast majority of Americans.

Bans on buying/selling child pornography could be upheld as consistent with the first amendment under the theory that it is indirectly related to harm. Now, this is not consistent with law on any other form of speech. You can buy and sell a picture of someone being beheaded with no issue, and this is protected. Even in this, it is not fundamentally clear that there is not a protected speech right present with child pornography. The court has at least acknowledged that there is an interest at stake. However, the court has also held that drug prohibition is valid (though not on absolute terms - I find it interesting that of all the millions charged, this hasn’t been brought before the court, though not terribly surprising given the difficulty and reluctance of the court to proscribe itself). Drugs are a product, however, and are related to commerce, which is where the court holds the government derives its power to regulate (through the very controversial contemporary interpretation of the commerce clause of the constitution), so that isn’t an apples-to-apples comparison.

Week 1 Assignment

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Week 1 Assignment

I am 22 years old and have been working in business and accounting field since last three years. To become an expert in accounting, you need to work in accounting in performing day-to-day activities. It has been observed that accounting is a highly paid profession in most countries including America and Australia. Therefore, to excel in the field of accounting and business, I chose accounts as a major subject of my education. I graduated in 2016 in the discipline of business administration and accounting was my filed of interest. I have been working in accounting in three organizations. All of my education is in accounting. Currently, I am enrolled in online courses because of my jobs. I have been planning to get an education in business administration, particularly accounting, to get CPA certification. I am planning to excel in accounting by joining a program of CPA certification. Accounting is a field that has career options specifically designated to accounts and finance. Accountants have acquired skills in mathematics, payroll, and auditing. Accounting is a field that is required globally in all kinds of organizations. To work in accounting, you need to become an expert in mathematics and finance along with other subjects of business. Moving ahead in the market without accounting is impossible.

Accounting is a field in which individuals perform their duties in the preparation of contract negotiations, investment decisions, forecasts, and white papers. They develop long-term plans and policies that help accountants to grasp knowledge to perform better in the organization. Preparation of financial reports and contract deeds are often a difficult task but essential for all kind of organizations. Therefore, skilled accountants are required in almost every organization. The wide scope of this career enabled me to work hard in this field to become an expert in accounting. This profession has helped me to develop leadership and management skills. I have been working in this field because of the significance of this work in the organization. I can say that without accounting, no organization would be able to grow and develop in the market. Studies have shown that having a degree in accounting is not enough for a professional. Working in accounting will enable a person to become proficient in this profession. It has been observed that by working in accounting and business administration, a person becomes smart and active professionally. Accountants help organizations in providing them the best opportunities and vision to achieve their goals. There is no border for a professional working in accounts as it offers opportunities to become a tax manager, audit specialist, finance director, and financial analyst. Therefore, opting for finance as a major subject has provided me various great opportunities to work in esteemed organizations.

My vision is to become a licensed accounting professional. Therefore, CPA will empower me to accomplish my dreams. It will also encourage me to work in attestation and audit departments to become a valuable accounting specialist. Association of International Certified Professional Accounts is an important organization that empowers accountants and businesses worldwide. CPA helps professionals and businessmen to grow and develop their economies efficiently. A professional and expert in accounting and business can provide an organization to manage its interests and audits in alignment with the aims of the organization. There are a limited number of business and accounts specialists having CPA certification, therefore, it has fortified me to acquire it. It is an extensive educational program that requires hard work and commitment to complete it. It would help me in lifelong learning and my experience in the field will help me to meet the requirements of CPA certification.

Week 2 & 3 Assignment

Francisco Herrada

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Philosophy

Who are YOU?

I am Frankie, a happy tall boy who is a student, and a son. I live in Key West. My eyes are hazel and I have a light skin tone. I have dark hair and love to decorate my room and my house. I am a bookkeeper and am in the process of becoming a CPA.

In future, I am going to be a changed person. I am going to be better, and a more functional CPA. I will be continuously changing throughout my life. I used to be a different person 10 years ago. A shy and timid person who changed over time due to interactions with different new people and due to circumstances. Every new person introduced me to a new me. Every life event added something new into my personality which makes me who I am today, be it good or bad.

I have different identities when I am alone with myself, when I am with my family and when I am with my friends and maybe a different person when I am in any social gathering. Even my real-life identity is very much different from my social media identities. I might be a very outgoing and bold person on social media but a quiet person in real life. Or I might be a low-key person on social media but a life-of-the-party kind of person in real life. It all depends on what I portray myself to be. Only I would be knowing the real me. Only I would be knowing my deepest secrets and I would know what I am. Frankie, a happy tall boy, a bookkeeper and home lover, or Frankie, an adventure-loving guy who loves to explore the world out there.

2) How many pieces of the (Ship of Theseus) can we change before we change the ship?

As many pieces can be replaced because the planks do not define the CORE. They are a piece of the ship, but they still hold what was once the Ship of Theseus. The foundation and integrity will thus be intact. History would never change. It’s like your hammer. The hammer of Abraham has been modified but still holds the same purpose. The look may seem different but would continue to be remembered in honor of Abraham just as the ship. There are many ways to answer this question. The affiliation of the ship will always remain and will go back to Theseus. The parts may change, the structure, new replaces the old, looks may get better or different which may vary from the very original, but the core of the ship will remain intact. The identity to which it belongs, the core and roots of the ship will remain integral to its source, its reason for existence and that reason is its identity of Theseus.

Sometimes things may move far away and change to a different state as to what they were first with their owner. Even the owner of the things may change or replaced but the reason for coming into existence of that thing, the first owner will remain same. Later changes, may come of its shape but the variation in shape can never change the ship. It will never change its historical significance.

The possession of something may not always signify the ownership. One thing may be possessed by someone but the owner can be a different person. It is the case with all the historical monuments and buildings. The historical significance and identity of those buildings still belong to its builders though changed over the course of time and later being in possession of the successors. So the ship in a similar way, no matter how much significant the changes may occur.

Critical Analysis: 

The identity is something which belongs to a particular person, or incident. It may change over some time, it may vary but the core of every identity will remain same. The reason for identity formation will remain the same. The identities can be very different at the same time but the root of all these different identities will be one single cause.

Works Cited

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yaEmNNFhOHE#action=share

Week 5 Essay

Week 5 Essay

Farrion McCollough

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Week 5 Essay

2. Pets Response to Stimuli

As an owner of two pet cats, I had always observed them run towards the kitchen whenever they would hear me opening up the jar and pouring cat food into their bowl. The theories of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli finally helped me discern their response. For the cats, the scent of food serves as the unconditioned stimulus that prompts them to run towards the place where they sense the aroma emerging from. However, connecting the noise that occurs from opening the jar and pouring the cat food in the kitchen is a form of learned or conditioned response. The unconditioned stimulus originates from a feeling of hunger which naturally comes as a response to the smell of food, while the sound of the jar became associated with that hunger. Thus, whenever the cats hear a familiar sound in the kitchen, it evokes the feeling of hunger in them as a response and as a result, the cat becomes excited hearing that sound and runs towards the place where it is emerging from. Similarly, if the cats associated hunger to the sound of a whistle, it would elicit the same response as it does in the case of the jar.

The theory of conditioning also helped me understand techniques I could use to train my cats to respond to a particular smell, sound or behavior. Trainers often use clicker sounds to associate a particular desired behavior to a food reward and once the association develops, the cat would react every time with the same conditioned response, once the clicker is activated CITATION McL18 \l 1033 (McLeod, 2018). In essence, the conditioned response is a learned response to stimuli, whereas the unconditioned response takes place naturally against a stimulus, without the need to train.

4. Removal of Aversive Stimulus

Negative reinforcement involved arriving at desired consequence by removing an aversive stimulus. It differs from positive reinforcement wherein a response is strengthened by means of a pleasurable stimulus following a response. Negative reinforcement works by increasing the likelihood of repeating a particular behavior by arriving at the desired consequence. Among the most common types of negative reinforcement, taking painkillers to relieve pain, or fastening the seat belt to remove the beeping sound in the car is a classic example CITATION Mey16 \l 1033 (Meyers & DeWall, 2016).

In the case of taking aspirin for a headache, the headache serves as an aversive stimulus that an Individual removes by taking aspirin. This conditions the Individual to avert any painful feelings in the head by means of medicine and strengthens the habit of taking medication to stay pain-free. Similarly, in the case of hurrying home to get out of the cold, the cold serves as the aversive stimuli that hurrying back home removes. It strengthens the Individual's behavior by prompting him/her to seek warmth at home struck by the cold outside, and eventually, the Individual may be conditioned to always hurry back home. Another example of negative reinforcement includes smoking to relieve anxiety, in which anxiety serves as the aversive stimuli which smoking aims to remove, thereby conditioning an Individual to smoke to avert his/her troubles. A common form of negative reinforcement comes from giving in to an argument upon repeated or irksome requests, or to a dog's begging. The aversive stimulus in the form of repeated begging is removed by means of giving in to the request, which would condition an Individual to find it difficult to say no to any insistent request. Further examples include using a fan to avert the heat, putting on a safety belt to avoid hearing the irritating beep, using an umbrella to escape the rain, or turning the loud volume of radio down to escape the noise. In each of these cases, the irritating beep from the car, the noise of the radio, or the heat serves as an aversive stimulus that the Individual removes which, in turn, conditions him/her to develop or strengthen a particular habit as a result of the desired consequence.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY McLeod, S. (2018, October 8). Pavlov's Dogs. Retrieved July 4, 2019, from Simple Psychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html

Meyers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Exploring psychology in modules (10th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Week 6 Summer Essay

Week 6 Summer Essay

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Week 6 Summer Essay

Forgetfulness is a part of human nature. It is associated with myriad factors such as stress, aging, medical condition. Intrinsically, human minds are distinct in their ability to think and rationalize things. Minds are also complex in a way that the brain has one emotional part and one logical part as its constituent units. Both parts operate and behave according to the diverse situations of life. It is a common perception among people that people forget things when those things are not important for them or they find them too insignificant. However, science explains it in some other words such as anterograde amnesia or the retrograde amnesia (Myers, DeWall, 2016.). Each disease is different in their symptoms and effects. Memory is the retention of information over a long period without any failure in its retrieval. Human memory is categorized in sensory memory, short term memory, and long-term memory with each having its own functions and nature. Memory system acts as a storage place for humans, but often it fails in its function to recall information because of the several factors. First of all, the information has not been processed into long term memory from short term memory, and it could be termed as storage failure. In addition, memory failure can be due to storage decay or retrieval failure. So, our memory fails to recognize or retrieve information when there are no stimuli to remember anything. Memory often activates itself when there is automatic processing rather than effortful processing. Thus, to limit the information, lose, it is mandatory that information is rehearsed repeatedly for its storage in long term memory. Moreover, the amygdala, emotions, and memory are all connected in a way that emotions make information long lasting in minds. Whatever takes our attention, it is stored permanently in our memory.

Memory principles are important to reform and rectify memory failure and memory loss. Several medical and non-medical methods have originated to deal with this memory failure. There are several techniques to reform memory in everyday situations. Retaining basic information. The techniques for storing information is effortful processing strategies such as chunking, mnemonics, and spacing effect ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NC1RIPhM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cohen, Nabirochkin, & Chumakov, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Cohen, Nabirochkin, & Chumakov, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":574,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/JZXSUG24"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/ZD9MNZ2P/items/JZXSUG24"],"itemData":{"id":574,"type":"patent","title":"Nootropic compositions for improving memory performance","author":[{"family":"Cohen","given":"Daniel"},{"family":"Nabirochkin","given":"Serguei"},{"family":"Chumakov","given":"Ilya"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cohen, Nabirochkin, & Chumakov, 2018). Chunking is a technique where a person stores information in bits and pieces. Mnemonics are also a way to store information in a quick and imaginary way. In this technique, the information we want to remember is associated with some other piece of information that we already remember. In this way, the new information gets loaded with the old information and information retrieval becomes easier Furthermore, the technique of repeated rehearsal comes where information is stored and retrieved frequently, and this technique is really helpful in daily life and its diverse activities. For remembering any common information, it is necessary to utilize context-dependent memory. If a person is going for grocery, then it is easier to form him to recall every item in that particular place. This place becomes a cue for his memory and his memory is activated then. Moreover, a person can also take help from making information more related to his own self by rationalization or making it more meaningful for him. This is memory retrieves information and cures forgetfulness in people. Another technique for remembering information is by testing yourself on a regular basis. This process is significantly important for information storage and retrieval. A person can note his progress on this scale and evaluates himself. All these techniques actually assist in limiting the loss of information from human minds and cure their memories.

References

Exploring Psychology. (2019). Google Books. Retrieved 11 July 2019,

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Cohen, D., Nabirochkin, S., & Chumakov, I. (2018). Nootropic compositions for improving memory performance.

Week 9 Summer Essay

Week 9 Summer Essay

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Week 9 Summer Essay

Essay 1

A psychological disorder, also known as mental disorder, is characterized by abnormal feelings and behaviors, causing distress for the person experiencing it. However, it is a great debate to define what is normal or abnormal as it depends upon one’s perception. The branch of psychology that studies mental illness including depression, anxiety, and other abnormal behaviors is known as abnormal psychology (Coleman, 1950). However, most of the psychologists do not agree with this definition specifically the part where it mentioned abnormal behavior because abnormality is subject to perception and is therefore very vast field. Some of the approaches to define abnormality are as follows:

Biological approach: This approach is focused on the medical issues that are the reason for causing mental illness. The treatments to these kinds of mental illnesses require proper medication.

Psychodynamic approach: According to this approach abnormality is the result of divergence between conscious and subconscious urges. Psychodynamic therapists are usually focused upon the early childhood incidents and examine dreams to understand the real reason for mental illness that may be suppressed in the patient’s memory.

Behavioral approach: This approach involves studying the behavior of a person to understand his or her condition by using methods like rewards and punishments. However, this approach only focuses on improving the behavior of a person rather than the real issue that underlies the mental illness.

Cognitive approach: According to this approach abnormality is just a patient’s thought process as to how one perceives something is a key to understand the condition one is suffering from.

Statistical approach: According to this approach if an individual’s trait is above or below the standard level of society then he or she is considered abnormal.

Moving on towards normality, it is a behavior that is common among people or the absence of any mental illness. The factors involved in normality are having ideal mental health, social norms, the normal anatomy of the brain (nervous system), etc.

Some traits can be viewed as both normal and abnormal for instance if a person is highly intelligent then according to the statistical approach he is considered as abnormal while all the other approaches suggest he is normal.

Essay 2

Multiple personality disorder (MPD) or dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a mental disorder that includes the presence of two personalities that take control of the person’s behavior. People having multiple personality disorder often have acute amnesia. Most psychologists consider severe trauma in childhood as a cause of this order (Barach, 1991). Typically, females are more prone to this disorder than males because of the physical or sexual abuse they face during their childhood. However, there are certain controversies or myths that people have about this disorder. Some of them are:

MPD is not real: Although this order is recognized as a mental disorder yet still the diagnosis of this disease is controversial among many professionals because there is no certain method to ensure that symptoms that people experience are real or not.

MPD is schizophrenia: People are often confused between these two disorders as some of the symptoms like hallucinations, memory elapse, etc. are the same but schizophrenia does not alter the personality.

MPD and violence: It is assumed that people having multiple personality disorder are always violent. However, as portrayed in many TV shows the alter personality is not always evil people with MPD are already traumatized and assuming them as violent can make them re-traumatized.

Moving on towards the diagnosis of MPD, it is another controversial subject. According to the “mental health establishment” MPD is also classified as a type of DID yet the concept of this mental disorder is still not stable. As there is no test to diagnose this disorder and it is often very tough to separate fiction from facts. Similarly, there is no legal process through which this disorder can be diagnosed as it totally depends upon psychiatrist and how he or she perceives things. Moreover, having complete information about a person's past can help in diagnosing MPD yet still there is no proof that all the traumatic incidents can cause MPD.

References

Barach, P. M. (1991). Multiple personality disorder as an attachment disorder. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders.

Coleman, J. C. (1950). Abnormal psychology and modern life.

Week Assignments

Week Assignment

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Week Assignment

Week 2 Discussion Board: "Become a Critic of your Thinking."

Paul and Elder have critically explained the importance of critical thinking in their article “Becoming a Critic of Your Thinking.” One cannot get succeeded in his/her life if he/she is not aware of the importance of critical thinking, as it is the key to success in everything that we take as a challenge. Sound thinking is as essential as breath; therefore, one should always maintain a habit to search for the existence of anything that is around. Those who have a propensity to gather more and more knowledge are highly successful in their lives. These days even the minor issue requires sound thinking, and it would not be false if we would say that all the problems that are kept unaddressed are due to lack of critical thinking skills (Elder & Paul, n.d). If a person does not adopt the right path that leads to the solution, then he/she would always end up in a waste of time, frustration, pain and loss of energy. Therefore, it is imperative for us to think logically and still question the questions that come into our minds. Critical thinking is an art that everyone must learn and for this active practice is required on a continual basis.

Information or knowledge management is one of the most critical factors that ensure success, which I have learned from this article. Those who have more knowledge and information about any particular thing are better able to address all the obstacles and issues that come in their ways. We often pay more attention to things that are less important and due to this reason we become away from our life goals and aims. I have learned how to clarify my thoughts by figuring out the actual meaning of situations occurred on a daily basis, and once I can figure it out, I always remain stick to it until I can solve that particular puzzle. Before, I did not have much determination to question the questions that come into my mind and due to this reason I missed even the most critical information often. However, after going through this article, I can develop a reasonable stance over my own and others reasonable and unreasonable attitudes and behaviors. If an individual has no aim in life, then he/she would not be able to grasp critical thinking skills effectively. So, to master in the essential skills of thinking, one should always question the questions that come in mind.

Individuals who quickly jump to conclusions are never able to get practical solutions to the issues they address in their daily lives, as they fail to think through implications and often lose track that leads to their goals. Being realistic is very important, as only then you will be able to gain respect and active presence in any society. Critical thinking has helped me in becoming an effective communicator, as I am now better able to gather authentic facts about any particular thing more effectively than ever before.

I strongly agree with Elder and Paul that critical thinking skills can be only learned if a person starts thinking about his/her thoughts. Our thinking has a more significant role in ensuring success in anything. It is imperative for an individual to take charge of his/her life; else all efforts might go waste. Quality of life can be only attained through quality thinking, but this does not mean that we should keep ourselves away from all dysfunctional practices. Instead, we should face all such situations bravely and practice critical thinking skills to find the most effective solution.

Media is continually exaggerating the negative news, and we all consider it as reality, as we never question ourselves over it. The distortion created through a bombardment of negative news has many consequences on quality of thoughts (Pinker, 2018). Therefore, we should always try to validate the reality of any news through critical thinking and close observation, but mostly we don’t pay much attention towards it and accept it blindly that is a big flaw that may lead us towards a dead-end.

References

 Elder, L. & Paul, R. (n.d). Becoming a Critic of Your Thinking. Criticalthinking.org. Retrieved 3 February 2019, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/becoming-a-critic-of-your-thinking/478

Pinker, S. (2018). The media exaggerates negative news. This distortion has consequences | Steven Pinker. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 February 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/feb/17/steven-pinker-media-negative-news

Week 3 Discussion Board: “Allegory Of The Cave”

Allegory Of The Cave is a theory proposed by Plato an old and famous philosopher. This allegory was based on human perceptions. According to this theory, the knowledge we gain from our everyday experiences is our opinions, and we subjectively perceive it. However, the actual knowledge is that we learn from our critical thinking and philosophical reasoning (Sheehan, n.d). In today's world, it is applied to the education system, where the main objective and focus of the students is to get a degree. While they do not understand the real purpose of the knowledge, they gain. This allegory represents the truth of our life, according to Plato we all are the prisoners, while the jail in the cave represents things that we perceive in our life. Some people even having degrees and basic knowledge, but they don't have the cognitive skills to analyze the situations. For instance, a person living in the cave and had not exposed to the external environment will consider the cave as all he knows, and the truth and reality(Allegory of the Cave – Media, 2019).

The scenario was presented perfectly and has a deep message for us philosophically. My personal believes and thoughts are partially against the last step of this case. I doubt how a person will return even the prisoner was released and exposed to explore the external world. If a person has an opportunity to learn different things, and acquire new skills which can ultimately develop the abilities of the person. Even a person saw the light which is the benefits of the knowledge, so how would a person leave the light and go to the darkness. However, in certain cases, it can be quite logical and true. For instance, we all are aware of the benefits of education, business, hard work, health issues, etc. However, still, we are trying to avoid these benefits, and trying to harm ourselves.

It was quite hard for me to learn the true sense of this allegory, as it took me several times to read it. It has seemed like a general and a simple case, however, to assimilate it properly. I searched videos and other online stuff. I got understand the true meanings and to relate this case to our life, and the incidents we face in our daily lives. Through discussions regarding the Allegory different aspects of this case. All these students highlighted some deep thoughtful of this allegory. Several discussions were amazingly helpful and worthy, and they related this philosophy with various videos and real-life cases. To me learning the whole case was quite difficult, the discussion of others helped me a lot. I understood it and was able to relate it with many incidents in my practical life which I faced, or I observed.

This allegory of Plato has applied by many researchers to the contemporary issues of the society and individuals. The allegory could be related to almost the cases of every individual that happened at a specific stage of life. In my life, I had been through it many times. I quite certain learning opportunities because these were more demanding time and efforts. It depends on the priorities of a person when he has to choose one of the two options. For instance, I being a student of education had got a chance to learn certain computer program which I supposed to be least helpful in my career. So I withdrew that option and focused on my core subjects. Similarly to the contemporary issues, I could relate it with the social media users and those who don't use social media. The nonusers are less aware of different things around the globe.

References

Allegory of the Cave - Media, Body Image, and Philosophy in the 21st Century. (2019). Sites.google.com. Retrieved 3 February 2019, from https://sites.google.com/site/carolineworldphilosophies/evaluation

Sheehan, T. (n.d). Plato: The Allegory Of The Cave. Print.

Reply To Dean B Adams:

Reply to this comment:Quite a while after Plato wrote his "Allegory of the Cave," John Stuart Mill wrote a book titled Utilitarianism, in which he said the following:

Great Adams you explained it very well.

As you highlighted that whatever happens in our life could be perceived either positive or negative. If we live with a positive mind, we will dwell a peaceful and happy life. An incident is nothing but our perception and response influence us in one of the directions. A well educated and intellectual person always think positive and change the dimension of the problem. As per my knowledge, I believe that one scholar is better than a hundred thousand ignorant people. A leader of a country or at a lower level, even a manager of a company has got that leadership position because of greater knowledge and philosophical reasoning skills. However, acquiring these skills, and education is not an easy job, that requires a lot of commitments and sacrifices. After a hard struggle, a person can achieve a position in the world, which might secure name in the history.

Reply to Mary E Joyce

Hello Mary E Joyce

Very well said. I agree with your point about the comfort zone, which restrict us from learning and exploring new ideas and knowledge. I would relate the sun in the allegory of Plato with success in life. Every person knows about the lives and the daily routines of the success people. However, every person could not be a doer. The successful people are more committed and clear about their goals. They have the fire in their bellies, and they are focused on their goals. Even we all know the key to success, but we return to the cave again as the prisoner does in the allegory of the cave. We also follow the sunflower syndrome such as, we follow the masses, and we are anxious and afraid of doing something different from the public. It also requires courage and the outperformers are always brave people with clear objectives.

Weekly Assignments

Weekly assignment

I have selected Daniel Goleman’s “What makes a leader?” The primary argument made by the author is that without emotional intelligence leadership cannot be attained. This reflects that emotional intelligence is as important as IQ. This kind of intelligence is crucial for attaining success in the business world. Emotional strength is important for self-awareness, motivation and self-regulation. Without it, a leader cannot manage his emotions like anger, short temperament and moods that have a negative impact on his work. I agree with Goleman's argument that survival in the business world is not possible without emotional strength and stability. it is important to identify emotional intelligence among potential leaders and connect it to their performance. Competency models are established for determining the emotional intelligence of the leaders. This is also crucial for developing cognitive abilities among individuals and is required in every job. This is also considered as a dominant attribute of outstanding leaders. There is a positive correlation between a company's success and emotional intelligence. This is an important thing required by the employees and leaders to handle conflict situations.

The discussion and viewpoints of Goleman are related to my life because I think emotional intelligence is required in every aspect of life. Emotional intelligence allowed me to build positive moral strength that helped me in dealing with various complex situations. It is crucial for building competency among individuals in professional and academic lives. He mentions, "senior managers have the critical mass of emotional intelligence capabilities, their divisions outperformed yearly earnings goals by 20%". This indicates that managers that manage to build emotional intelligence are more likely to increase yearly earnings for the companies. The concept has a direct relationship with one’s competency of outperforming. I find that this is also linked to my personal life because I developed improved stamina for handling stressful situations. When I am emotionally strong and powerful I am capable of putting more efforts and attaining good results. Compared to that when I am emotionally stressed or lack emotional strength I am unable to complete even the simple tasks. this reflects the importance of emotional intelligence. I experienced this ideology during my studies. I was good at IQ and studied a lot but my stress always undermined my academic performance. I realized that stress created a burden and obstacles my ability to attain good results. By building emotional strength I managed to overcome my stress that improved my academic results.

I learned many things in this course such as the sign of emotional intelligence and its impact on success. The concepts presented by Goleman has significant impacts on my personality because I learned to handle stress and anxiety. I realized that emotionally strong people are better at managing negative feelings that affect their quality of work. I learned through the course that better results in academics or profession cannot be attained without building emotional strength. I also learned that the leaders of the bid companies are also using a combination of emotional intelligence and IQ for obtaining better results. The course allowed me to identify factors that undermine emotional intelligence such as anger, impatience, low tolerance and stress. I learned to manage stress by developing emotional strength. This allowed me to overcome my negative feelings and focus on the positive side. I developed self-awareness that allowed me to understand my goals of career and life. This removed the confusions because I clarified myself about my strengths. Self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill are also components of emotional intelligence. I developed these attributes after exploring the role of emotional intelligence.