Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita And The Antonian Movement

Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and The Antonian Movement

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Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and The Antonian Movement

Introduction

Around the world, there have been various political struggles that created a lasting impact. Some of such movements are so significant and meaning that they are still remembered today. These political struggles are and the leaders involved in it are of such giant stature that it created ripples in the world. Though, it has been a common practice in the world that men in society always dominate such political struggles. Nevertheless, this is not the case with the Antonian Movement, where women took an active part in the freedom struggle. As it is said, every revolution produces a new breed of leaders, thus, the same thing happened in this struggle of political and social rights. In this context, the social and political activist Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita is unforgettable if one talks about the Antonina Movement. She is known as the mother of the African Revolution. She was the lady of such great vitality and vigor which gave impetus to the struggle of African people. Besides, it will not be wrong that tense situation in the African continent gave birth to this freedom struggle and such crop of leaders. Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita proved a new source of energy for the African movement as it is opined by John Thornton who acclaimed her meaningful struggle.

Discussion

To begin with, this was the time of uncertainty and brutality. This was the time when powerful nations of the world exploited the other weak nations in every possible way. It was the time of colonialism, and the rich empires were bent up on exploiting the resources of other nations. In this way, great empires stated slavery, genocide, and plundering in the African continent. The same thing repeated in Kongo, and it was no exception. Nevertheless, a brave lady from the country rose against this injustice, and she started her freedom struggle. Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita was trained under Christian missionaries, and it is that time when realized the noble virtues of life. As some opine, she represented the reincarnation of Saint Anthony because she was endowed with much courage and wisdom. She is the lady who created awareness among people and made them realize their innate potential. Her role and courage were so astounding that she is right termed as the mother of the African revolution.

Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita is the lady who sacrificed her life for the people and the noble ideas. She is the person who was bold and fearless in front of those mighty empires. She was a free soul with free mind even when the kingdom or the people were enslaved by all means. African people owe her that illegal slave trade ended with her continuous fight. Moreover, she restored the kingdom to her original outlook as she cared for the unity of her land. Though, she met a tragic demise where she was burned alive but she was utterly successful in her objectives.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, this is suggested form the above discussion that the role of Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita is so significant that it is indelible. She was the lady of great stature which infused a new spirit in the African revolution. It is no blinking the fact that political and social activism of Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita was a new source of energy for Africa people. In this way, men usually dominate in the freedom struggles, but it is not always the rule. Women take an active part, and this is evident from the undeniable contribution of Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita, who infused a new spirit in the struggle of the African continent. Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita sacrificed her life for her vision and this is what makes here memorable for the entire world even till date.

End Notes

"The Kongolese Saint Anthony". 2019. Google Books. Accessed July 8, 2019. https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/The_Kongolese_Saint_Anthony.html?id=Adj9j5IXIgAC&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.

"The Kongolese Saint Anthony". 2019. Google Books. Accessed July 8, 2019. https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/The_Kongolese_Saint_Anthony.html?id=Adj9j5IXIgAC&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=slave%20trade%20&f=false.

Donald Trump And Richard Nixon Does History Repeat Itself?

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Argumentative Essay: History repeats itself

In 1972 elections, Richard Nixon was a strong candidate for Presidency in 1972 elections. The objective of his campaign was to seek the favor of black voters and for that purpose, he reached out to Davis. Davis accepted Nixon’s proposal, and Nixon invited him and his black wife to the White House for a night. At Republican National Convention in 1972, Davis recommended Nixon for Presidency. Davis was very happy with the attention Nixon and his staff was giving to him and he even hugged Nixon on stage. However, this recommendation and hugging did not prove well for the African Americans as they considered Nixon at that time like they see Donald Trump today. They considered him a racist and an extremist. During the Vietnam war, Davis visited South Vietnam several times. The purpose of these visits was to build up the morale of the confidence and spirit of the soldiers. CITATION Adm19 \l 1033 (Admin) However, the real problem was that black Americans did not consider this war important because,

they were unable to figure out the objectives of the fight.

numerous black Americans were getting killed.

Due to these two reasons, black Americans started considering Davis as a betrayer or Nixon’s puppet. Once Davis started supporting Nixon’s campaign, the black community slowly moved away from Davis as well. However, Davis later on implicated Nixon in making false promises regarding civil rights and regretted his decision of supporting Nixon. Davis supported and assisted Dr. Martin Luther King. The donations for Jesse Jackson’s PUSH organization came from Davis for a long time. He won many awards for his extraordinary achievements as a black American. But his hug and endorsement for Nixon completely changed the perception of black Americans about him. They considered him a sell-out. CITATION Vie18 \l 1033 (Viera)

History repeats itself

Donald Trump won the 2016 Presidential Elections. Most of the black Americans did not support and like Donald Trump. In order to gain some support from the black Americans, The Trump organization arranged a meeting between Trump and a few black celebrities such as Kanye West, Steve Harvey, and Chrissette Michelle. As expected, all of these celebrities were strongly criticized and condemned by black Americans. The interactions between West and Trump almost doubled as they publicly met in the Oval Office. West even put on a MAGA hat! (make America great again). After these meetings and interactions with Trump, and due to his senseless political orations, the black American community ridiculed West further and disowned him. CITATION Hil17 \l 1033 (Hill)

The repeated half-hearted efforts of the American government to gain the trust and support of Black Americans is quite questionable. However, the Republicans seem to do fine with winning the elections without their (black Americans’) support. They repeat the same process every time, by getting the services of a black entertainer, musician or any other famous personality and making them endorse and recommend the republican party. The republican parties, however, deny this fact by saying that they are not some intractable group that will simply follow and escort the endorsement of a random celebrity. The only result from this endorsement is that the reputation of the particular celebrity gets mutilated. None of the Republican parties have ever cared about the stature and reputation of these celebrities and it doesn’t help them to get the votes from black Americans either. Black celebrities must not repeat the same mistakes as committed by Davis and Kanye West. They must realize that the Republican party is and have always been using them for their own agenda and not for any universal reason.

In order to get an endorsement in 2020 Presidential Elections, the campaign of Donald Trump will again search for some black celebrity. However, it won’t have any effect on the black American voters (they definitely won’t vote for Trump), and the celebrity will again become a sell-out for the black American community. Likewise, history repeats itself.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Admin. "History Repeats itself: Sammy Davis Jr. and Richard Nixon/ black celebrities and Donald Trump." 24 February 2019. Mistakes Were Made. <https://mwmblog.com/2019/02/24/history-repeats-itself-sammy-davis-jr-and-richard-nixon-black-celebrities-and-donald-trump/>.

Hill, Selena. "SELLING OUT OR BUILDING BRIDGES? BLACKS FACE BACKLASH FOR ALIGNING WITH TRUMP." 19 January 2017. BLACK ENTERPRISE. <https://www.blackenterprise.com/backlash-black-entertainers-trump/>.

Viera, Bené. "When this black celebrity showed his support for a bigoted president, people were pissed." 30 April 2018. TIMELINE. <https://timeline.com/sammy-davis-jr-supported-richard-nixon-308c949a8bfd>.

Double-spaced Pages In A Normal Human Font (11 Or 12 Point).

Similarities and differences among paths to independence of Virginia and Massachusetts

Similarities and differences among paths to independence of Virginia and Massachusetts

The different paths taken by Virginia and Massachusetts are analysed with reference to difference between New England Colonies and Chesapeake Bay colonies because Virginia is considered among the New England colonies and Massachusetts is included among Chesapeake Bay colonies. At the start of 17th century, there was not permanent settlement of the English in Americas. Over the next hundred years, they were present all over the USA and no other nation was able to compete them in settlements. There were many colonies which were settled by the British and people were sent to populate these areas. People came to work in tobacco fields. These colonies proved to be a welcoming place for those who faced poverty at their homes. People settling at Massachusetts were from pious puritan families who wanted to live according to their religious beliefs and demands from their religious scriptures. One major difference between these two sets of colonies was their cultures. In the Northern part, many historians wrote that Americans would find huge bounties over there. They hoped that there will be some profit out of colonization for them whether by import of raw materials or providing new markets for English goods. In Chesapeake Bay, Virginia and Maryland were established keeping in view commercial aspects. These settlers hoped to find gold but they soon found that growing tobacco is the only way to earn money in this area. A very different group of people settled in the cold climate and rocky areas of New England who were more affected by the religious thoughts and motives. These people had come after crossing Atlantic river along with their families and children. Their aim was to build a new English Israel where they will be able to take on their religious beliefs and actions. They wanted to provide a model to the rest of Christian world to combat the Catholic beliefs. English at Virginia worked to extract profits from tobacco, these people extracted profits from church where each meeting of people decided what was best for them to pursue. The major differences seen among the North and South of America are dated back to the Chesapeake and New England colonies. Similarities showed in the problems faced by these settlers whereas differences showed in their aims and objectives.

The Chesapeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland served an important purpose by providing tobacco as a cash crop. At the start of seventeenth century, King James 1 became the emperor and started to see as if the whole world can be used to make profits. This thought was implemented by sending Englishmen to settle in all parts of the world and also there was an area called New Spain for the Spaniards prompted the term New England. This marked the start of colonization in the world as countries started to establish their colonies all over the world. After this, there were many colonies established and Massachusetts and Virginia were the most prominent of all these. These colonies were formed by Englishmen at the same time but their aims and objectives were different regarding settlement. Virginia was developed with an economic perspective with an aim of developing tobacco economy whereas Massachusetts was developed with a religious perspective to counter Catholic aspects. These colonies were not far away from each other but they took very different paths to their independence. Virginia was not able to establish a permanent settlement in the beginning and took almost 20 years to be considered as a permanent settlement whereas Massachusetts enjoyed proper permanent settlement because these people had a clear aim and objective in terms of religion. People at Virginia worked for private benefits whereas people at Massachusetts worked for a common aim based on religion. People leaving England were motivated by religious betrayal to perform their religious acts the merchants took permission from the Massachusetts Bay Company to settle there and this company was also allowed to be settled outside of England. The Puritans gathered a status of a harassed minority and took full control of Massachusetts with settling their government in that colony. The decisions taken by these settlers represented the whole of their community and these decisions were also in line with their religious beliefs and orders. This helped these settlers in settling down very quickly as compared to settlers at Virginia. Settlement at Virginia was initiated to counter the settlement of people in New Spain. The investors involved in sending these people to Virginia were basically traders and they wanted to expand their trade out of the English borders. They wanted to develop a wider market for English goods so that they can increase their sales. Their major aim was to extract reasonable profits from their investment in this settlement.

There was considerable interactions between native people and new comers when the latter arrived in new areas. There were much more problems faced by the Virginian settlers as compared to people settling in Massachusetts. In the Chesapeake Bay, Englishmen were attacked by a group of Indians at night. These attackers crept closer and closer to these Englishmen and escaped towards the mountainous areas. This attack was followed by many other clashes between the Englishmen and Native Americans in Virginia. The major threat for American was an Algonquian Indian Chief named Powhatan whose men engaged in fights with Englishmen for weeks at a given point in time CITATION OER16 \l 1033 (OER Services, 2016). There were incidents where settlers were disturbed by various diseases and had nothing to eat. This was the time when fights between them and natives reduced. By the mid of 1606, many people from the Englishmen had died one way or the other. The Indian leader and his men came to help the Englishmen with corn as a source of food. Unlike these settlers, there were very less encounters between Englishmen and Indians in Massachusetts area. The main reason was that plague had killed most of the local population before the Englishmen arrived here. The local people who were left over became friends with these Englishmen and helped them to settle there. There were different sort of issues faced by the English settlers in Massachusetts. There were deadly attacks of diseases on these people killing a large number of people at the same time. Around 200 men lost their lives due to various diseases. Although these deaths were less than people killed in Virginia but this was also a considerable number of people. By 1620, Virginia had weathered the various problems and settlers started to feel as if they are permanent residents. By 1619, there was a governor, council and a House of Burgesses. Economic stability resulted from tobacco economy. The political aspects of Massachusetts were different because it was led by some learned ministers who had studied at Cambridge or Oxford but they were deprived of any careers in England because they questioned acts of their respective Churches.

The English were late to form their colonies and established stable settlements in the 1600’s after many unsuccessful attempts in the 1500s. The major successes for English were Jamestown in 1607 and Plymouth in 1620. Both colonies faced different circumstances including fight with the native people and natural outbreak of diseases. These people were almost driven back by the war with King Philip from 1675 to 1676.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY OER Services. (2016). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ushistory1os2xmaster/chapter/english-settlements-in-america/. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ushistory1os2xmaster/chapter/english-settlements-in-america/

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Evaluate the social-political and economic impact that the Reconstruction era had on African Americans from 1865 to 1900.

In 1865, after the American Civil War ended, the southern states in America started to enact black codes to restrict the rights of slaves. As a result, three major state laws were passed by The Republican-controlled Congress that assured the freedom rights of slaves and blacks, they also gave the right to vote to all the Americans without any discrimination of caste, color and creed. The reconstruction era lasted from 1865 to 1877; this period is said to have the period of laws that recognized the importance of Southern states. In addition, laws made during this time helped African Americans to have voting rights and other rights. They were allowed to participate in political matters, have their own jobs, to acquire lands for farming and to use public accommodations. The result of reconstruction was a wave of black leaders in the South, including mayors, state politicians, Congressmen, and even a Senator.

Such as the 14th Amendment to the Constitution granted citizenship rights to all the freed slaves, freed as a result of civil war ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YW9VXrr7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 1\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"1","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":246,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/RNYH9629"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/RNYH9629"],"itemData":{"id":246,"type":"webpage","abstract":"14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Services and Programs, Digital Reference Section, Library of Congress)","genre":"webpage","language":"eng","title":"14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)","title-short":"14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution","URL":"https://www.loc.gov/rr//program/bib/ourdocs/14thamendment.html","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 1. The amendment allowed for equal protection of laws to all the American citizens without any discrimination. The Freedmen's Bureau Bill was a step taken to ensure aid in terms of food, clothing, shelter and legal assistance to the recently freed slaves. This bill aimed at the smooth transition of African Americans from slavery to freedom. The bill was vetoed by Andrew Johnson, but the new bill passed in 1866 offered more rights to ex-slaves ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RzDxrCrE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 2\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"2","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":248,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/PJIP346P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/PJIP346P"],"itemData":{"id":248,"type":"webpage","abstract":"To the Senate of the United States:\n\nI have examined with care the bill which originated in the Senate, and has been passed by the two Houses of Congress, to amend an act entitled \"An act to establish a bureau for the relief of freedmen and refugees, and for other purposes.\" Having, with much regret, come to the conclusion that it would not be consistent with the public welfare to give my approval to the measure, I return the bill to the Senate with my objections to its becoming a law.\n\nI might call to mind, in advance of these objections, that there is no immediate necessity for the proposed measure. The act to establish a bureau for the relief of freedmen and refugees, which was approved in the month of March last, has not yet expired. It was thought stringent and extensive enough for the purpose in view. Before it ceases to have effect, further experience may assist to guide us to a wise conclusion as to the policy to be adopted in time of peace.\n\nI have, with Congress, the strongest desire to secure to the freedmen the full enjoyment of their freedom and their property and their entire independence and equality in making contracts for their labor. But the bill before me contains provisions which, in my opinion, are not warranted by the Constitution and are not well suited to accomplish the end in view. The bill proposes to establish by authority of Congress military jurisdiction over all parts of the United States containing refugees and freedmen. It would, by its very nature, apply with the most force to those parts of the United States in which the freedmen most abound; and it expressly extends the existing temporary jurisdiction of the Freedmen's Bureau, with greatly enlarged powers, over those States in which the ordinary course of judicial proceedings has been interrupted by the rebellion. The source from which this military jurisdiction is to emanate is none other than the President of the United States, acting through the War Department and the Commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau. The agents to carry out this military jurisdiction are to be selected either from the army or from civil life. The country is to be divided into districts and sub-districts, and the number of salaried agents to be employed may be equal to the number of counties or parishes in all the United States where freedmen and refugees are to be found. The subjects over which this military jurisdiction is to extend in every part of the United States, include protection to all employees, agents, and officers of this bureau in the exercise of the duties imposed upon them by the bill. In eleven States it is further to extend over all cases affecting freedmen and refugees discriminated against by local law, custom, or prejudice. In those eleven States the bill subjects any white person who may be charged with depriving a freedman of any civil rights or immunities belonging to white persons to imprisonment or fine, or both, without, however, defining the civil rights and immunities which are thus to be secured to the freedmen by military law. This military jurisdiction also extends to all questions that may arise respecting contracts. The agent, who is thus to exercise the office of a military judge, may be a stranger, entirely ignorant of the laws of the place, and exposed to the errors of judgment to which all men are liable. The exercise of power over which there is no legal supervision, by so vast a number of agents as is contemplated by the bill, must, by the very nature of man, be attended by acts of caprice, injustice, and passion. The trials having their origin under this bill are to take place without the intervention of a jury and without any fixed rules of law or evidence. The rules on which offences are to be heard and determined by the numerous agents, are such rules and regulations as the President, through the War Department, shall prescribe. No previous presentment is required, nor any indictment charging the commission of a crime against the laws; but the trial must proceed on charges and specifications. The punishment will be not what the law declares, but such as a court-martial may think proper; and from these arbitrary tribunals there lies no appeal, no writ of error to any of the courts in which the Constitution of the United States vests exclusively judicial power of the country; while the territory and the class of actions and offences that are made subject to this measure are so extensive, that the bill itself, should it become a law, will have no limitation in point of time, but will form a part of the permanent legislation of the country. I cannot reconcile a system of military jurisdiction of this kind with the words of the Constitution, which declare that \"no person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger; and that \"in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the State or district wherein the crime shall have been committed.\"\n\nThe safeguards which the wisdom and experience of ages taught our fathers to establish as securities for the protection of the innocent, the punishment of the guilty, and the equal administration of justice, are to be set aside, and for the sake of a more vigorous interposition in behalf of justice, we are to take the risk of the many acts of injustice that would of necessity follow from an almost countless number of agents established in every parish or county in nearly a third of the States of the Union, over whose decision there is to be no supervision or control by the Federal courts. The power that would be thus placed in the hands of the President, is such as in time of peace certainly ought never to be intrusted to any one man. If it be asked whether the creation of such a tribunal within a State is warranted as a measure of war, the question immediately presents itself, whether we are still engaged in war. Let us not unnecessarily disturb the commerce and credit and industry of the country, by declaring to the American people and the world that the United States are still in a condition of civil war. At present there is no part of our country in which the authority of the United States is disputed. Offences that may be committed by individuals should not work a forfeiture of the rights if the same communities. The country has entered or is returning to a state of peace and industry, and the rebellion is in fact at an end. The measure, therefore, seems to be as inconsistent with the actual condition of the country as it is at variance with the Constitution of the United States.\n\nIf, passing from general considerations, we examine the bill in detail, it is open to weighty objections. In time of war it was eminently proper that we should provide for those who were passing suddenly from a condition of bondage to a state of freedom. But this bill proposes to make the Freedmen's Bureau, established by the act of 1865 as one of many great and extraordinary military measures to suppress a formidable rebellion, a permanent branch of the public administration, with its powers greatly enlarged. I have no reason to suppose, and I do not understand it to be alleged, that the act of March, 1865, has proved deficient for the purposes for which it was passed, although at that time, and for a considerable period thereafter, the Government of the United States remained unacknowledged in most States whose inhabitants had been involved in the rebellion. The institution of slavery, for the military destruction of which the Freedmen's Bureau was called into existence as an auxiliary force, has been already effectually and finally abrogated throughout the whole country by an amendment of the Constitution of the United States, and practically its eradication has received the assent and concurrence of most of those States in which it at any time had existed. I am not, therefore, able to discern in the country any thing to justify an apprehension that the powers and agencies of the Freedmen's Bureau, which were effective for the protection of freedmen and refugees during the actual continuation of hostilities and of African servitude, will now, in a time of peace and after the abolition of slavery, prove inadequate to the same proper ends. If I am correct in these views, there can be no necessity for the enlargement of the powers of the Bureau for which provision is made in the bill.\n\nThe third section of the bill authorizes a general and unlimited grant of support to the destitute and suffering refugees and freedmen, and their wives and children. Succeeding sections make provision for the rent or purchase of landed estates for freedmen, and for the erection, for their benefit, of suitable asylums and schools, the expenses to be defrayed from the treasury of the whole people. The Congress of the United States has never, heretofore, thought itself competent to establish asylums beyond the limits of the District of Columbia, except for the benefit of our disabled soldiers and sailors. It has never founded schools for any class of our own people, not even for the orphans of those who have fallen in the defence of the Union, but has left the care of their education to the much more competent and efficient control of the States, of communities, of private associations, and of individuals. It has never deemed itself authorized to expend the public money for the rent or purchase of homes for the thousands, not to say millions, of the white race who are honestly toiling from day to day for their subsistence. A system for the support of indigent persons in the United States was never contemplated by the authors of the Constitution. Nor can any good reason be advanced why, as a permanent establishment, it should be founded for one class or color of our people more than for another. Pending the war, many refugees and freedmen received support from the Government, but it was never intended that they should henceforth be fed, clothed, educated, and sheltered by the United States. The idea on which the slaves were assisted to freedom was, that on becoming free they would be a self-sustaining population. Any legislation that shall imply that they are not expected to attain a self-sustaining condition must have a tendency injurious alike to their character and their prosperity. The appointment of an agent for every county and parish will create an immense patronage, and the expense of the numerous officers and their clerks to be appointed by the President will be great in the beginning, with a tendency steadily to increase. The appropriations asked by the Freedmen's Bureau, as now established, for the year 1866, amount to $11,745,000. It may be safely estimated that the cost to be incurred under the pending bill will require double that amount, more than the entire sum expended in any one year under the administration of the second Adams. If the presence of agents in every parish and county is to be considered as a war measure, opposition or even resistance might be provoked, so that to give effect to their jurisdiction troops would have to be stationed within reach of every one of them, and thus a standing army be rendered necessary. Large appropriations would therefore be required to sustain and enforce military jurisdiction in every county or parish from the Potomac to the Rio Grande. The condition of our fiscal affairs is encouraging; but, in order to sustain the present measure of public confidence, it is necessary that we practice not merely customary economy, but, as far as possible, severe retrenchment.\n\nIn addition to the objections already stated, the fifth section of the bill proposes to take away land from its former owners, without any legal proceedings being first had, contrary to that provision of the Constitution which declares that no persons shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. It does not appear that a part of the lands which this section refers to may not be owned by minors or persons of unsound mind, or by those who have been faithful to all their obligations as citizens of the United States. If any portion of the land is held by such persons, it is not competent for any other authority to deprive them of it. If, on the other hand, it be found that the property is liable to confiscation, even then it cannot be appropriated to public purposes until, by due process of law, it shall have been declared forfeited to the Government.\n\nThere are still further objections to the bill, on grounds seriously affecting the class of persons to whom it is designed to bring relief. It will tend to keep the mind of the freedman in a state of uncertain expectation and restlessness, while to those among whom he lives it will be a source of constant and vague apprehension. Undoubtedly the freedman should be protected by the civil authorities, especially by the exercise of all the constitutional powers of the courts of the United States and of the States. His condition is not so exposed as may at first be imagined. He is in a portion of the country where his labor cannot well be spared. Competition for his services from planters, from those who are constructing or repairing railroads, or from capitalists in his vicinage, or from other States, will enable him to command almost his own terms. He also possesses a perfect right to change his place of abode, and if, therefore, he does not find in one community or State a mode of life suited to his desires, or proper remuneration for his labor, he can move to another where labor is more esteemed and better rewarded. In truth, however, each State, induced by its own wants and interests, will do what is necessary and proper to retain within its borders all the labor that is needed for the development of its resources. The laws that regulate supply and demand will maintain their force, and the wages of the laborer will be regulated thereby. There is no danger that the great demand for labor will not operate in favor of the laborer. Neither is sufficient consideration given to the ability of the freedmen to protect and take care of themselves. It is no more than justice to them to believe that, as they have received their freedom with moderation and forbearance, so they will distinguish themselves by their industry and thrift, and soon show the world that in a condition of freedom they are self-sustaining and capable of selecting their own employment and their own places of abode; of insisting for themselves on a proper remuneration, and of establishing and maintaining their own asylums and schools. It is earnestly hoped that instead of wasting away, they will, by their own efforts, establish for themselves a condition of respectability and prosperity. It is certain that they can attain to that condition only through their own merits and exertions. In this connection the query presents itself, whether the system proposed by the bill will not, when put into complete operation, practically transfer the entire care, support, and control of four millions of emancipated slaves to agents, overseers, or taskmasters, who, appointed at Washington, are to be located in every county and parish throughout the United States containing freedmen and refugees. Such a system would inevitably tend to such a concentration of power in the Executive as would enable him, if so disposed, to control the action of a numerous class, and to use them for the attainment of his own political ends.\n\nI cannot but add another very grave objection to this bill. The Constitution imperatively declares, in connection with taxation, that each State shall have at least one representative, and fixes the rule for the number to which in future times each State shall be entitled. It also provides that the Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, and adds with peculiar force that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. The original act was necessarily passed in the absence of the States chiefly to be affected, because their people were then contumaciously engaged in the rebellion. Now the case is changed, and some, at least, of the States are attending Congress by loyal representatives, soliciting the allowance of the constitutional right of representation. At the time, however, of the consideration and the passing of the bill there was no senator or representative in Congress from the eleven States which are to be mainly affected by its provisions. The very fact that reports were and are made against the good disposition of the country, is an additional reason why they need and should have representatives of their own in Congress to explain their condition, reply to accusations, and assist by their local knowledge in the perfecting of measures immediately affecting themselves; while the liberty of deliberation would then be free, and Congress would have full power to decide according to its judgment. There could be no objection urged that the States most interested had not been permitted to be heard. The principle is firmly fixed in the minds of the American people that there should be no taxation without representation. Great burdens are now to be borne by all the country, and we may best demand that they shall be borne without murmur when they are voted by a majority of representatives of all the people.\n\nI would not interfere with the unquestionable right of Congress to judge, each House for itself, of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members. But that authority cannot be construed as including the right to shut out in time of peace any State from representation to which it is entitled by the Constitution. At present all the people of eleven States are excluded,those who were most faithful during war not less than others. The State of Tennessee, for instance, whose authorities engaged in rebellion, was restored to all her constitutional relations to the Union by the patriotism and energy of her injured and betrayed people. Before the war was brought to termination they had placed themselves in relations with the General Government, had established a State government of their own, and, as they were not included in the emancipation proclamation, they, by their own act, had amended their constitution so as to abolish slavery within the limits of their State. I know no reason why the State of Tennessee, for example, should not fully enjoy all her constitutional relations to the United States.\n\nThe President of the United States stands towards the country in a somewhat different attitude from that of any member of Congress chosen from a single district or State. The President is chosen by the people of all the States. Eleven States are not, at this time, represented by either branch of Congress. It would seem to be his duty on all proper occasions to present their just claims to Congress. There always will be differences of opinion in the community, and individuals may be guilty of transgressions of the law. But these do not constitute valid objections against the right of a State to representation. I would in no wise interfere with the discretion of Congress with regard to the qualifications of members; but I hold it my duty to recommend to you in the interests of peace, and in the interests of the Union, the admission of every State to its share of public legislation, when, however insubordinate, insurgent, or rebellious its people may have been, it presents itself not only in an attitude of loyalty and harmony, but in the persons of their representatives whose loyalty cannot be doubted under existing constitutional or legal tests. It is plain that an indefinite or permanent exclusion of any part of the country from representation must be attended by a spirit of disquiet and complaint. It is unwise and dangerous to pursue a course of measures which will unite any large section of the country against another section of the country, no matter how much the latter may predominate. The course of immigration, the development of industry and business, and natural causes will raise up at the South men as devoted to Union as those of any other part of the land. But if they are all excluded from Congress, if in a permanent statute they are declared not to be in full constitutional relations to the country, they may think they have cause to become a unit in feelings and sentiments against the Government. Under the political education of the American people, the idea is inherent and ineradicable that the consent of the majority of the whole people is necessary to secure a willing acquiescence in legislation. The bill under consideration refers to certain of the States as though they had not \"been fully restored in all their constitutional relations to the United States.\" If they have not, let us at once act together to secure that desirable end at the earliest possible moment. It is hardly necessary for me to inform Congress that, in my own judgment, most of the States, so far at least as depends upon their own action, have already been fully restored, and are to be deemed to be entitled to enjoy, but bound, to assume that with the Federal courts restored in the several States, and in the full exercise of their functions, the rights and interests of all classes of the people will, with the aid of the military in cases of resistance to the law, be essentially protected against unconstitutional infringement and violation. Should this expectation unhappily fail, which I do not anticipate, then the Executive is already armed with the powers conferred by the act of March, 1865, establishing the Freedmen's Bureau; and hereafter, as heretofore, he can employ the land and naval forces of the country to suppress insurrection and to overcome obstructions to the laws.\n\nI return the bill to the Senate in the earnest hope that a measure involving questions and interests so important to the country will not become a law, unless upon deliberate consideration by the people it shall receive the sanction of an enlightened public judgment.\n\n\nAndrew Johnson\n\nWashington, D.C., Feb. 19, 1866\n\n\nSource: Andrew Johnson, His Life and Speeches by Lillian Foster, New York: Richardson & Co., 1866.","container-title":"Teaching American History","language":"en-US","title":"Veto of the Freedmen's Bureau Bill","URL":"https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/veto-of-the-freedmens-bureau-bill/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 2. The 13th amendment abolished slavery and African American started to participate in the Congress. The following graph shows the African Americans serving in Congress right after the civil war. During 1867-69, African Americans stood side by side in the political arena of the US.

One of the significant change was the woman suffrage bill in 1869; the bill granted voting rights to women and the first place in the entire world was Wyoming ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"iHEuxsCO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 3\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"3","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":250,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/74VLBTQY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/74VLBTQY"],"itemData":{"id":250,"type":"book","ISBN":"1-4042-2647-8","publisher":"The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc","title":"Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Women's Suffrage and the First Vote","author":[{"family":"Adiletta","given":"Dawn"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 3. During the time, Southern states also enacted Black codes, laws to limit the freedom rights of slaves. These codes allowed some rights to African Americans but it was aimed at using the black salves as cheap labors to restore the plantation economy. Black Code of Louisiana, 1868 is one such example, though the Constitution of 1868 extended rights to the blacks and did little to end segregation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"holyYFKX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 4\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"4","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":251,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/UZHTAWPL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/UZHTAWPL"],"itemData":{"id":251,"type":"webpage","container-title":"MuseumSubAgency-2013-09-18","genre":"page","language":"en","title":"Reconstruction: A State Divided","title-short":"Reconstruction","URL":"https://DCRT-MAIN/louisiana-state-museum/online-exhibits/the-cabildo/reconstruction-a-state-divided/index","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 4. In 1874, the cartoonist Thomas Nast advocated the abolishment of slavery and deplored the violence of white supremacy. His one most famous cartoons are the title, "Worse than Slavery" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jxL8KPwl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 5\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"5","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":253,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/LRN79TMK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/LRN79TMK"],"itemData":{"id":253,"type":"webpage","title":"Worse Than Slavery | Facing History and Ourselves","URL":"https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/image/worse-slavery","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 5.

In addition, during the years of reconstruction, black and white teachers, churches and organizations offered many learning opportunities to the former slaves. About 2000 African Americans also held government jobs during the reconstruction period. Family, church and life were key elements in the lives of ex-slaves. Another element observed in the lives of African Americans was sharecropping that allowed autonomy in their work and social lives. Former slaves having no access to capital made a way to earn a livelihood by working on lands owned by others ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FiET48fA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 6\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"6","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":255,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/P2GY9FS5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/P2GY9FS5"],"itemData":{"id":255,"type":"webpage","title":"Digital History","URL":"http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3100","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 6.

Thus African Americans, after the Civil War and during the reconstruction period, enjoyed their rights. They actively took part in politics, were allowed to vote and enhance their literacy rates. However, the existence of several opponents resulted in the eradication of freedom movement. Such as by the end of the 19th century, Plessey v Ferguson, the landmark case in the history of the US sustained the constitutionality of racial discrimination by declaring ‘separate but equal’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"B0mpKTi0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"\\super 7\\nosupersub{}","plainCitation":"7","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":257,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/FBQEXQCU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rhLtY1cq/items/FBQEXQCU"],"itemData":{"id":257,"type":"webpage","title":"Our Documents - Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)","URL":"https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=52","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} 7. After this case, Jim Crow laws spread across the US paving the way for continuous racial segregation in the US.

Endnotes

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress). https://www.loc.gov/rr//program/bib/ourdocs/14thamendment.html. Accessed December 19, 2019.

2. Veto of the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill. Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/veto-of-the-freedmens-bureau-bill/. Accessed December 19, 2019.

3. Adiletta D. Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Women’s Suffrage and the First Vote. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc; 2004.

4. Reconstruction: A State Divided. MuseumSubAgency-2013-09-18. https://DCRT-MAIN/louisiana-state-museum/online-exhibits/the-cabildo/reconstruction-a-state-divided/index. Accessed December 19, 2019.

5. Worse Than Slavery | Facing History and Ourselves. https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/image/worse-slavery. Accessed December 19, 2019.

6. Digital History. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3100. Accessed December 19, 2019.

7. Our Documents - Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=52. Accessed December 19, 2019.

Economy And Trade

Economy and Trade

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Economy and Trade

Introduction

Generally, it happens when people of different faiths, cultural background, and localities come together to depend on each other socially and economically, many things happen. Some things are positive in nature which changes the course of the way while others are the negative changes that come along with plenty of diversity. This is a similar situation that happened to Muslims and Christians in the Medieval time period. Although both the groups were professionalism in their attitude of dealing with the commonly occurred issues but still due to their actions and decisions economy was significantly affected. This essay is written to address the issue of interaction faced by both the parties in relation to the economic activities in the Medieval period. The essay aims at stating that although Muslims and Christians were always ready to go in battles each other, still they were able to ensure that their faiths do not come in the way of economic development and trade. The essay will provide many shreds of evidence in support of the smooth and stable economic interaction of Muslims with Christians.

Discussion

Ibn Jubayr known as one of the prominent travelers of the Mediaeval period shares his experiences of astonishment when he embarked on one of the longest journeys experiences many socio-cultural differences. The most surprising was the interaction of Muslims and Christians and the mercantile activities they performed in relation to the taxes and customs duties. He states that although they had enormous differences and conflicts with each other and used to go on battles against each other without taking any mercy. They still managed to keep their business and trade away from the influence of the wars and battles. There was no hardship faced by any side when their merchants traveled the other side too for business. Never were the Christians merchants stopped in the areas of Muslims dominance and same was the case with the Christians.

The Christians used to secure themselves from the Muslims in their lands by imposing a tax on them and the same method was opted by the Muslims to have full security. There was an agreement between with respect to the equal treatments in all the cases. The cultivation was divided evenly between the Muslims and the franks with a boundary made separation of crops. Their cattle were also mingled together with no issues facing by the different faiths because of that. Going further to the next place which was a village named al-Masiyah, franks were concentrated there and they used to receive tax from the outsiders who tried to enter this place. They were of the view that earlier they never took a penny from the Maghrebis and Maghrebis were free to come to their areas anytime. But, when they showed their participation against the Franks that too to support Muslims against Maghrebis, a heavy fine is imposed on them ever since. In some of the areas, Muslims used to live together with Franks and handed them over half of their crops at the time of harvest. They also used to pay some amount of tax apart from surrendering their portion of crops. Apart them, nothing was taken from them and they were left with their houses on full possession. But, Muslims started feeling uncomfortable because they wanted Muslim governance over them.

Franks was very professional and they do not have such pride in them that stopped the Muslims from going forward under their governance. This is due to the fact that on one occasion where Ibn Jubayr and his companions have stayed in a village of Franks dominance, a Muslim was given the authority to supervise the Muslim workers in the major event. He was given the position of the chief of the customs to check the custom contracts related to farming. A warm welcome was given to all the Muslim guests and great hospitality. There was no harshness and unfairness in their attitudes and all the arrangements were done with great civility and respect.

As far as the matters of trading are concerned between the Muslims and the Christians, despite the war atmosphere, the trade was never restricted between the people of different faiths. But the Christians put restrictions on the trade of military appliance that included the ships, bullets, horses, weapons etc., in fact, anything that had a military implication. Larges areas of forestation where the wood was used to make the navy strong were owned by the Christians while the region of Muslims was majorly deforested. Muslim princes were left with the disadvantage of not having enough timber supplies and Christians were on edge here. The Venetians looked forward to the decision of Pope III who wanted to exempt this military ban from trading as it was damaging their economy. Pope, however, kept the military supplies restrictions as it is but gave trading license to the Venetians for trading in other goods.

Due to the exemption of certain goods from trading, many issues aroused related to the trading and business partnerships between Muslims and Christians. Despite the limitations of particular goods, there was the presence of an effective trade between the two parties. Due to the competitive advantage of timber, Christians were given preference in trading in the major cities of Africa, Egypt, Pisans, Catalans etc. The local economies of these cities became majorly dependent on the trade of Christian merchants. Immediately two letters were issued to discuss the complexities of the presence of Christians merchants in Muslims populated areas. This act led to the engagement of Pisans to the piracy acts that made their goods seized. The consequences had to be bared by their Muslim partners who were left in the middle of the conflict. The Muslim partners were left with no choice but to simultaneously try to maintain their business ties with the Pisans and also make sure that they are timely paid.

There is no denying that the merchants had to suffer a lot in keeping economic relations with other parties as they traveled from one city to another with a complete change in the economic, religious, cultural and legal environment. Most of the times, they ended up with severe arguments in the host cities as they didn't agree on much altogether. There were numerous laws, changing customs, new rules and policies that didn't allow the merchants to keep their business for a much longer period of time there. This issue led to the decision of appointing officially named sea consuls the cities to act as an arbitrage between the parties of the dispute. The process of maritime was soon regulated by the Consulate. The new regulations of the consulate which were introduced greatly influenced the patterns of actions and behavior in both the parties whether it be Muslims or Christians. This regulation initiative regulated the interaction between the two rivals i.e. Muslims and Christians.

Conclusion

Keeping into consideration the entire analysis of the Muslims and Christians interaction, it is concluded that the two parties didn't make economic aspect as another reason for their ongoing battles. They acted fairly and evenly whenever an economic issue was concerned. The interaction between them was found to be competitive and support to expand the trade and improve the economy. Although there were many disputes they faced with each other as they often treated the other party as "the other" but even then they were always ready to negotiate for economic issues.

End Notes

Hollister, C. Warren, Joe W. Leedom, Marc A. Meyer, and David Spear. Medieval Europe: a short sourcebook. Knopf, 1982.

Jubayr, Ibn, and R. Broadhurst. "The Travels of Ibn Jubayr." Translated by RC Broadhurst. London: Jonathan Cape (2001).

Medieval trade in the Mediterranean world: illustrative documents. No. 52. Columbia University Press, 2001.

Rodriguez, Jarbel, ed. Muslim and Christian contact in the Middle Ages: a reader. Vol. 18. University of Toronto Press, 2015.

Egyptian Hermetic Philosophy Response

[Siria]

[Name of Instructor]

[History and anthropology]

[2/3/2019]

Egyptian hermetic philosophy response

What is the definition of hermetic philosophy as interpreted by you?

Ideas interpreted by a philosopher, Hermes Trismegistus, are known as hermetic philosophy. According to this philosophy, mysticism exists and that every religion shares an equal sense of spirituality. Also, his philosophy explains that beyond all the physical laws this universe does not only depend on the matter but divine spirituality, a transcended God. He also says God is beyond the understanding of the human mind. Likewise, I also get this feeling from his philosophies where he is trying to say that God is one and the unconditional.

According to the author, what are the seven hermetic principles?

According to the author, the seven principles are as follows

The principle of Mentalism:

The principle of vibration

The principle of correspondence

The principle of Polarity

The principle of rhythm

The principle of cause and effect

The principle of Gender

How did you feel about the reading? Did you like it or not? 

The reading was really interesting explaining phenomena's which are mysterious. I enjoyed reading the principle of Gender in which it says that both masculine and feminine are necessary for each other. Without one, one cannot exist. It kept me thinking that if certain laws are such that everyone is like every other one why does patriarchy exist making feminine inferior? Maybe the world needs everyone to be philosophers to understand the laws of nature. Likewise, the principle of rhythm explains the fact that nothing remains the same forever. It changes, and that only change is constant. If days of happiness are here days of sorrows will also come. Everyone will face ups and downs in life, and that positive and negative both can come in everyone's life.

Eleanor Of Aquitaine

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Your Name here

Date Here

Overview

In the middle ages, the most prominent figure in the history of women was Eleanor of Aquitaine. Duke of Aquitaine, William was his father. She was married to the king of France, Louis VII. The relationship between the two was not much pleasant and it got sourced during the second crusade. Conflicts in their relationship resulted in divorces in 1152. After her divorced, she married to the king of England, Henry of Anjou. By the time of marriage Henry was not the king, he got the opportunity after the two years of their marriage. Eleanor of Aquitaine was highly involved and participated in the ruling of both empires that is the empire of England and the empire of France.

Queen had eight children, 3 daughters, and 5 sons. Sons of Eleanor of Aquitaine came forward against their father in 1173. By the time of conflicts between king and sons, the queen was giving favor to her sons which made the king anxious. He confined the queen as a punishment for getting involved in the conflict. In 1189, Henry II died and the empire was given to Richard II who was a lion-hearted king. John was another son of the queen who came against Richard with the involvement of the king of France. Initially, the queen was in support of Richard however later she supported John after her grandson came forward for the throne claim. Eleanor of Aquitaine died at the age of 82 in 1204.

Queen Role

Eleanor of Aquitaine was famous for her energy, sharpness, intelligence, creativity, and remarkably long life. In the 12th century, she was a famous lady who played a major role and highlighted the importance and strength of the women in the region. Otherwise, before queen extraordinary role in the empire, women were considered a chattel but her impressive achievement changed the mindset of the people. In the chaos of the time, her enterprise and assets of brains brought benefits for her and empire like; struggle between state and church, and unrelenting conflicts among crusades, Capets, and Plantagenets. They considered queen for the advance civility during the time of conflicts by promoting the ideals of courtly love and by singing songs to appreciate through troubadours. In the era of imposing leaders and personalities including Peter Abelard, Bernard of Clairvaux, and Thomas Becket, the queen emerged as a strong figure and got center stage.

While she was serving as a mother of King John and King Richard along with the consort of king henry II of England and King Louis VII of France, she got the spotlight among the powerful and important men of the time. She was the daughter and heir of the imperious William X, Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Poitiers, who had the prevalent realms in northwest Europe. It was not the only largest kingdom in northwest Europe but also had greater power than the kingdom held by the France king. In 1137, the queen's father died and she entered into the matters of the empire. She inherited empire and obeying with the commands of a regional agreement.

First Marriage

To get the French throne she got married to the king of France at the age of 15. After the month of the wedding sixteen years old groom, King Louis VI died due to the conflicts for the throne. After the death of the king, Eleanor got the throne and became able to find a court life as queen of France. She was frustrated by the soft-tempered, shy, and quiet husband as she had a strong egoistic and royal vision for herself. Since childhood, she was admired by her egoistic behavior and discipline she showed in the circumstances of royal life so it was obvious for her to dislike the opposite temperament of her husband. It is her behavior and vision that made her able to play the role of queen of France.

With time she remained beautiful and appealing but her perception towards ruling and handling kingdom matters made her dominant and headstrong towards her husband. Louis was considered as Second Crusade from 1147 to 1149 while the queen took all the spotlight. The main reason that resulted in the conflict between the queen and Louis was the relationship of the queen with her uncle, which made Louis jealous as well as angry towards the queen. The conflicts became severe and Louis who once loved queen so much and even admired her skills, ready to let her go. Another reason to leave queen was the interest of the Capetian royal line as they had no son. Queen gave her two daughters while the king was hoping for the son who can support him and his empire in the future. In the end, conflicts resulted in a separation where Eleanor and Louis were too closely connected for the church to tolerate.

Role after divorce

After getting a divorce from King Louis, Queen retained the power of Poitou and Aquitaine. The wealth and power she reserved got combined with her beautiful appearance that was appealing for various famous personalities of the time. One of the people who admired the beauty of the queen most was Henry of Anjou (a domain bordering Poitou), soon to be known as Plantagenet. However, various historians believes that the queen had a relationship with the father of Henry before he met him while some claim that Henry father was the one who selected queen for his son Henry. The most interesting fact about the relationship between the queen and Henry was their age. Henry was an eighteen-year-old young boy while the queen was 30 years old mature lady by the time they felt affection for each other. Unlike the first husband, Henry had a strong political mind and surpassed physical courage that helps the queen to increase her power and increase the ambition for power. It was barely eight weeks of the queen’s divorce when Henry came forward to propose an older woman (queen) with dark-eyed beauty as his life partner. Queen also look beyond the age of Henry and praised his physical strength and intelligent mind that was significant for royal objectives and self-confidence for any king. Marriage of Queen and Henry was the big question for the society especially because of the age difference, therefore manor showed opposition to the relationship. However, the queen kept everything apart and selected Henry as his second husband.

Its been two years of Eleanor and Henry marriage that Henry became king of England and people named him King Henry II while Eleanor became the queen of England. Henry got the largest kingdom starting from the Cheviots in the North to the Pyrenees in the south. They both handled this vast empire intelligently that is why their offspring became able to remain in power for about 330 years. The time period of the family and their stability in the royal ambition made the history of Eleanor as a power queen. Henry and Eleanor completed forty years of marriage and had seven children. They had more children but only seven of them reached adulthood where three were daughters and four were sons. The oldest son, the Young King Henry, died at the age of 28 while handling the troops against his father for the throne. Geoffrey was another disloyal son of Eleanor who came against his father died at the age of 28. The reason for Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, remained a mystery. The other two sons’ names were Richard and John Lackland. Richard known as lionhearted king was the favorite son of Eleanor while John Lackland was the favorite son of Henry. Both sons became able to acquire the power of the region and got the crown of England. Eleanor not only looks after her sons to be grownup as a powerful man but also remained involved in the management of Poitou and Aquitaine domains.

Queen who was famous for her ego and rude behavior had a soft side as well. Historians believe that the queen had an egoistic appearance but she had a humble heart for the people. Activities of the queen at court in Poitiers show how a humble woman was present inside the aggressive queen. Captivated by the loving tale of King Arthur and account of the knights of his Round Table, queenengaged the court with beautiful poetrythat not only praised by the member of the court but also evoked the world of King Arthur. She got a bundle of courtly love and milieu of chivalry with troubadours. Prior to the involvement of the queen, the court had stereotypes representing the superiority of men. Women were not the part of the court precept of chivalry believed that it is appropriate for women to raise their voice and they are meant to be silent. They were considered as passive goddesses that can be approached with worship. However, the life of the queen opposite side of the believes who was strong, energetic and showed the life of action.

With time conflicts start rising between the family members. Sons of queen became disloyal to his father and wanted queen favor to capture the throne. Due to the conflicts, cultural pursuits were ignored by the adult sons of the queen and revolt started with Henry in 1173. When the sons of the queen stood against their father, Eleanor came forward in favor of their sons. She not only morally supported her sons but also in the form of money and troop to get the throne. Even some historians believe that the queen was the one who made her sons get the throne from their father. The age difference that was ignored at the time marriage became the obstacle that leads to the relationship gap between queen and Henry, therefore, she opposed him during the time of conflicts. Henry was in love with the queen and the queen also loved his husband but she was more focused on empire and power. She believed that it will be much better if her sons hold the power rather then Henry. In the battle of the throne, she chose power instead of her husband and their relation. By using her son she wanted to rule England but her sons died during the revolt and only two loyal sons inherit the empire.

Struggle for Power

Rebellions lost their life and became unable to get the throne while King Henry II successfully held the power. During revolts, the king came to know about the intention of his wife and involvement through which she helped his disloyal son. The actions of the queen made the king angry and he confined her after getting victory over rebellions. She remained in prison till 1189 and dead of the king became the reason for the end of her punishment. When queen back to royal life her age was 67 and she started her life with the same strong and egoistic attitude. Historians claim that the queen attended the funeral of her husband with dry eyes while others believe that she still had the ambition to get the throne which made her heart hard for her husband's death.

Her chance went ahead on the heels of celebration arranged in the court of King Richard, an occasion where queen arrangement was made with the fullest proportion of pageanty. The Third Crusade was in progress and crusading intensity had encompassed England. However, Eleanor saw the salvage of the Holy Land from the Turks as an interruption from the current business. The genuine concern according to the queen was not Saladin but rather the protection of the House of Plantagenet, especially in England. King Richard went against the permission of her mother and decided to join the campaign, a choice without a doubt powered by youth presentation in Poitiers to the universe of chivalric idylls of his mother. Like an Arthurian knight, Richard stood and moved with fearlessness and respect to safeguarding the blockaded city of Jerusalem.

It took five years to King Richard when he moved towards Jerusalem and in his absence, all power was in the hand of Eleanor. She handled all the matters of administration and also made his other son become part of the throne. John Lack lands attempted to seize the throne in his absence and participated in the matters of domains. King Richard on his return came into conflict with the Duke of Austria and lost his power. Duke of Austria put him into the imprisonment when queen decided to go meet the king of the region for the sake of son’s life. She returned to the empire with his son and both Richard and Lackland held the empire till death. During a rebellious vassal, both sons of the queen lost their lives near Aquitaine. They both died in 1199.

She attempted fruitlessly to get the pope to intercede, however, the eighty-year-old pope, Celestine III, was too shy to even think about responding. Phillip II stopped the chance to take Gisors and the Vexin from Richard. John at long last crossed the channel and attempted to stir the remainder of the Plantaganet grounds to his standard. He fizzled. He at that point aligned himself with Phillip. Eleanor joined aristocrats and normal people and all seaports confronting Flanders were safeguarded. At the point when John's soldiers landed, they were effectively overpowered. John figured out how to escape and some Welsh soldiers took Windsor. The manor was promptly laid attack. In the meantime, a payoff for Richard's discharge was declared, 1 lac marks. Eleanor and her spies raised assessments and purged church coffers with the aim to come to the amount. Initially, far less cash was raised and a few additional duties were given. After hearing that Richard could be without set soon, John sneaked out of Windsor and landed at Phillip's court. He attempted to prompt revolt; however, Eleanor demonstrated to be all the more dominant and better loved. His territories were seized and even Normandy would not adjust itself to John. By December, the payoff cash was at long last gathered and quickly transformed into victory. Due to the death of the king, a throne was inherited by John who was so young by the time he got the throne. With the approval of the queen, john was crowned king while most of the matter of the domain remained under her.Therefore, from the start of John's rule, regional wars against the Capetian leaders of France involved King John. With average political keen Eleanor settled that her granddaughter Blanche ought to wed the French King’s son, to ensure the harmony between the Plantagenets and Capets. Incredibly, in 1200 when she was about 80 years of age she crossed the Pyrenees on horseback to get Blanche from the Court of Castile.

Bibliography

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Beech, George T. “The Eleanor of Aquitaine Vase: Its Origins and History to the Early Twelfth Century.” Ars Orientalis 22 (1992): 69–79.

Broadhurst, Karen M. “Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine: Patrons of Literature in French?” Viator 27 (January 1, 1996): 53–84. https://doi.org/10.1484/J.VIATOR.2.301122.

Kelly, Amy. “Eleanor of Aquitaine and Her Courts of Love.” Speculum 12, no. 1 (January 1, 1937): 3–19. https://doi.org/10.2307/2848658.

Kelly, Amy Ruth. Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings. Harvard University Press, 1978.

Kibler, William W. Eleanor of Aquitaine: Patron and Politician. University of Texas Press, 2012.

Elvis Presley

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Elvis Presley

Largely acting as a catalyst for rock and roll, Elvis Presley blew up the arenas of music during the 1950s and shortly established his niche in the genre. The performance by Elvis is unprecedented and he has more number one records than any other performer belonging to the rock and roll genre. In addition to this, Elvis also starred in thirty-two movies which is prodigious as no other rock and roll performer has ever acted in this many numbers of movies. Peace activist and the rhythmic guitarist from 'The Beatles', once famously stated, “Before Elvis, there was nothing” CITATION Ing96 \l 1033 (Inglis). From 1956, when Elvis rose to fame, to the day he died, his songs landed the top charts every week and were famously popular across the globe. Elvis also has the honor of having 115 platinum and gold records to his name. This essay strives to shed light on the reasons why Elvis Presley is an idol in the American popular culture and what factors made him timeless in contrast to his contemporaries.

Historically, Rock and Roll is known to be associated with Cleveland DJ Alan Freed since the early 1950s CITATION Las19 \l 1033 (Lashua). Although Elvis cannot be claimed as the creator or torch-bearer of this genre but with his unparalleled performance and style, he laid claim to the title of King of Rock and Roll and this title has remained unchallenged ever since. Amounting to the fact that Elvis was the perfect epitome of stardom and fame, he grew highly popular in the 1950s. The eagerness of music arenas for a new, rugged sound was evident from the packed stages and concert halls whenever some new singer or performer was introduced. Elvis happened to be at Memphis, Tennessee, performing R & B, when he first got widely recognized and a majority of the girls in the audience became his fan offering him perks and their contact information. The precise and up to the mark formation of Elvis's persona also played a pivotal role in his success. Elvis's persona has been successfully strengthened by its repeated portrayals in various movies and song videos. This also paved the way for hyping the bands which comprised of only male performers. One such example is N' Sync.

To reflect upon the influence that Elvis had on American popular culture, it is necessary to analyze the underpinnings of Rock and Roll, which assisted Elvis to gain worldwide recognition. Widely associated with distinct yet conspicuous youth culture, Rock and Roll is a style of music that is frequently linked with rebellion exhibited by adolescents and young adults in their early adulthood. It would appear congenital that Elvis’s music should be taken as the foundational basis for studying and analyzing the history of Rock and Roll. In-depth analysis of various concert venues, musicians, audiences, rhythms, and tunes of Elvis's music would enable an individual to illuminate the differences between old and new rock and roll fans.

Elvis successfully managed to amalgamate different types of music in the pursuit of forming a distinct style known as rockabilly, which later was signified as one of the indispensable sounds of the genre. Elvis is specifically noted for this contribution as he synthesized the South's country-western music with the blues which largely pervaded as a favored music style among the African Americans. Rockabilly dominated the recording industries and radio charts for a significant period. Before the emergence of the civil rights movement, the integration of musical styles took place and Elvis can be given credence to, for this contribution and potential influence on the American popular culture. Elvis's seminal performance resulted in this time to appear momentous in pop culture history. This peculiar integration of various musical styles taking place just before the civil rights also paved the way for the prefiguration of social integration. The youth culture was also strongly influenced by the style and persona of Elvis at that time. Shortly after Elvis rose to popularity, the teenagers started to think of their personalities slightly different from the personalities of their parents. The concept of generation gap also surfaced at that time and there was also seen a rise in the rates of rebellion demonstrated by adolescents and they spent lavishly on the Elvis merchandise owing to the economic prosperity of this period. Teens and young adults had the privilege to spend a significant portion of disposable income on themselves that resulted in large collections of Elvis's merchandise. Presley's hairstyle, fashion sense, and his momentous Rock and Roll music immediately immersed in popular culture and soon every other teenager tried to adopt this culture. In the pursuit of gaining popularity among other audiences, especially the senior citizens, Elvis frequently changes his style in music and his physical appearance. During the 1960s, he acted in his first movie and made a return to the music arenas during the next decade. Undergoing so many changes, his career was star-studded with many achievements and contrary to popular belief, his success was unflinching in the face of adversity. The popularity of Elvis's work is still alive among different groups of people accounting for various reasons of reliability and even after his demise, he continues to shine in the arenas of music and art. The important role played by Elvis in the shaping of the American history of music and film made him a cultural icon influencing a lot of people of his time and future generations.

The single most consequential figure in the history of Rock and Roll, Elvis unreservedly revolutionized the prevalent styles of music and his powerful influence transformed the entertainment industry to the greatest extent. During his initial performances in the South, the racial minorities were highly segregated and the African-Americans experienced racial discrimination daily. Presley's music served as a transforming device regarding these attitudes and his music broke these widely prevalent racial barriers. His music succored to unite the racial minorities and majorities in the South and somehow led the African Americans to realize their fundamental human rights. Presley introduced his music to young teens and adolescents belonging to the white ethnicity which chiefly helped to incorporate the African-American talent into the mainstream talent. The normative moral and social values were also challenged by Elvis's music as his works led to the creation of an entirely new way of thinking. Until the end of 1955, Elvis Presley became a nation-wide sensation whereby girls particularly swooned over his style and amazing voice. Parents of the young adolescents were largely concerned with the way Elvis presented himself on stage and they tried to turn their children against him, but these things did not pose any barrier in the way of Presley’s increasing success. This can largely be accredited to the belief that Elvis’s music posed as an imminent threat to the values associated with the white American society. The beginning of youth culture, the end of racial segregation, and the deconstruction of sexual inhibition are some momentary turning points that were put into motion by the effects of Presley's music.

Initially, people were unaware of the dynamics of Elvis's music and they also didn't know about the massive potential his music had. The listeners belonging to different age groups were unable to categorize his music as country or rhythm and blues. Irrespective of their initial naivety about the categorization of this music, listeners still clamored and longed for any piece which came from Elvis. The daytime radio at that time primarily blasted quirky and chirpy music and Elvis gave it an all-new perspective. Presley's music was studded with a driving energy and a reckless abandon. It simultaneously celebrated life and also wallowed about it. The most apparent thing in his music was the force of life that led many adolescents to pursue careers and lifestyles of their own choice, rather than the impositions that their guardians or parents imposed on them. The divergent strands of country music and blues were fused into a dynamic sound that galvanized an explosion into the cultural and musical preferences of that time. The echo and reverberations of that time are felt even today in spite of the unmatched advancement in music genres and styles. Elvis and his name started to appear on almost all the forms of media, particularly, in movie theaters, stage, television, and on record charts for a very long time. The charismatic appeal of Elvis was shortly recognized by the producers and directors of television networks and films. His persona was so strong that the younger audiences earnestly began to look forward to his appearances in different places and his performances on the live stage.

Slowly and gradually, throughout the 1950s, there was a steep rise in the popularity of rhythm and blues and Elvis became the true focal point of these genres of music. He also talked independently about the significance of country style blues and R&B in his music and interviews, he frequently stated and conversed about those singer about whom reporters had never even heard of. In a famous interview with the Charlotte Observer newspaper, Elvis elucidated the inspirations and origins of his music. Elvis stated that,

“The colored folks been singing it and playing it just like I’m don’ now for more years than I know. They played it like that in the shanties and in their juke joints and nobody paid it no mind ‘til I goose it up. I got it from them, down in Tupelo, Mississippi I used to hear old Arthur Crudup band his box the way I do now, and I said if I ever got to the place I could feel all old Arthur felt, I’d be a music man like nobody ever saw”, CITATION Wal12 \l 1033 (Wallace).

An evolution of the American popular culture was observed after his dramatic rise as various audiences largely started to listen and enjoy the music associated with and produced by African Americans. Elvis’s music was instrumental in waking up the racial majorities from their superiority complex and made his music chiefly accessible to various communities in America, especially white teens. Performers and singers such as Bo Diddley, Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Fats Domino can also attribute their success to the influence of Elvis Presley. His music also paved the way for many African American people who had massive potential in them but did not have a channel for expression due to racial discrimination. With his heart wrenching and poignant performances, he succeeded to transform the social parameters of his time as well.

Elvis Presley is also considered as the American idol for influencing pop culture because he not only increased tremendous opportunities for the African Americans in the horizons of music but also opened many new doors for them in various socio-economic aspects. The African-American music became immensely popular due to his influence and there was a radical shift in the cultural and economic beliefs in the behavioral patterns towards racial minorities. In a study, a critic of music and art reinstated that although Rock and Roll were chiefly enmeshed and immersed in the progressive politics of the 1950s, it still led to the amalgamation of the styles and values primarily associated with the American Americans in the mainstream culture. Intentionally, or unintentionally, Elvis's name is predominantly associated with this social and cultural integration. His music and its unique interpretation smoothed the grounds for granting fundamental civil rights to the African Americans which was otherwise not possible in a transformative manner.

Another reason that Elvis Presley is considered as an idol for influencing the popular culture in America is that through his music, he portrayed sexual liberation as a socially accepted concept rather than presenting it as a taboo as was the generality of that time. Many adults and senior citizens viewed him through the lens of vulgarity and deemed him as a pervert who was playing an influential role in the deviation of youth. Although the 1950s and 1960s were considered as times of economic prosperity and general well-being of the society, sexuality remained to be a subject that disseminated controversy. In the wake of the Second World War, the adults in societies were agitated due to the potential weakening of conventional morality, and the diminishing control of clergy and religious scholars over the young generation. The parents grew agitated and were frequently involved in conflicts with their children but nothing could stop Presley’s influence from prevailing over the hearts and minds of teens and adolescents.

The ascendancy of Rock and Roll was highly pronounced in the United States of America. Elvis’s music assisted in accelerating and steering the path directed towards the unification and homogenizing of African Americans and propagated the civil rights movement CITATION Ald15 \l 1033 (Alderman). Through the unique styles and energetic delivery of vocals deployed in Rock and Roll, the American youth was able to attain their own identity. This new identity had its values and roles in society. The younger generation was also able to adapt and maintain perspectives and opinions which differed from those of their parents. Furthermore, Rock and Roll were and still is the most permeating and insidious form of music belonging to the popular culture in American history. The prevalent themes of retention and containment in the American society that dominated the policies regarding domestic and foreign matters were also agitated by the ubiquitousness of Presley’s performances and music videos CITATION Kin16 \l 1033 (King). The younger generation also embraced the driving forces emanating from Presley’s art and strived hard to legitimized their energies in the pursuit of challenging the status quo. The adolescents and young adults dreamed of values based on liberty and freedom and could not be restrained by anyone from listening to Presley’s music.

Elvis Presley is appraised as a revolutionary singer and a legendary idol in the history of American popular culture as he substantially redefined music and protested against the social and moral values prevailing during his time CITATION McC19 \l 1033 (McConnell). Presley's style and his sound while singing combined to challenge and refute against the racial barriers which did not allow the racial minorities to be a part of the American economy. Elvis Presley foreshadowed and initiated a whole new style and culture of American music and other popular forms of entertainment. By the intricate integration of country music, gospel, and diversified varieties of rhythm and blues, he modified Rock and Roll in such a way that changed the way people thought of American history forever.

Works Cited:

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alderman, Derek H., and Joshua FJ Inwood. " "The National Civil Rights Museum, Memphis, Tennessee."." Southeastern Geographer (2015): 1-5.

Inglis, Ian. "Ideology, Trajectory & Stardom: Elvis Presley & The Beatles."." International Review of the aesthetics and sociology of music (1996): 53-78.

King, Christine. "1 The Death of a King: Elvis Presley (1935–1977)."." The Changing Face of Death: Historical Accounts of Death and Disposal (2016): 164.

Lashua, Brett. "In the Moondog's House: Alan Freed, Leo Mintz, and the "Invention" of Rock 'n'Roll."." Popular Music, Popular Myth and Cultural Heritage in Cleveland: The Moondog, The Buzzard, and the Battle for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (Emerald Studies in Music and Place) (2019): 37-47.

McConnell, Scott A. "The meaning of Elvis."." Quadrant (2019): 127.

Wallace, Marcie. "Elvis Presley: A Revolutionist." ." History (2012).

Entry 3

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7-12-2019

Entry 3

Ancient Greek art is known for its supremacy in art as during the classical era they expanded and advanced in their style. Their main characteristics include high creative anticipation which is not a natural and clear reality representation but an immensely happy and perfect vision of the artistic mindset that is used by them at various artwork platforms. They divided their art into four periods, geometric, archaic, classical and Hellenistic ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wNlqRKUQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Greek Art History from Goodbye-Art Academy - YouTube})","plainCitation":"(Greek Art History from Goodbye-Art Academy - YouTube)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":14,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/EPXt7lYd/items/HJBCE7YR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/EPXt7lYd/items/HJBCE7YR"],"itemData":{"id":14,"type":"webpage","title":"Greek Art History from Goodbye-Art Academy - YouTube","URL":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtKgfS1QwLk","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Greek Art History from Goodbye-Art Academy - YouTube).

They made sculptures and vases. They built a statue of gold along temples engraved with ancient art so that they advanced in the tourism and art industry. When they advanced in the Archaic period and by putting more attention to the pictures of Greek mythology the artists started took pride in their work, even though also the classical period was the boom period for them but only art and building art schools is not the right way for development, they could have focused on other parts of civilization and modernization, there are other interesting subjects and sectors of an economy which can not only be fulfilled with art and need attention.

In the Hellenistic period, there were some unflattering features assimilated the sculptures empowering propagandas, showing some famous victories or great incidents happened at that time. But when the war broke down due to threats their famous artists traveled long distances for work, it was a great loss. The Greek Art continued to be today’s modern art, their remains influenced many others in the future and today’s artists. I think should have focused more on learning different others things also apart from art, workers should be flexible and learn other things as well which could help in time of need as at the time of war and evacuation their art wouldn't have helped them immediately for living for example trading, farming, livestock or and many more. There are many drawbacks too if a person focuses only on one affair. Thus, it is necessary to focus on more on reality in the field or art.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Greek Art History from Goodbye-Art Academy - YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtKgfS1QwLk. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.

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Greek art history can be divided into four periods, namely, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. In these periods, the Classical age is regarded as the epitome of all cultural achievements because the Archaic styles paved the way for realism in which various parts of human anatomy and its postures were depicted. One of the most significant achievements of this stage was a lifelike statue named as contrapposto that chiefly illustrated dynamism and the state of relaxation CITATION Phi14 \l 1033 (Philinthecircle). These two things are central to the attainment of a sound mind in a sound body.

Since the advent of mankind, the most astonishing revolution was the Greek period transition to realism. This is because, across the globe, art history strictly adhered to the prevailing traditions, and changes occurred very rarely. The Classical art also pursued many ideals of harmony, beauty, and proportion and although these standards changed during the course of years, depictions of realism in the Greek art and sculpture are celebrated even today. The human figure and the experiences of common peoples with their relationships to gods were fundamental to the themes of realism in the ancient Greek period. The Greeks were interested in the demonstration of people belonging to all social classes in their daily circumstances and ordinary situations of life. This was also a portrayal of the influence of changes brought upon the people by the industrial revolution and its underpinnings.

The ancient Greeks went even beyond realism so that they could encompass greater dimensions of psychological and emotional realism that was quintessential in the creation of dramatic tensions. The techniques used in pottery and painting also alluded to several characteristics of realism because the Greeks had a tendency to reject the imaginative idealization which only favored the surface of things and strived to appreciate the mere appearance of things.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Greek Art History from Goodbye-Art Academy. Dir. Philinthecircle. Perf. Phil Hansen. 2014. YouTube.

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Comparing and contrasting Roman and Greek Philosophical thoughts

Greeks and the Romans have famous philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, St. Augustine, and others. These philosophers are known for many things they achieved; however, they differed in their ideas and thoughts. Fundamentally, Greek philosophy was based on three primary aspects including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Metaphysics was fundamental basis of Greek philosophy. Roman philosophy was dominated by concepts of stoicism, which talks about self-reflection (Reydams-Schils, 15). Greek and Roman philosophers differed on the concept of stoicism. Greek philosophers viewed stoicism as the development of fortitude and self-control as a way of defeating negative emotions while Roman philosophers linked stoicism with the concept of logos, which means that God makes universe and people have no control over it.

Despite many differences between Greek and Roman Philosophical thoughts, there were many similarities that they shared. Greek philosophies heavily influenced Roman civilization. Both Greek and Roman philosophies focused on ideas of ethics, logic, and moderation. For instance, they share similar thoughts of Epicureanism, meaning avoiding extreme behaviors and focusing on finding balance in life. They shared the same ideas on morality, virtues, and ethical behavior. Both philosophies shared close reliance on gods for existence and survival. Their thoughts were deeply entrenched on mythical religious beliefs.

Greek and Roman philosophers had a profound impact on society, which is still being felt even in modern society. Their ideas, scientific inventions, and explanation of logic have laid the foundation for modern scientific studies. The Greek philosophers like Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, and others made fundamental scientific inventions that continue to influence modern society. Likewise, Roman philosophers, like Cicero, wrote political ideas that continue to influence political thoughts in the contemporary world.

Work cited

Reydams-Schils, Gretchen J. The Roman Stoics: Self, Responsibility, and Affection. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. Print.

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Ancient Rome’s urban design

Romans build majestic cities that accommodated millions of people. The cities’ designs were superior and highly complex with sophisticated streets and pavements. The streets accommodated many people because it was uniquely designed to ease congestions and facilitate efficient movements of people and carts. Most roman cities were created with two major streets running across it. One street run from east to west and cut across from north to south. The streets met at an intersection which acted as a center of commerce of the city. The streets were paved and smoothened to ensure easy movement. Importantly, Roman cities had schools and libraries to facilitate learning (Nicholas, 10). The roman republic had a significant influence on the nature and designs of the cities. During the reign of Nero, city planning and designs resembled patterns of military camps. Walls were built around the towns to ensure security and reduce the threats of invasion from the barbarians.

The roman cities had political and military influence, the roman city planning and design were done with political safety in mind. The planning and design integrated defenses into street systems and styles. The walls and direction of the streets were laid concurrently to help improve security and prevent attacks. In the early times, the public buildings across the cities were financed and constructed by wealthy families. They received honor and respect by funding the construction of magnificent buildings. For the roman emperors, city designs and styles served the purpose of consolidating power as it ensured trusted nobles control the city center and ensure collection of tax. Importantly, roman cities ensured easy access to basic amenities such as food and clean water. In the 4th century BC, roman cities received adequate water from rivers. In places where rivers did not pass close to the cities, Romans build aqueducts to bring water close to the city.

Work cited

Nicholas, David. The Growth of the Medieval City: : from Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century. London: Longman, 2014. Print.

Essay

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Essay

The 26th Amendment to the United States of America does not allow the states and the federal government from using age as an excuse to deny the basic right to vote to the citizens of United States of America. This law is specially designed to allow all those citizens to vote who are 18 years old. This proposal was presented in the parliament by Congress on 23 March 1971, and later it was ratified on 1st July 1971. In the entire history of the United States of America, this is considered as the fastest ratification that was ever done. During the mid 20th century there were various attempts by the political parties to lower the limit of voting age, but somehow they were unable to obtain the legislative momentum which was significant for this amendment. The movement for reducing the age of voting from 21 to 18 years grew across the country during the 1960s which was driven in the country during the Vietnam War as well as the student activist movement.

After the approval of this law an individual when turns 18 then he is able to vote in all elections, be it state elections or federal elections. The 26th amendment is similar to the 15th amendment, which was designed in a way that prohibits the youngsters who were less than 18 years old were prohibited from voting (National Constitution Center – The 26th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, 2019). Although there were courts who doubted the decision but eventually this bill was accepted in the parliament with a majority of votes. Along with allowing to vote the youngsters who were 18 years old, this specific law also allowed the youngsters to choose their residence without any specific restrictions. After the approval of this law, courts reaffirmed that students who move to hostels in order to complete their education can register their votes. The 26th amendments only protect the voting rights of the youngsters; it does not address other problems that are faced by the youngsters.

Although in the United States of America some states allow the individuals who are 18 years old but there are some states where it is still prohibited for such age groups to vote. These states argue that the youngsters are not still capable of understanding the importance of the vote and still, they are quite immature to consider such a big decision. These states argue that these youngsters are not interested in such an affair because they are supposed to pay the taxes or live on their own at the age of 16. At such a tender age, they don't even know their responsibility towards the state or the importance of voting. It is also proved scientifically that the age is still under the process of development even in the mid-20s. The ability to logical reasoning and to look at the real image is missing at this tender age. Therefore, by allowing such youngsters to vote is like real damage to the state because they may vote and choose someone who is the real damage to the country. Therefore according to the state, youngsters at such a tender age should not be allowed to vote (HISTORY, 2019).

Although this topic is quite debatable because the points that supports and are against the law are the same but in order to make the youngsters more aware and responsible, they should be allowed to vote in all states because only then they will be able to understand the politics of their country, they will know the politics and the views of the political leaders. Once they examine all this closely, then they will be able to choose the representative who is best for their country and whose idea supports the real ideology of the country. When this law was allowed then it was argued that youngsters who are at the age of 17 are allowed to fight the war in Vietnam but how come they are not allowed to vote, which is a strong point to allow the people who are the age of 18. But still, the law is not uniform for all states if this is allowed in one state then in other states, such youngsters are not allowed to vote. This is a bit unfair for them so the state should consider the matter seriously and then it should make the law uniform by allowing all the individuals who are 17 years old to vote (History.house.gov, 2019). By doing so, they will also be able to win the confidence of the youngsters. Having said that it is also important to discuss that such decisions should be taken by the state because the state is run by intellectuals and by personalities who are quite sincere to the country. In the majority of the cases whatever, they decide is in favor of the country so they should not be pressurized and whatever they decide should be accepted with an open heart. Only then both the state and citizens will move forward as responsible individuals, and only then it will be possible for a country to progress.

Work Cited

National Constitution Center – The 26th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. (2019). The 26th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. [online] Available at: https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxvi [Accessed 24 Feb. 2019].

HISTORY. (2019). The 26th Amendment. [online] Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/united-states-constitution/the-26th-amendment [Accessed 24 Feb. 2019].

Law.tamu.libguides.com. (2019). Research Guides: The United States Constitution: Constitutional Amendments: Amendments 11-27. [online] Available at: http://law.tamu.libguides.com/c.php?g=513904&p=3510977 [Accessed 24 Feb. 2019].

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Treaty of Versailles, signed in the city of Versailles, France, is one of the most important peace treaties in history. It was signed on 28 June 1919 between Germany and the Allied Powers and led to the termination of World War I. Treaty of Versailles had various effects over the signatories themselves and the rest of the world. Different political leaders have presented their views over the signing of this treaty and the impact it would put over the peace conditions and recovery of Europe.

For instance, George Clemenceau was a staunch opponent of Germany and wanted to severely punish it for the damages that had been done by it in the World War I. He had expressed his deep contempt while having a discussion with Woodrow Wilson and Lloyd George that America is all protected by the ocean and it cannot be easily attacked, but France is easily prone to attack. In addition to this Woodrow Wilson was of the view that no secret treaties should be signed between the countries and whatever pacts are signed should be in the eyes of the public. Still, it was never followed, and the states of the world continued to sign various secret treaties which lead to further disaster.

David Lloyd George, the prime minister of Great Britain, expressed his views that the world wanted a long-term peace and never wanted to repeat any such horrific disaster like World War I. He was also of the opinion that Germany was solely responsible for World War I, and it should be made to pay the complete cost of the whole war. Moreover, the treaty never ensured the international security and also created a moral predicament. The allies found a perfect excuse to dominate Germany with their power and punish it taking the help of the Treaty of Versailles.

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Introduction

The reading that was chosen to do this paper is “Perspective: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology” that is written by Thomas Mcllwraith. The reason why I chose this topic was to understand the concept of family and marriage all around the world. It is true that the concept of having a family is found in every society. These notions have become a part of our cultural understanding. In this paper, I will reflect upon and discuss the chosen article.

Discussion

In my opinion the main point of the reading is to make individuals understand how the family and marriage structure varies around the world on the basis of society’s religious, economic, environmental and cultural differences. It is a given that studying the family and marriage structure is essential to anthropology (McIlwraith). It aids in understanding how the societies connect and how people interact with one another to make their community function. However, there is no substantial research done which proves that families are supposed to be arranged in a certain manner for them to function better.

I really enjoyed reading the article as it helped me look at things from a broader perspective. The most interesting thing about the reading was that there are certain roles that the society and culture expects of an individual and as per the reading, these roles are manmade and there is no standard origination to them. A small example from the reading, which was thought-provoking for me was; “the roles associated with the status of “mother” in a typical Euro-American middle-income family included caring for children and keeping a house; they probably did not include working for wages outside the home.” This fact proves that the role of women was assigned based on what was expected of them, not by what they were meant to do or could do (McIlwraith).

Conclusion

To me, the most significant fact that I learned from this reading was that there is no set standard to how a family is supposed to be. Even the roles that are assigned to each family members can vary and change based on how the society and the cultural setup morphs. Were their certain roles and status’s that were present in the American Society as well? Yes. Have they changed over time? Yes again. Lately, a woman and man are working their differences and trying to walk beside each other as equals, as opposed to following patriarchy which was embedded by the society in the old days. Hence, role of an individual changes as culture evolves.

(Word Count – 425)

Work Cited

McIlwraith, Thomas. "Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology."

Essay

Stock Market Crash and Great Depression

Student name

Course

Date

Introduction

For many people, who are remotely familiar with the history of the Great Depression. The main event that obvious the foundation of the economic downturn is panic on the New York Stock Exchange on October 24 (Black Thursday) and October 28 (Black Monday) 1929. At the same time, not everyone unambiguously assesses the causal relationship between the exchange crash of 1929 and the subsequent economic downturn. Was stock market crash the central premise of the Great Depression, or was the stock market crash just a reaction of asset prices to a decline in production? In addition to disputes about the relative importance of the factors that led to the Great Depression, the debate remains the question of how these factors could cause economic stagnation of such magnitude over such a long period of time. In this context, the researchers point out two crucial points. The beginning of the fall in industrial output in the United States preceded the stock market crash (peak production occurred in August 1929. And secondly, the volume of private sector investment in the stock market was lower than current values.

Along with this, several economists of that time (J. Schumpeter, F. Gordon) point to the relationship between the stock market crash and consumer spending. The fall of the stock market was a factor that led to a protracted decline in real production. Using annual data on production in various sectors of the economy shows a negative relationship between stock market volatility before the stock market crash of 1929 and consumer spending on durable goods during the 1929-1930s. History shows that the fall in the stock market caused a great deal of uncertainty. In the expectations of the private sector regarding future economic growth, which led to a drop-in cost and an accelerated decline in business activity.

Comparing the stock market crash of 1929 with the fall of the 1987 stock market did not lead to a significant increase in stock market volatility and was perceived by economic entities as a single episode. Unlike in 1929, the fall of the stock market in 1987 did not lead to an increase in uncertainty. Undoubtedly, such factors as institutional problems of the banking system, monetary and fiscal policy errors, which will be discussed below, played an essential role in the Great Depression. But at the same time, the empirical relationship between stock market volatility and lower consumption indicates the significant part of the financial crisis in the spread of depressive effects in the American economy of the 1930s.

Conclusion

The profound economic crisis, like the Great Depression, directed to main institutional changes in the utmost significant areas of the American economy. The critical characteristic of the Great Depression is the deflation of asset prices, such as the value of real estate and securities. In fig. Figure 3 shows the dynamics of the Dow Jones Index and the trading volume of the shares making up the index. Several conclusions follow from this. First, the stock market crash of 1929 was accompanied by a significant increase in trading volume, which confirms the panicky nature of sales. Secondly, at the stage of market decline, all growth attempts were followed by an even stronger decline. It suggests that during the crisis, more money was lost by investors trying to catch the bottom of the stock market than during the stock exchange crash of 1929. Thirdly, the decline continued until the second half of 1932. Therefore, the stock market began its recovery earlier than the real sector. Summing up, it is clear that identifying the nature of economic crises and their prerequisites is a vital area of ​​financial analysis since it should help modern politicians avoid mistakes made by their predecessors.

Essay

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

History and Anthropology

In the history of the United States of America, the colonial system was more common until the mid-18th century. People had the permission to live in the colonies, but in an isolated environment, this was decided and mentioned under the policy of salutary neglect. During that time period, Americans had very flexible relations with Britain, and it was relying completely on the British trade for economic development and for defense from other countries as well.

In 1765 an act was implemented on the colonial residents according to which the governing bodies of the colonial system should pay a certain amount for the arrangement of supplies for the British army. After the announcement of this act, the colonial representatives made a group which included representatives from 9 different colonies. It was known as the pan colonial political organization. The representatives stood with the decision that the parliament is not bound to pay anyone outside Britain; furthermore, there was no relaxation for the people in the American colonies.

Later on in 1770, a group of people started a protest under the leadership of Crispus Attuck, which eventually led to the revolution. The British army even tried to shatter the crowd, but as a response, his men were attacked by rocks and even bombarded. They even tried to scare people with their open gunshots. It was an important event of them , and these people took almost a decade in discussing and showing resistance to the British policy.

When John Wilkes was rejected and denied from his designation in the parliament things became serious. Thousands of people gathered on the street of St. George’s field, where he was kept as a prisoner. The people started a protest against his arrest by throwing different objects on the soldiers. As a response to this attack, the soldiers also fired on the crowd of protestors which eventually killed 11 people. This massacre of St. George forced the disagreement in Britain for colonial rights, and it also gave a major hype to the movement that evolved in support of John Wilkes.

The salutary neglect holds significant importance in American history, especially from the time period of the 17th and 18th century. This was a policy or rule according to which the British colonies were given the freedom to avoid the enforcement of parliamentary laws so that the people can only remain devoted and obedient towards England. This occurred before the end of the French and Indian war. The British parliament avoided interrupting in the matters of the colonies and America lived under extreme isolation. This was a major response to a colonial augmentation of the war that attacked Europe from 1756 to 1763, was the goriest American war in the history of the United States of America. Thousands of innocent people lost their lives as compare to the US rebellion, which also had people on three landmasses. Initially the massacre was considered as an outcome of a royal war, a conflict of the people from France as well as Britain over colonial domain plus wealth. Among such global authorities, the battle should be taken as an outcome of the limited fight amongst English and France emerged colonists. However, in 1760 the British controlled the majority of the North American wildernesses; the war between the two nations was adequately finished. The Treaty of Paris which came out in 1763 additionally finished the European Seven Years War. Under the arrangement, France was compelled to surrender every last bit of her American belongings to the British and the Spanish.

Work Cited

Morgan, Edmund Sears, and Helen M. Morgan. The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution. UNC Press Books, 1953.

Borneman, Walter R. The French and Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America. HarperCollins Publishers, 2006.

Thomas, P. D. G. "The St George's Fields' Massacre' of 10 May 1768: An Eye Witness Report." The London Journal 4.2 (1978): 221-226.

Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763-1776. Hackett Publishing, 2004.

Essay

Title

Name

Institution

Assignment

It is very much clear that Benjamin Franklin was a very avid reader. It is quite apparent from his autobiography that how much he loved reading. He says in the autobiography that “Reading was the only amusement I would allow myself. I spent no time in taverns, games or frolics of any kind” (FRANKLIN Chapter 8). It was in his routine to arrange club meetings with his fellow boys, and then they used to read and discuss books together. This particular routine of Franklin encouraged Franklin to start a new library of his own where all the readers would pitch in their books and then all of them had open and continuous access to the books that were then available in the library. Luckily all the men who were accompanying him agreed to do so and then they started a small library at Mr. Grace's where they used to meet and discuss the improvement of the library by including more books and making them accessible to the public. Over time it became quite obvious to them that they are unable to achieve the number of books that they anticipated when they were starting the library. Almost after a year, they had to dissolve the library, and everyone took their books back because it became a headache for every one of them to keep a record of all the available books and also the readers. However, Franklin was not yet to give up on his dream of staring a library, and this helped him to keep up with the struggle to continue the plan, “And now I set on foot my first project of a public nature, that for a subscription library” (FRANKLIN, Chapter 8). It was around this time that their club meetings that were held not in a tavern rather in a small room of Mr. Grace set for that purpose. Franklin made a proposition since the books were mostly referred to in their essays upon the inquiries, so it was quite convenient for them to collect them in one place where they used to have meetings. So this way the public library was initiated, a proposal was drawn, it was put into form, and with the help of his great friends in Junto, they were able to obtain fifty subscribers of forty shillings to start with and also 10 shillings a year for around 50 years, the company continued with this term for a long time. Around this time, he established himself in Pennsylvania, and the supply of books continued from that point. By doing this Franklin contributed a lot in educating and broadening the horizons of his community members they became quite interested in reading, and their intellectual level also started to improve over time.

It is a well-known fact that Ben Franklin was an American legend, surprisingly in the entire history of the United States of America, he was the only man who single-handedly introduced the idea of self-made man. Although he was born in a family with very limited resources and also it is known that he did not receive his primary education even then Ben Franklin was a successful printer, scientist, musician and also he was the author of so many books. It is also noteworthy that he played a significant role in finding a new country and then he became the first diplomat of that country. By looking at the autobiography of Franklin, it will become quite clear that the key to his success and accomplishing so much within a short period was the drive to continuously and constantly improving himself and making his dreams true. In 1726, when he was only 20 years old, he set one of his proudest ambitions or goals, that was the achievement of his moral perfection. He says “I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. I wish I can live without committing any fault at any time; I would conquer all that either natural inclination, custom, or any company might lead me into" (FRANKLIN, Chapter 9). To achieve that goal Franklin designed and then fully committed his personality to a self-improvement program, this program contained a total of 13 virtues. The first virtue was Temperance, where he limited his eating and drinking to a certain point. Silence, where he started to speak only when it was beneficial for others or himself he stopped indulging in extra or unnecessary discussions. The order was another one of his virtue, where he organized all his things in their proper places and also he assigned proper time for all his businesses. Sincerity where he tried his best to stay loyal and sincere to the people who were around him. He made sure to do justice to all the people regardless of their status and class. Cleanliness inhabits, body and clothes and humility where he made sure that he imitates Jesus or Socrates. To make sure that Franklin sticks himself to all the virtues he used to carry a small book with himself that used to have 13 charts. For each day of the week, the chart consisted of columns and all the 13 rows were labeled with the initials of his 13 virtues. At the end of each day, Franklin used to assess himself about the progress that he made that day. For each virtue that he violated he used to put a dot along that virtue. The purpose of doing all this was to have chart free of any such dots or label thus showing a clean and pure life that was free of any violation or vice. Each week Franklin used to focus on one virtue by putting that particular virtue at the top of the chart and then he used to put a small percept besides that to explain the meaning of it. After 13 weeks he used to go through all the 13 virtues and then he used to start the entire process all again. At the very beginning when Franklin started this process, he observed that his chart was full of such labels or dots that showed that he violated most of his virtues. But over time, he observed that the marks on his chart started to disappear.

Despite working so hard Franklin was unable of achieving his goal of moral perfection, and he had some very prominent flaws including his flirting with multiple women at a time, and also his love for beer gave him quite a hard time in achieving Temperance and Chasity which were two of his 13 virtues, but he realized that he benefited from the attempt. He says that “though I never arrived at perfection I had been so ambitious of obtaining, but fell short far of it, yet I was, by the endeavor, a better and a happier man than I otherwise should have been if I had not attempted it” (FRANKLIN, Chapter 9). By the ‘speckled ax is the best’ phrase, he meant that is quite better for a person to be seen to be trying to try ethics in spite of the various weaknesses than for anybody to give in to bad or evil feelings. While struggling with the bad feelings a person will see both his positive and negative faces which were something that Franklin appreciated throughout his autobiography ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0lXA9xNT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Franklin, 1896)","plainCitation":"(Franklin, 1896)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":687,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/TIGKVGUJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/TIGKVGUJ"],"itemData":{"id":687,"type":"book","title":"The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin","publisher":"American book Company","number-of-pages":"222","source":"Google Books","note":"Google-Books-ID: eghUAAAAYAAJ","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Franklin","given":"Benjamin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1896"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Franklin, 1896).

Based on his life stories and narration of his life through his autobiography, it will become quite clear that Franklin was a man who used to respect and valued all the religious people. For instance, in his autobiography he narrates a story when he was in England he encountered a doctor who loathed and disrespected bible's message, the way Franklin described the doctor and loathed him shows that he had immense respect and love for his religion and ultimately he was a spiritual man. To describe the situation Franklin referred to the doctor as a wicked and unbeliever. So such comments show that Franklin had religious roots. Franklin had some letters, and he was quite clever, but more like an unbeliever, he undertook to caricatures the Christian’s holy book in doggerel verse as Cotton had got Vir Gil. By doing this Franklin put many of the facts that were narrated in the bible in an absurd light and it would have hurt many people’s religious believes but thankfully this work of Franklin never got published. He says that “I have never kept several Lents more strictly, leaving the common diet for that and that for that common abruptly without the least inconvenience” (FRANKLIN, Chapter 8). So such incidents from his autobiography provide strong evidence that he was a religious man and had great love and respect for his religion as well as religious leaders.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Franklin, B. (1896). The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. American Book Company.

Essay

Analytical Argument

Name of Student

Affiliation

Shiite and Sunni have always differed in their opinions regarding faith and Islamic history. These differences have resulted in wars and rivalries between people of the same religion and faith. The early differences were created based on successions while later on, it became more of a cultural, territorial and identity based disputes. Although the difference in the creed mainly fueled these issues further. The scope of this paper will discuss the early historic backgrounds and causes of the split in opinion, the development and interactions between Umayyad, Abbasid, Safavid, Ottoman Empires. How the divisions between Sunni and Shiite Muslims either caused or fueled these issues. We will discuss how and why Sunni and Shia Islam develop and interact and influence the Arab. Ottoman and Persian empires to 1700?

Historical Background

The Shiites are a minority today in the Muslim world, making up between 10 per cent and 15 per cent of the Muslim population certainly fewer than 250 million, all told. The Shiites are mostly situated in the areas like Iran and southern Iraq. But there are noteworthy groups in Pakistan, India and Afghanistan as well. Over the large part of the history, Shiites and Sunnis have mostly lived peacefully. They both agree on the basic principles of Islam and also share the same book. The differences usually lie in the historic, ethnic and political beliefs. The difference was originated after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) on his succession. As Muhammad not only left behind religion but also a state in the middle of Arab. One group who was the majority chose Abu Bakr his companion while the other suggested Ali who was the son-in-law and cousin of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6D0TCPdm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}BBC - Religions - Islam,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“BBC - Religions - Islam,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/kf1hHQ6B","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/I8WBMBNN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/I8WBMBNN"],"itemData":{"id":56,"type":"webpage","title":"BBC - Religions - Islam: Sunni and Shi'a","abstract":"The division between Sunnis and Shi'a is the largest and oldest in the history of Islam. This article compares the similarities and differences between the two.","URL":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml","title-short":"BBC - Religions - Islam","language":"en-GB","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“BBC - Religions - Islam,” n.d.). Muslims who came to believe that Abu Bakr should be the next leader is called Sunni's while those who chose Ali are known as Shia's. Ali later became the fourth caliphate of Islam and during his time he moved the capital from Medina to Kufa in Iraq. The struggle with companions continued as a war with Muawiya was also fought on due to the same reason. After the death of Ali, Muawiya became the next caliph and he moved the capital of the state to Damascus and from then on, the politically chosen style of leadership was converted to the monarchy and the kingdom started to know as the Umayyad Caliphate.

Development and interactions with Arab empires:

Development in the Umayyad Dynasty

The differences were therein also in the rule of Muawiya as well and it intensified when he was succeeded by his son Yazid. This hereditary succession was opposed hugely by Husain ibn Ali the younger son of Ali, which resulted in a revolt i.e. the battle of Karbala and His death along with his family ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jbujH9v2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cooper, 1983)","plainCitation":"(Cooper, 1983)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/18YtHY7y","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/CHM8DAAR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/CHM8DAAR"],"itemData":{"id":58,"type":"article-journal","title":"Kitāb Al-Irshād: The Book of Guidance Into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. By Shaykh Al-Mufīd. Translated by IKA Howard, pp.[iii], xxxix, 616. Horsham, Balagha Books; London, Muhammadi Trust, 1981.£ 18.","container-title":"Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society","page":"104-105","volume":"115","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Cooper","given":"John"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1983"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cooper, 1983). This is probably the turning point in the relations of Shia Sunni relations. The relation at that time was still political and was named in any shape or form as religious. But the separation of different groups was there. In the next two decades of Islam spread to south Asia through an Umayyad young general. The Umayyad dynasty rulers were the descendants of a group of people who opposed Ali during his ruling time and are known as Sunni's leaders in Muslim history. Their first opposition came in the form of Hashimiya Movement. They were from the Hashim clan who were the opposite of Umayyad.

Abbasid Caliphate

During the Abbasid revolution, the descendants and supporters of the family branch of Ali overthrew Umayyad Dynasty in 750 CE ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"44Btzl2l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Finer and Finer, 1997)","plainCitation":"(Finer and Finer, 1997)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/17eXgqkN","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QEGM2SNX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/QEGM2SNX"],"itemData":{"id":59,"type":"book","title":"The History of Government from the Earliest Times: Ancient monarchies and empires","publisher":"Oxford University Press, USA","volume":"1","ISBN":"0-19-820664-X","author":[{"family":"Finer","given":"Samuel Edward"},{"family":"Finer","given":"Samuel E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Finer and Finer, 1997). They developed what people see as the first Shiite dynasty. The Abbasid's mostly relied on the Persians for their government. They started accustomed to Persian culture and traditions. During this time Baghdad was the capital of both Islam and the centre of invention and science ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"39KzF4fg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Canfield, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Canfield, 2002)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/Yc675pSB","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/2RDC22BZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/2RDC22BZ"],"itemData":{"id":60,"type":"book","title":"Turko-Persia in historical perspective","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","ISBN":"0-521-52291-9","author":[{"family":"Canfield","given":"Robert L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Canfield, 2002). The Abbasid Caliphate was different others dynasties at that time because it did not have the exact limitations and borders as Islam. Where the Umayyad dynasty was comprised mostly of Arabs the Abbasids recruited people from different ethnicities and backgrounds. The rivalry was so much intense that Umayyad princess was massacred and the graves and shrines of most Umayyad rulers were desecrated except Umar the second. There were multiple different dynasties and governments that were present at that time. Though initial efforts were made to add non-Arabs and Persians but later they were almost alienated. The majority of Sunni rulers and traders felt resentment towards them. The political power was decreased due to the rise of Seljuq Turks and another Shia dynasty the Buyids in Iran. The empire became just a ceremonial religious functional. Later the Baghdad fell into the hands of Mongols in 1206 and destroyed Baghdad, which marked the end of Golden age of Islam ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EQIsaMzt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Glass\\uc0\\u233{}, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Glassé, 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/HjDGQ04W","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/HLHAL6ZL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/HLHAL6ZL"],"itemData":{"id":61,"type":"book","title":"The new encyclopedia of Islam","publisher":"Rowman & Littlefield","ISBN":"0-7425-6296-4","author":[{"family":"Glassé","given":"Cyril"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Glassé, 2008).

Development in Persian Safavid Dynasty

The Safavid dynasty was one of the major dynasties in which the official religion was Shia Islam. All other forms of religions were suppressed in this dynasty ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xxqpYMDk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}BBC - Religions - Islam,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“BBC - Religions - Islam,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/jzvl4Kmz","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/UCE88BC3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/UCE88BC3"],"itemData":{"id":62,"type":"webpage","title":"BBC - Religions - Islam: Safavid Empire (1501-1722)","abstract":"Learn about the Islamic empire. It lasted from 1501 to 1722 and was strong enough to challenge the Ottomans in the west and the Mughals in the east.","URL":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_1.shtml","title-short":"BBC - Religions - Islam","language":"en-GB","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“BBC - Religions - Islam,” n.d.). The empire strength was due to its geographical location on different trade routes. They were also considered as the hub of art and culture at that time. The dynasty was founded by a Persian nationalist and however, they were a religious group, to begin with. The dynasty declared its official religion as Shi'sm which was very new to the people in Iran. Under the Safavid dynasty, people were forcefully converted into Shi'sm. Most of the Sunni people who refused were forced to leave or were killed. They brought different Shia religious scholars from different countries and made them a tool for their government. Most of the golden shrines we see today in Iran and neighbouring countries were made in Safavid dynasty. They allotted funds to build religious schools and shrines. In the Safavid dynasty mostly Sunni Muslims were mistreated and those Shia Muslims or any other religious people who differ their views were also persecuted. Different Sufi groups were banned or alienated. They also reduced the importance of pilgrimage to Mecca and replaced it with visiting Shiite shrines ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"f8OruAQY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}BBC - Religions - Islam,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“BBC - Religions - Islam,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":"vtzyaRuh/jzvl4Kmz","uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/UCE88BC3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KfR9yuY2/items/UCE88BC3"],"itemData":{"id":62,"type":"webpage","title":"BBC - Religions - Islam: Safavid Empire (1501-1722)","abstract":"Learn about the Islamic empire. It lasted from 1501 to 1722 and was strong enough to challenge the Ottomans in the west and the Mughals in the east.","URL":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_1.shtml","title-short":"BBC - Religions - Islam","language":"en-GB","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“BBC - Religions - Islam,” n.d.). The empire was predominantly a theocracy under the direct control of the ruler known as Shah. Their good treatment of Shia Muslims meant that most people enthusiastically embraced the new faith. Because Shi'sm was a state religion they celebrated and paid respect to Shiite festivals and events, like Ashura (death of Hussain, younger son of Ali). The major educational institutes and systems that we see nowadays in Iran are due to the philosophy and theology that was formed in the Safavid Empire. With the spreading of Mughal empire in India, clashes with Ottoman empire and the emergence of Russians caused a lot of difficulties for them and that was predominantly the decline of Safavid Dynasty ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bs6naTJS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Floor and Clawson, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Floor and Clawson, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":170,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/M74X8UFG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/M74X8UFG"],"itemData":{"id":170,"type":"article-journal","title":"Safavid Iran's search for silver and gold","container-title":"International Journal of Middle East Studies","page":"345-368","volume":"32","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Floor","given":"Willem"},{"family":"Clawson","given":"Patrick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Floor and Clawson, 2000). The major threat to them was the Sunni state of Ottoman empire but their fall starting from the 17th century the Shah's of Safavid empire became complacent and as a result of the power gradually passed on to the Shiite Ulama. The ulama eventually overthrew the shah and claimed the government for themselves which resulted in the world first Islamic Republic. The Ulama claimed that only those who have divine knowledge of religion can rule an Islamic country.

Development in Turkic Ottoman Empire:

The Ottoman Empire was an Empire between southeast Europe, western parts of Asia and some parts of Africa between 14th and 20th century ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DqUaAExJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Scott, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Scott, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":171,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/B8ZEBGV5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/B8ZEBGV5"],"itemData":{"id":171,"type":"book","title":"The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350-1750: Volume II: Cultures and Power","publisher":"OUP Oxford","ISBN":"0-19-102000-1","author":[{"family":"Scott","given":"Hamish"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Scott, 2015). They were a bridge between the western and eastern world for six decades. The official religion of the state was Sunni Islam. There were many other communities and religions living in the state as well but they were treated with respect and dignity as per the laws of Islam. In the early stages of the empire, it was a Christian majority with a Muslim minority ruling over them. Their ancestors believed in different religions and school of thoughts but the Turks later on gradually converted to Islam. The Ottomans brought Islam with them to Anatolia and followed Maturidi and Hanafi creed of the Sunni Islam ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SylgCBLy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(G\\uc0\\u252{}nd\\uc0\\u252{}z et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Gündüz et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":172,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/NQ6GQCJ7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/NQ6GQCJ7"],"itemData":{"id":172,"type":"book","title":"Change and essence: dialectical relations between change and continuity in the Turkish intellectual tradition","publisher":"CRVP","volume":"18","ISBN":"1-56518-222-7","author":[{"family":"Gündüz","given":"Sinasi"},{"family":"Gunduz","given":"Sinasi"},{"family":"Yaran","given":"Cafer S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gündüz et al., 2005). The sultan predominantly ruled over two distinct domains in the form of social affairs and religious hierarchy. The religious matters were under the control of Sunni Muslim ulama and they controlled the judicial system and educational system. They were powerful enough to change any reform that was against the teachings of Sunni Islam. Sunni ulama also had a greater influence over the government in general and their authority was vital for the governance of the system. But in the Sultan had the final say in every matter, since the sultan claimed the title of Caliph and declared himself the leader of Muslims in the entire world, However, about a century after the establishment the empire major incidents occur with Shia Muslims as the king at that time called them the fifth column for their rivals Safavid empire. During that time the empire further spread in the Middle East and claimed themselves as the real heirs of Islamic Caliphate. The Sunni Shia disturbances of the past meant that the rivalry continued with the Safavid Empire. Their claim for the Islamic state continued until the end of the empire and the formation of a new world turkey.

Safavid - Ottoman Rivalry (Shia Sunni Rivalry)

The rivalry and the wars occurred between these empires were over certain territories however the Shia-Sunni factor added fuel to the fire. As the ottomans very Sunni and Safavid were Shia of the Qazilbash dialect. The Safavid’s were also Turkic in their ethnicity and spoke Turkish language as well. The Ottomans never really thought of themselves as Sunni’s until the Safavid came forward as a Shia state. For almost a century both of these empires fought many wars over the control of Mesopotamia ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PQjyL6d9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Finkel, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Finkel, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":173,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/MS9VRVPF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/MS9VRVPF"],"itemData":{"id":173,"type":"book","title":"Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire","publisher":"Hachette UK","ISBN":"0-465-00850-X","author":[{"family":"Finkel","given":"Caroline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Finkel, 2007). The wars took the shape of ideological warfare. The Safavid’s were mostly famous for their art and culture as compared to the Ottomans who were famous for their military power. That is why the ottomans conquered Iraq and also took Baghdad from Safavid control. There came a time when most of the territories that were previously under the control of the Safavid Empire were now taken by the Ottoman Empire, even the former capital of the Empire Tabriz. Iraq was a city of importance and value due to its strategic location and Islamic history in the Abbasid caliphate. Since the Abbasid caliphate hasn’t declared the states as either Shia or Sunni Islam that means that whoever took the city had the claim to officially declared themselves as the true caliphate who inherited the previous empire. While the Ottoman Empire was busy with their fights and expansion towards the European soil, the Safavid's saw this an opportunity and attacked Iraq. Safavid armies attacked the city of Baghdad and slaughtered Sunni population. The shah of Safavid Empire approved this because he wanted to see Baghdad as a loyal Shiite city. Sunni's considered them as their opponents because they believed that the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire is their only true leader and caliph of Islam ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Zh6gXfi0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Past Religious Conflict Still Haunts Middle East,\\uc0\\u8221{} 2017)","plainCitation":"(“Past Religious Conflict Still Haunts Middle East,” 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":174,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/YZ2MFXP8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jpfyfVgo/items/YZ2MFXP8"],"itemData":{"id":174,"type":"webpage","title":"Past Religious Conflict Still Haunts Middle East","container-title":"Providence","abstract":"War and religious conflict in the 1600s between Ottomans and Persians still have consequences for politics and beliefs in the Middle East today.","URL":"https://providencemag.com/2017/09/past-religious-conflict-still-haunts-middle-east-iraq-syria-iran/","language":"en-US","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",9,21]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Past Religious Conflict Still Haunts Middle East,” 2017). This war reflected a greater conflict within the Islamic world. The Shah of Safavid Empire didn’t saw it as a massacre of the fellow Muslim community, he viewed it as a killing of his political opponents who didn’t accept him as their rightful leader of the Islam. With the treaty of Zuhab, the long continued war between the Ottomans and the Safavid's came to an end. As a result of the treaty, Bagdad and Mesopotamia in Iraq permanently came under the control of Ottomans.

Conclusion

Since the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the problem of the succession continued on the terms of political basis and later converted into beliefs and difference in knowledge. In the Arab empire of early Islamic caliphates of Umayyad and Abbasid dynasty major problem was that of succession and death of the son of Ali i.e. Hussain. These conflicts later intensified based on a way of ruling and government structures. However, the later Muslim empires like the Safavid dynasty and Ottoman Empire basis of conflicts between them were territories and religious beliefs. One government was a particularly comprised of Sunni people leading them while the other one was led by the leadership of Shiite leaders i.e. The Ottoman and Safavid empires. Both differed in their beliefs and represented themselves as the true leaders of Islam. But here the wars, like any other war were fought for territories and establishment of their governments rather for the benefit of Islam.

Bibliography

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY BBC - Religions - Islam: Safavid Empire (1501-1722) [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_1.shtml (accessed 9.27.19a).

BBC - Religions - Islam: Sunni and Shi’a [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml (accessed 9.26.19b).

Canfield, R.L., 2002. Turko-Persia in historical perspective. Cambridge University Press.

Cooper, J., 1983. Kitāb Al-Irshād: The Book of Guidance Into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. By Shaykh Al-Mufīd. Translated by IKA Howard, pp.[iii], xxxix, 616. Horsham, Balagha Books; London, Muhammadi Trust, 1981.£ 18. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 115, 104–105.

Finer, Samuel Edward, Finer, Samuel E., 1997. The History of Government from the Earliest Times: Ancient monarchies and empires. Oxford University Press, USA.

Finkel, C., 2007. Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Hachette UK.

Floor, W., Clawson, P., 2000. Safavid Iran’s search for silver and gold. International Journal of Middle East Studies 32, 345–368.

Glassé, C., 2008. The new encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman & Littlefield.

Gündüz, S., Gunduz, S., Yaran, C.S., 2005. Change and essence: dialectical relations between change and continuity in the Turkish intellectual tradition. CRVP.

Past Religious Conflict Still Haunts Middle East [WWW Document], 2017. . Providence. URL https://providencemag.com/2017/09/past-religious-conflict-still-haunts-middle-east-iraq-syria-iran/ (accessed 9.27.19).

Scott, H., 2015. The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350-1750: Volume II: Cultures and Power. OUP Oxford.

Essay



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Essay

Capitalism and Imperialism are a product of anti-colonization movements and both of these played an integral role in the decolonization. Working classes, traders, labourers and people from every walk of life were against colonization because, during that era, eternal forces or colonizers had too much power and control over masses. Karl Marx introduced Capitalism as an economic system which aims at lessening state control and allowing more private ownership avenues among the masses (The West, Capitalism, and the Modern World-System). This system decreases state control on private property and people can get benefitted from it directly. This school of thought has its interpretation in social and political spheres. However, it is also believed that this system illegitimate control and puts it in the hands of the majority working class, similarly, it has many social implications. This essay revolves around the capitalist and imperialist ideology and its reception in the 16th and 19th century Mughal and Chinese empires. It also compares the outcomes of these ideologies in Japan.

Imperialism, although came after capitalism it has far more implications because it centres power and authority around one country and it outreaches other countries. This results in the loss of a country's writ and sovereignty. This ideology is extremely controversial in today's global age and it is although banned by international law Capitalism laid the foundation of this ideology. For instance, first world countries established open trade markets and through this tactic, they established their hegemonic control over third world countries (Hobson, Imperialism).

These ideologies started surfacing in the 19th century and many countries emerged as a capitalist state. However, during the Mughal reign in India and the dynasties in China had a strong state-level control on both their economy and people. Capitalism could not be executed there because masses would obey their rulers and during this monarch rule, power and resources were not directly accessed by them. This pattern remained evident from the 16th century till the 19th century in both these countries and they remain secluded from the rest of the world regarding trade markets. They did not think about expanding their goods and exporting them to the outer world. They were more concerned about their inner rebellions and political issues. Whereas, on the other hand, Japan thrived its economy through both of these ideologies and now this country can be seen as an already established member of the open trade markets.

The Mughal dynasty had a legal and administrative system run by a lot of bureaucrats, officials, courts and jurisprudence. The common source of revenue was trade and it was limited to a few neighbouring countries. The tax system was transparent and everyone had to pay tax equally. Similarly, the state had a say in everything and people could not think of private ownership at that time. The masses were satisfied with the rulers and there were no chances of any rebellion. When the East India Company came into India in the early 18th century, it had to face a lot of resistance because the state was not willing to trade with them (Chandra, Medieval India). It is important to note that although people were happy with their rulers, subcontinent being a multiethnic and multiracial land paved ways for rebellion (Mukhia, The Mughals of India). Near the ending of the 18th century, East India Company established itself in India. Moreover, they became successful in creating a lot of private stakeholders that endangered the Mughal throne. At the end of the 19th century, India was colonized but still, it did not become a capitalist state because of the local masses' rebellion against the colonial powers. Moreover, people were not aware of their rights and the benefits of open trade markets. Another possible reason may stem from the idea that people held their cultural values above anything and they would think about these concepts as a product of the Western culture. In the post-Mughal era, the process of modernization was rejected by both the local states and masses. Due to this reason, capitalism could not flourish in the subcontinent but this did not prove viable for the economy in the coming centuries. For the reason that people looked up to the government instead of making individual efforts (Hall, “Varieties of Capitalism).

Similarly, China during the 16th to 19th century was not well aware of the western ideologies and open trade market. China and Japan share proximity when it comes to culture, traditions and social life, however after world war I, when western imperialism was on its rise, china did not give in to this external pressure. In the mid-19th century, China turned down every offer of the trade from the open market and this rejection led to war between Britishers and Chinese. Due to the former's opium trade in China, masses suffer a lot both mentally and economically because China was not in a position to fight with its already weak economy. However, opium trade can be considered a clear attempt of control in Chinese land and it led towards the start of unequal treaties. It can be seen here that both Mughal and Chinese empire did not realize the value of open trade instead they considered it a threat towards their sovereignty. Both the nations were not much aware of colonization and the western expansion program through the soft power of cultural imperialism and trade. They just kept their focus squarely on occupying more lands and fighting wars with the neighbouring countries. Moreover, in China, people were not allowed to read foreign texts and meet with foreigners in general. Whereas, on the other hand, West approached China first for the trade than Japan. Chinese were unaware of the Industrial revolution as well because similar to the Mughal dynasty, they also used to believe that they can rule over people for centuries by keeping them in dark. When they came across the Western expansion and progress over the years, it was too late because under the monarch system because they rejected the idea of Capitalism. Moreover, a historian notes that due to these revolutions in wet, Chinese officials and imperialists could not establish their foreign relations with them on the old patterns (Allen, Donnithorne, and Donnithorne, 2012).

On the other hand, Japan modernized itself before China and its economy thrived, they did not hold on to their monarch system. similarly, Japan culturally familiarized its culture with the outside world and adopted its pluralistic political system (The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire Documentary). Unlike Chinese and Mughal dynasties, Japan in the 19th century presented the foreign envoys with a lot of facilities and resources for a smooth trade partnership. According to old Chinese view, all foreigners were barbarians and their nation was the only civilized one. With this attitude, China's economy suffered great loses whereas, in the meantime, Japan complied to the western demands and became its strategic partner. Likewise, its geographical position was much established than before. It can be viewed here that through Capitalist ideology in Japan, people became much aware of the private ownership avenues. They also escaped the threat of any external involvement in their state affairs in the form of war or trade sanctions. Quite on the contrary, Japan was aware of China and the ongoing opium trade in its neighbouring state because they were not under strict western sanctions. Unlike the two dynasties or empires, Japan invented a great deal of time and effort at both state and individual level to understand foreign policies and ideologies through their books. They learned it quick that their state will flourish in the coming centuries because monarch rulers everywhere in the world were facing a lot of troubles both at external and internal levels. The Shogunates were only trading with Netherland in the early 19th century but unlike Qing rulers, they had a farsighted vision ( The Great Chinese Empire). They never shy away from learning new skills and even gained a lot of opportunities and capital through this cultural exchange. Their strategic policies ensured that every decision should not be taken based on prejudice instead trade should be treated as a gateway to the open trade market. Its goods were not in much demand as compared to Chinese goods but they were more open to trade and allowed more access to them. They also started culture exchange programs and focused on firsthand skill training from western nations. It was a wise move and allowed them to boost their export market more and they became less reliant on imports. In in the free trade markets, value-added taxes generate more capital than the export of raw material. Similarly, Japan took benefit of their goods as exotic symbols in the west and exported them well. After the Meiji restoration in the 19th century, Japan became the first country to rise as non-westerner power. They introduced railways and other transport means in their country to ensure even more smooth flow of trade routes. They abolished years ago feudal system and introduced a tax system aligned to the western system (Nakamura, Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples).

Japanese nation left behind their old ways of imperial rulers in the country and the working class was given a voice and authority to speak. The merchant class and many other small-scale business ventures were given loans by the state to strengthen their economy at the individual level. Due to no bureaucratic system and dynamic elite system in Japan, the benefits of Capitalism reached to the grassroots level. It also established Japan as an imperial state after the war between China and Japan. Likewise, it took control of Manchuria and later on invaded China in 1937 and stayed there till the end of World War II. In the era of the great depression, military control increased in Japan and it emerged as an Imperialist state. Japan threatened China with an invasion and he had the back support of the established Western forces such as America and Great Britain. It was a strategic win of Japan that China had to agree to the clauses of Twenty-One demands. Unlike the other Asian countries such as India and China, Japan’s economy, foreign relations, trade and institutions were far better established at the end of the 19th century (Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy).

The ideologies of capitalism and imperialism proclaim that in a democratic or monarch system, the government takes hold of all the resources and the capital cannot reach to the working class who are the wheel of the economy because of state corruption. Likewise, those goods are produced who are in high consumer demand, this approach results in keeping the position established in the trade market by focusing on consumer demands more. Satisfying the consumer demands ensure the establishment of any country as a potential part in the international trade market. In a capitalist market, efficient individuals are always in demand and no hegemonic control can stay for longer if they are not manufacturing relevant goods or products. They allow private ownerships and people stop looking at the state to fulfil their needs. More private ownership results in more efficient production and they never go out of trend because they experience it a much larger level. Similarly, in the 16th-century trade was a great source of generating money but Asian nations wee unaware of its power.

Western economies thrived on trade and made a lot of capital by putting unfair conditions in their trading contracts because of the other party’s ignorance with trade rules and emerging trends. Due to capitalism, nations compete at an economic level and it reduces the risk of war. Control and hegemony are also related to the market competitiveness of a nation. Imperialism has its roots in a Capitalist ideology and it is evident through the example of both Chinese and Mughal empires that established nations can pave their way in any nation if it coincides with their economic gains. Although the capitalist system did not succeed in these Asian nations they had to face the loss of their sovereignties and decreasing economic stability. Capitalism is called "creative destruction" because of nations loose power at the geopolitical level if they are not economically stable (Historical Capitalism, East and West). Likewise, the economic gain is associated with political gains because a strong economy will have more room for making policies or negotiating the trade rules. Imperialism is viable for showing the world that a particular has control over the other country because of its strong political and economic conditions. It does not involve control through hard power always, it can be exerted through soft power control as well. For instance, in the form of trade options, trade sanctions and culture imperialism (Tomlinson, “Cultural Imperialism”). This control also ensures that countries make their defence strategies stronger and more undefeatable. Imperialist ideology of Western countries made it possible for them to enter in the Asian region and force them for trade. In this way, they established their trade market in these countries as well and generated a lot of revenue. The Mughal economy was thriving before the East India Company but they did not realize the importance of private ownership. Similarly, they faced a lot of conflict from the working class because ultimately, they were the sole providers of these trade goods such as spices, cotton and jewels. On the other hand, Japan emerged as an imperialist state because it did not resist against these ideologies. Both capitalist and imperialist agendas, could not deter the strict mindset of Mughal and Chinese empires in 16th till 19th century but these nations had to face the aftermaths of colonization and imperialism. Trade is soft power tactics and its benefits cannot be denied at both anthropological and geopolitical levels. In the contemporary world, monarchies do not exist and the state relies on capitalist and imperialist agendas for a stronghold at the free-trade economy. As a strong economy determines the power of any nation.

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