Research Dissemination Plan

Research Dissemination Plan

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research Dissemination Plan

Research Findings and Products

The current research done on the frequency of hand hygiene among nurses of Mount Sinai Hospital provides the findings related to the hand hygiene of the nurses. Therefore this research deduced the compliance and frequency of hand hygiene in the nurses according to given situations or scenarios. The use of a maximum level of hygiene in all care work is essential to reduce both the cross-transmission of any infectious agent. The practice and medium of hand washing and cleaning, i.e., soap or alcohol-based hand sanitizers are the end products of the research. Hand hygiene, the ways of keeping the hand hygiene and the nurses are related to the end product of this research.

End Users

The end users of this research are nurses, and more generally healthcare professionals who are obliged to keep the hand hygiene accurate. The dealing with patient and hospital overall contains contagious infections and diseases. Therefore, it is the duty of nurses, especially bedside nurses to keep their hands clean and germ-free all the time, even before or after visiting the patient. The interaction amongst the nurses and patient doesn't essentially produce clinical illness since there are other issues that affect the frequency and nature of nosocomial infections but can lead to various diseases and allow the dissemination of these pathogens with epidemiological relevance in health centers. Infection by any of these microorganisms can be transmitted by an inert object or by dirty substances from another human.

Dissemination Partners

Primarily, the important disseminating partners are the healthcare professionals or leaders, i.e., house officer or nurse’s leaders. These are primitive figure because their permission is important while reaching the nurses for filling out the questionnaires or interview conduction. The hospital authority or administration department is the sole authority for granting permission, so they were reached for this research. After approval from the Hospital, the study will be started using a questionnaire as a tool for data collection with open and closed questions about the practice of washing hands. These questionnaires will be then provided to the nurses and before that their consent will also be taken.

Communication

The outcomes of the research are to be conveyed after the proper analyses of the provided results. The foremost step in communicating the research outcome to the audience is to define the audience and goals of the research (Pcori.org). The end user or audience defined in this research is nurses and the ways of communicating the results of the research to them is by properly informing them about the goal or objective of the research and the reason for research must be shared but not the possible result or what the researchers want as a result, because this will create researcher bias.

Evaluation

The evaluation of this research will base on the significance of the outcomes or consequences of the study conducted on the frequency of nurse's hand hygiene. It is important to determine the aim of the study and it refers to the outcome or consequences of the study. The next essential phase is to evaluate the plan or strategy of research. In this research stepwise planning for dissemination is implemented, in this, the analysis of research design and method will be evaluated if the qualitative design does not work out, the quantitative design will be carried out to check the relevancy of each method. Along with the design or methods of the research the sample size and technique sampling is also involved.

Dissemination Work Plan

The work plan for disseminating the research starts from the focus on the list of events and products which are going to occur while doing the research (Pcori.org). the list of events involves the following steps:

Engagement of the stakeholders:

The primary audience, end users and stakeholders will be defined in this step. Such that in this current research the important disseminating partners or stakeholders are the healthcare professionals or leaders, i.e., house officer or nurse’s leaders. The end users of this research are nurses, and more generally healthcare professionals who are obliged to keep the hand hygiene accurate.

Format:

The output or product targeted in the research should be available in a proper format for the further audience of users of the same or affiliated research. The research deliberates a variety of designed productions for patients, decision makers, clinicians, researchers, and the public at the levels i.e., regional, national, or local as appropriate. The format followed should be as of standardized bases.

Opportunities utilization:

The building of partnership with the related networks is important as the administration department and hospital authority are the sole authorities for granting permission, so they were reached for this research. After approval from the Hospital, the study will be started using a questionnaire as a tool for data collection with open and closed questions about the practice of washing hands.

Context or framework:

This step will determine the purpose of the research by defining its framework and context and taking the opinions of the experts or leaders along with their permissions.

Timing:

Timing of the dissemination of the research should not be limited to just the ending time of the research; it can also be done earlier in the research.

Therefore a proper work plan is initiated in order to perform the study on the hand hygiene of the hospital nurses.

References

Dissemination and Implementation Framework and Toolkit. (2016). Pcori.org. Retrieved from https://www.pcori.org/research-results/dissemination-and-implementation/dissemination-and-implementation-framework-and

Research Essay

Research Essay

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research Essay

Introduction

Vaccine or immunization is defined as a way that can help to build up body's immunity to a disease. it would not be wrong to say that vaccine is a guard system that can build up antibodies that can prevent illness. The origination and background of vaccine can be traced back to 20 century when first vaccine was discovered for smallpox. Smallpox was more like an epidemic that killed about 3000 million to 500 million people taking into account that vaccine cured the disease. (Bloom, et, al. 2018). Today, vaccination is more like a necessity that can help an individual to overcome a number of diseases. Usually weakened form of the disease germs is injected into the body in the form of the injection in the arm or the leg. As soon as the vaccination enters body, there is an autonomous function of the production of antibodies that could find actual germs of the disease. There are a number of vaccinations that are life long, taking into account that once injected, body will be safe from the disease for complete life span. In the same way, there are a number of diseases in which there is no vaccination required because the virus of fairly mild such as strains of cold virus. (Attwell, et, al. 2019). On the other hand, viruses like polio or smallpox may be life-threatening because they can even cause death. Vaccination is one of the tools that can play a major role in the development of health, side by side vaccination programs is a utilitarian approach that is interlinked with other departments of life such as society, healthcare, economics and politics. (Attwell, et, al. 2016). In a nutshell, it can be analyzed that the vaccination programs play a significant role in the development of health, adhering to the core principles of sustainability of both resources and lives.

Discussion

It is significant to note that in past decades, there was a massive reduction in the incidence of epidemic and other viruses that can cause death, which is a major tribute to vaccination. The impact of vaccination can be analyzed and estimated during the 20 century, also known as, vaccination for children era. It is important to note that the total number of children that were prevented by vaccination was more than 322 million, there were 21 million hospitalizations and there were about 731,700 deaths. (Jacobson, et, al. 2016). It is evident that a massive contribution to the sustainable health system is made as a result of vaccinations. It is important to note that vaccines have reduced the burden of medicines as well as disease. According to the World Health Organization, modern research has proven that development in vaccination has resulted in the production of less reactogenic products taking into account the vaccines that are produced in the cell structure. (Frieden, et, al. 2015). Such vaccines have mitigated the necessity of adhering to therapeutic drugs and the utilization of the techniques that are more expensive and less effective.

It is equally critical to note that misguided vaccinations and other practices have paved the way for less vaccination coverage that not only compromise the health of an individual but it has affected the overall paradigm of the validity of vaccinations. It is asserted that the counted and minor negative aspects of vaccines are presented in a more exegetical and exaggerated way leading to inefficiency in belief that suggests vaccination for curing diseases. According to research by Medline, it is highlighted that there is a great epidemic approach towards vaccines where the keywords vaccine has been searched for about 2655 times greater than the other search tabs. (Luyten, et, al. 2016). Global health is another ideology that is addressed by the use of vaccination program taking into account that a good deal of substantial progress has been observed on global health over the course of last several years in terms of both population and individuals.

In accordance with the relative progress of Global Alliance for immunization and Vaccines, it has been brought into insight that vaccination programs are one of the staunch medical progress over the course of the next ten years. The global census has asserted that it is to be noted, vaccination programs have a greater approach in terms of benefits rather than risks taking into account that a particular vaccine should be used for particular target groups and for a particular disease. (Luyten, et, al. 2016). However, there are several aspects that reflect the use of vaccines in term of developmental health, there are a number of features that infer a more practical approach to developmental health.

Global necessity

There is an increased approach towards evolution in the healthcare system, taking into account that there are a number of novel techniques that can save the health of an individual. It is asserted that the global coverage of vaccination programs plays a major role in mitigating numerous infectious and viral disease. Despite evolution, people die of infection and vaccination programs are the most effective approach to treat infection, even avoidance of infection. There are 6.6 million children who die every year because of any kind of infection, taking into account that vaccination programs are required to treat those children. (Parashar, et, al. 2016).

The global importance of vaccination programs has been described by the Global Alliance for Vaccination and Immunization, highlighting that a severe infection such as polio has been controlled to major extent just because of vaccines so it is assumed that there would be several future global prospectuses that are expected of vaccines. (Dans, et, al. 2018). However, 68 World Health Assembly has asserted, although Vaccines are a necessity and they are playing their most effective part still, Global Vaccine Action Plan is required so that all resolutions can be synchronized and collective efforts can be taken to cure diseases. (Chiller, et, al. 2019).

Mitigation of disease without reoccurrence

There are a number of medicines that provide timely and temporary defence from a particular disease. Vaccines can not only prevent an individual but a community taking into account that when immune level of a community falls, they are a major threat to any kind of disease. There are a number of infectious diseases that are a part of medical history but there is no sign of existing epidemic. There were about 1600 measles cases in the United States of America, taking into consideration that still it is one of major part of medical history in numerous of parts of world and countries such as Pacific, Europe, and Asia. (Gilardi, et, al. 2018). However, the reduced and mitigated rate of Measles in the United States of America highlight the fact that vaccination programs can prevent the reoccurrence of a disease and it is a major tribute to global health and development of health. Reoccurrence of disease is more like a dilemma because both, community and healthcare system cannot go beyond the realms of finding new ways to treat the same disease. Vaccination has saved much time and resources by mitigating the reoccurrence of disease. (Gilardi, et, al. 2018).

Lack of toxins

There are a number of myths about vaccines, where one of the major myth infers that vaccines are actually loaded with toxins. Beginning from the antivaccination movement, it has been highlighted that vaccines incorporate resistance against a particular disease and the concept of resistance was challenged from various spectra of life such as religion, morality and ethics. There are a number of people who think that this resistance can be a product of certain toxins that prevent a disease to occur. (Lu, et, al. 2018). Although it is evident that there are some major risks that are associated with vaccines but a complete paradigm of shift from something very beneficial to injurious was unexpected. The myth of toxics was a huge question mark on the validity of vaccine taking into account that mercury in thimerosal was termed and assumed to be a major cause of autism. The studies have failed to link toxins with vaccination programs, highlighting that there are no toxins in vaccines that are injurious to health. There are a number of medicines that have certain materials that are harmful but vaccines don't contain toxins that could impact the health and, in this way, vaccination programs are a code to live because it saves health without any adherence or association with side effects. (Mohanty, et, al. 2019).

Required Dose

Variables of medication and the medical product play a significant role in determining the regiment of the body. (Mohanty, et, al. 2019). It is important to note that there are a number of patients with medical histories where a minor dose has affected them badly. The reaction of medicine can have a strong and negative impact on the body, negating the positive side. However, vaccines are contributing to the development of health because they are just the required dose. (Gilardi, et, al. 2018). There are fewer or no cases that could quote a harmful or negative side of vaccines in terms of injection. Although there are a number of variables that are to be considered while choosing a vaccine and injecting it, still there are very few cases of side effect of any vaccine on patient. The instructions and information regarding perspective about vaccination programs needs to be clarified, taking into account that it can save an individual from any adverse impact that could lead to harm human body. (Mohanty, et, al. 2019).

Elimination of disease

Elimination of disease is one of the core principles and objective associated with vaccination programs taking into account that vaccines can eliminate the disease. The point of controversial analysis is the fact that there are a number of medications that are meant for treating and curing a particular disease but they are not actually well designed for their function that may lead to health complications. It is asserted that vaccines are actually the desired product for curing a particular disease, the analysis of efficiency reflects that vaccination programs are contributing to health on such a higher level that it can serve prevention to any future or upcoming disease as well. (Layton, et, al. 2019). It is significant to note that elimination of disease was one of the agendas for the introduction of any medical intervention, that can act as a defence to future disease asserting vaccination programs are a major section of health and medical world.

Accountability of complications. Mortality and morbidity

Elimination of a disease is an extension to a number of other features and concerns in healthcare, where the task of introducing medicine is to address health complications and reduce the rates of morbidity and mortality. It would not be wrong to say that these aims are connected yet separated ideas. (Chotta, et, al. 2019). Although three of the terms form different departments in health care where each of it plays a significant role in determining the adequacy of life and existence. Complications, morbidity and mortality is also concerned as a variable that is adding to the role of vaccine in the development of health. Complications in normal health and life pave the way for the idea of disease and the stance of being diseased paves the way for mortality as well. Vaccines address the three departments individually, taking into consideration that there are a number of vaccines that are meant for mitigating health complications such as vaccines for the lifelong resistance against disease. (Chiller, et, al. 2019). Morbidity is directly addressed by vaccine by inferring that the aim of introducing a vaccine was to address the diseased people while mortality is targeted by vaccines due it interventions that can save a life from life threatening diseases such as measles and polio. In a nutshell, all the aspect of vaccination programs addresses and add to human health. (Chotta, et, al. 2019).

Prevention of Infections

There are a number of infections that are epidemic and such infections are transferable from one human body to another taking into account that a whole community can be doomed to death. (Righolt, et, al. 2019). It is significant to note that vaccination programs can save infection by making the body immune to it. It also highlights that vaccination program is meant for determining and saving future health as well such as polio vaccine that can help a child fight against polio.

Source Drying

Source Drying is an ideology that highlights the effectiveness of disease by catering to the source. (Layton, et, al. 2019). There are a number of daises that are caused actually because of a common source taking into account that the threat cannot be mitigated until the influence of source is diminished. In the world of healthcare, there are very few medicines that could address source drying because individual health is considered under the impression of changing variables. (Gilardi, et, al. 2018). However, vaccination programs play a significant role in source drying taking into account that it can mitigate or immune the basic drivers of disease or infection. (Layton, et, al. 2019).

Barrier to antibiotic resistance

One of the major dilemmas is antibiotic resistance, taking into account that it is one of issues that are faced by practitioners and researchers. (Parashar, et, al. 2016). The resistance of antibiotics is getting so strong that a large number of antibiotics has to be shunned out of practice. The growing resistance of antibiotics has paved the way for global disease taking into consideration that any disease approaches global paradigm when there is no effective control for it. (Righolt, et, al. 2019). Vaccination programs have played a significant role in acting as a barrier to the antibiotic existence taking into account two major aspects. Firstly, vaccination programs allow individuals to develop global resistance by vaccination. It is one of the ideas that has gained much support over the course of years because getting vaccinated for a particular disease will automatically mitigate and reduce the occurrence of that disease. Side by side, evolution in vaccination programs have made communities to overcome particular disease not only in the current time but for the future as well. It would not be wrong to say that antibiotic resistance is greatly mitigated by the use of vaccines. (Chiller, et, al. 2019).

Conclusion

An exegetical analysis reveals that vaccination programs are more like an innovation that has to broaden the paradigm of healthcare and medicine. It would not be wrong to say that vaccination programs have shifted thoughts from disease centred society to a welfare society where people can be protected from serious illness and otter complications. A number of diseases are cured by the use of vaccines. It is significant to note that vaccination programs are meant for the prevention of diseases that can destroy the overall spectrum of life. Vaccination program is a multidimensional program taking into account that it addresses the other walks of life, one of the major concerns is the empowerment of economic system because previously a number of economic resources were spent on the mitigation of diseases. Side by side, there is great sustainability of the healthcare system, where massive resources are reserved for the time of need.

References

Attwell, K., Dube, E., Gagneur, A., Omer, S. B., Suggs, L. S., & Thomson, A. (2019). Vaccine acceptance: Science, policy, and practice in a ‘post-fact’world. Vaccine, 37(5), 677-682.

Attwell, K., Dube, E., Gagneur, (2016). Vaccine acceptance: Science, policy, and practice in a ‘post-fact’world. Vaccine, 37(5), 677-682.

Bloom, D. E., Fan, V. Y., & Sevilla, J. P. (2018). The broad socioeconomic benefits of vaccination. Science translational medicine, 10(441), eaaj2345.

Burger, E. A., Campos, N. G., Sy, S., Regan, C., & Kim, J. J. (2018). Health and economic benefits of single-dose HPV vaccination in a Gavi-eligible country. Vaccine, 36(32), 4823-4829.

Campos, N. G., Tsu, V., Jeronimo, J., Regan, C., Resch, S., Clark, A., ... & Kim, J. J. (2019). Health impact of delayed implementation of cervical cancer screening programs in India: A modeling analysis. International journal of cancer, 144(4), 687-696.

Chiller, T. M. (2019). Infection control/public health issues in fungal infections. Pathology, 51, S61-S62.

Chiller, T. M. (2016). public health issues in fungal infections. Pathology, 51, S61-S62.

Chotta, N. A., Mgongo, M., Uriyo, J. G., Msuya, S. E., Stray-Pedersen, B., & Stray-Pedersen, A. (2019). Awareness and Factors Associated with Health Care Worker’s Knowledge on Rubella Infection: A Study after the Introduction of Rubella Vaccine in Tanzania. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(10), 1676.

Dans, A. L., Dans, L. F., Lansang, M. A. D., Silvestre, M. A. A., & Guyatt, G. H. (2018). Controversy and debate on dengue vaccine series—paper 1: review of a licensed dengue vaccine: inappropriate subgroup analyses and selective reporting may cause harm in mass vaccination programs. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 95, 137-139.

Frieden, T. R. (2015). The future of public health. New England Journal of Medicine, 373(18), 1748-1754.

Garland, S. M. (2019). Population-level impact and herd effects following HPV vaccination programs: a global view. Pathology, 51, S62.

Gilardi, F., Castelli Gattinara, G., Vinci, M., Ciofi Degli Atti, M., Santilli, V., Brugaletta, R., ... & Zaffina, S. (2018). Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in Health Care Workers. A Pre-Post Intervention Study in an Italian Paediatric Hospital. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(5), 841.

Jacobson, R. M., Agunwamba, A. A., St. Sauver, J. L., & Finney Rutten, L. J. (2016). The most effective and promising population health strategies to advance human papillomavirus vaccination. Expert review of vaccines, 15(2), 257-269.

Layton, J. B., Butler, A. M., Brookhart, M. A., & Panozzo, C. A. (2019). Variation in rotavirus vaccination coding in state US medicaid data. Vaccine.

Lu, P. J., Yankey, D., Jeyarajah, J., O'halloran, A., Fredua, B., Elam-Evans, L. D., & Reagan-Steiner, S. (2018). Association of health insurance status and vaccination coverage among adolescents 13-17 years of age. The Journal of pediatrics, 195, 256-262.

Luyten, J., & Beutels, P. (2016). The social value of vaccination programs: beyond cost-effectiveness. Health Affairs, 35(2), 212-218.

Mauskopf, J., Standaert, B., Connolly, M. P., Culyer, A. J., Garrison, L. P., Hutubessy, R., ... & Severens, J. L. (2018). Economic analysis of vaccination programs. Value in health, 21(10), 1133-1149.

Mohanty, S., Buttenheim, A. M., Joyce, C. M., Howa, A. C., Salmon, D., & Omer, S. B. (2019). California’s Senate Bill 277: Local Health Jurisdictions’ Experiences With the Elimination of Nonmedical Vaccine Exemptions. American journal of public health, 109(1), 96-101.

Parashar, U. D., Johnson, H., Steele, A. D., & Tate, J. E. (2016). Health impact of rotavirus vaccination in developing countries: progress and way forward. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 62(suppl_2), S91-S95.

Righolt, C. H., Bozat‐Emre, S., & Mahmud, S. M. (2019). Effectiveness of school‐based and high‐risk human papillomavirus vaccination programs against cervical dysplasia in Manitoba, Canada. International journal of cancer.

Research Ethics And Validity

Research Ethics and Validity

[Author Name]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Research Ethics and Validity

The author Jonathan D along with his fellow researchers examined the correlation of risky behavior that is prevalent in adolescents with the use of mass media. The mass media not only included digital media but also the traditional media as well. According to the author, adolescents are society risk takers and therefore they are at a higher risk for substance abuse, school failure, and delinquency. Owing to the advancements in technology, people are relying more on technology. Specifically, teens are the ones who are more prone to use the technology. According to the author, the promotion of unhealthy activities on TV and magazines is the root cause of teens involved in risky behavior. To examine the relation of risky behavior in teens and frequent use of mass media, the author conducted a survey in which he collected data from teens ranging from fourteen to sixteen years old. The adolescents were given an hour-long self-administered questionnaire and were supervised by a trained interviewer. Each question in the questionnaire has two options that are yes and no. A risk scale was developed utilizing the eight risky behaviors such as smoking, drinking beer and cheating in an exam in the school. The results showed that there is indeed an association between the teens’ risky behavior and the use of mass media. Specifically, Whites were more indulged in risky behavior than Black teens. Moreover, teens who were more into watching video games that depict violence and aggression are more likely to involve in risky behaviors rather than those who were watching less violent video games (Klein & Porter, 1993).

Although the paper provided an insight into the use of mass media and its association with risky behavior in adolescents yet still there were several issues in the paper. While conducting any study for research purposes it is mandatory to consider all the ethical implications as guided by the healthcare associations. Specifically, discussing teens and children, they are the most vulnerable people in our society. This is because they are unaware of the ethics rules and laws and are dependent on the consent of parents. Therefore it is necessary to follow all the ethical implications. In the research article, the main issue was discrimination. The participants were only Black and White teens. The teens belonging from different ethnicities were neglected just because they were too few for a separate analysis which is ethically wrong. As the title of the paper suggests that it will be about teen’s risky behavior but ignoring the teens belonging from different ethnicities questions the validity of the research. Another issue with the paper was that there were more white teens as compared to black teens. This implies that white teens were more favored than black teens.

Despite the above-mentioned issues, the other most important issue with the paper was the questionnaire. In the questionnaire, there were questions regarding whether you have smoked or indulged in unprotected sex. The teens had to answer the question by choosing options like yes and no in the presence of an interviewer. The presence of an interviewer can influence teens’ decisions and their privacy is also at stake. This is ethically wrong as they are unable to share their opinions in a study that can greatly impact how people perceive mass media.

In any research paper, the most important thing is whether the paper is addressing the issue on which the whole paper is based or not. The validity of any research can be determined by analyzing the factual data and rationality of the arguments present in the paper (Roberts & Traynor, 2006). In the article (Klein & Porter, 1993) the author conducted a study to explore the correlation of mass media and increased risky behavior in teens by conducting a survey. However, despite providing real-time data, there are some concerns that question the validity of the research.

Specifically, discussing the internal validity, as the paper describes the effects of mass media on teens’ behavior while providing the questionnaire to the participants. However, the teens had to answer the question in the supervision of an interviewer. The presence of the interviewer can influence their opinions and thus the internal validity of research is at stake. Additionally, teens had to answer the questions by choosing yes or no and there was no other option in which they can share their one-time experience.

While discussing the external validity of research, it is highly concerning that teens of the different ethnicities were excluded. The research was conducted on black and white teens-only while teens with other ethnicities were excluded. This questions the external validity of the research as it is not clear how mass media can influence the teens who are from different ethnicities. Also, the study was limited to the teens in the US thus making an opinion that mass media will affect the behavior of the teens all around the world, is not clear.

In the context of internal and external validity, it is clear that the research design of the study lacks several aspects that question the overall validity of the research. Further, the authors were as there were more white teens than black and other ethnicities were excluded.

In any research, there is a significant impact of governmental regulations, patients, suppliers, and competitors (Ahmad & Khalaf, 2017). To publish research, it is mandatory to consider all these factors as well. However, these factors can negatively influence the research, for instance, stakeholders can influence the choice of participants by favoring participants from one community over others which is ethically wrong. This is because while researching any healthcare-related topic diversity is extremely important to measure the implications of the effectiveness of the research.

References

Ahmad, A., & Khalaf, E. M. (2017). The Impact of Stakeholders on Health Services Development: An Empirical Investigation on the Surgical Department at King Fahd General Hospital, Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 9(1), 129-138.

Klein, J. D., Brown, J. D., Dykers, C., Childers, K. W., Oliveri, J., & Porter, C. (1993). Adolescents' risky behavior and mass media use. Pediatrics, 92(1), 24-31.

Roberts, P., Priest, H., & Traynor, M. (2006). Reliability and validity in research. Nursing standard, 20(44).

Research In Health Care

Research in Healthcare

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research in Healthcare

Question 1: Why is an evaluation plan important?

Answer: In the health care sector, there are many processes that are taking place side by side. Since the medical procedures involve critical caring of patients, therefore for such reasons there exists some Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) which are patient-centric. There are many authorities which make sure the compliance of all stakeholders to those SOPs. In addition to the compliance of these SOPs, there are some evaluation procedures in the public health program infrastructure. The medical practitioners consider the evaluation plans a critical part of the health sector. This evaluation program involves the critical composting of the data, which reveals from time to time the flaws in the public health program infrastructure. Lavinghouze and Snyder mention that the healthcare program infrastructure coupled with an integrated evaluation mechanism is the most important aspect of the public sector healthcare program infrastructure ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wBiSCbG8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lavinghouze & Snyder, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Lavinghouze & Snyder, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":108,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/D8NTKMXF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/D8NTKMXF"],"itemData":{"id":108,"type":"article-journal","title":"Developing your evaluation plans: a critical component of public health program infrastructure","container-title":"American journal of health education","page":"237–243","volume":"44","issue":"4","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Developing your evaluation plans","author":[{"family":"Lavinghouze","given":"S. Rene"},{"family":"Snyder","given":"Kimberly"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lavinghouze & Snyder, 2013). They have suggested in their research that a proper evaluation program must be transparent, thoughtful and collaboratively developed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EBiDnLtT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lavinghouze & Snyder, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Lavinghouze & Snyder, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":108,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/D8NTKMXF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/D8NTKMXF"],"itemData":{"id":108,"type":"article-journal","title":"Developing your evaluation plans: a critical component of public health program infrastructure","container-title":"American journal of health education","page":"237–243","volume":"44","issue":"4","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Developing your evaluation plans","author":[{"family":"Lavinghouze","given":"S. Rene"},{"family":"Snyder","given":"Kimberly"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lavinghouze & Snyder, 2013).

Question 2: Why is it important to disseminate not only research findings but also evidence-based practice project finding?

Answer: This is much important to collaborate in the health care sector with the world. It not only makes research wider and more accessible but also make medical-related terminologies understandable by a wider audience. The dissemination also serves many purposes. For example, as the World Health often mentions in its annual reports that easy access to the wider audience about the health-related problems can serve the wider purposes. Similarly, Ahrens has mentioned in his research that Advanced Nursing Practitioners are best tools to disseminate product knowledge and the evidence-based report findings to the patients ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"A3VmwZDR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ahrens, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Ahrens, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":111,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/ZMKS8WIL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/pCT5fGyt/items/ZMKS8WIL"],"itemData":{"id":111,"type":"article-journal","title":"Evidenced–based Practice: Priorities and Implementation Strategies","container-title":"AACN Advanced Critical Care","page":"36–42","volume":"16","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Evidenced–based Practice","author":[{"family":"Ahrens","given":"Tom"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ahrens, 2005). There is another one thing important in the dissemination of the knowledge which is that the knowledge must be easily accessible and must not include the words or the connotations that are not understandable by the wider public. The important points of the research sometimes serve most critically. Therefore, if not the complete research, the abstracts must be mentioned and shared accordingly.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahrens, T. (2005). Evidenced–based Practice: Priorities and Implementation Strategies. AACN Advanced Critical Care, 16(1), 36–42.

Lavinghouze, S. R., & Snyder, K. (2013). Developing your evaluation plans: a critical component of public health program infrastructure. American Journal of Health Education, 44(4), 237–243.

Research In Health Care

Research in Healthcare

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research in Healthcare

Choosing the right methodology in an experiment is very important because it can either result in a breakthrough or it can simply break a specific research project. There are various factors that determine the selection of an appropriate research method. One of the main factors that determine the selection of an appropriate research methodology is the goal of that particular research project. The researcher needs to carefully consider what the study needs to accomplish, once it is determined then it will be easy to determine the most suitable research methodology accordingly. By knowing that what kind of results or information that the researcher will get at the end of the project it will help greatly in order to narrow down the available methodologies and choose the best and most suitable one ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"usK51Zxz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}How to choose appropriate research methods?,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“How to choose appropriate research methods?,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1479,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/6MAR6X3T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/6MAR6X3T"],"itemData":{"id":1479,"type":"webpage","title":"How to choose appropriate research methods?","container-title":"ResearchGate","abstract":"Read 3 answers by scientists with 1 recommendation from their colleagues to the question asked by Solomzi Madikane on Mar 16, 2016","URL":"https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_choose_appropriate_research_methods","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} ("How to choose appropriate research methods?" n.d.)r.

Apart from these ethics, budget and time are some of the significant factors which helps in choosing the appropriate research methodology. The choice of methods and the way in which these methods are implemented by the researchers also play crucial role in the success of the study. The choice of methodology depends on some of the practical considerations like the data type that is available and on the skills and knowledge of the person who is undertaking the research ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"c10lx2YG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}How to choose appropriate research methods?,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“How to choose appropriate research methods?,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1479,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/6MAR6X3T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/6MAR6X3T"],"itemData":{"id":1479,"type":"webpage","title":"How to choose appropriate research methods?","container-title":"ResearchGate","abstract":"Read 3 answers by scientists with 1 recommendation from their colleagues to the question asked by Solomzi Madikane on Mar 16, 2016","URL":"https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_choose_appropriate_research_methods","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} ("How to choose appropriate research methods?" n.d.)r. The researcher mainly focuses on the outcome and also the requirement of the study, if the research is qualitative or quantitative and after focusing on all these aspects a methodology is selected that not only best fits with all these aspects but at the same time it helps to achieve the desired outcomes. All these factors are important because they ensure that the desired results are achieved without wasting extra time and resources.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY How to choose appropriate research methods? (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2019, from ResearchGate website: https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_choose_appropriate_research_methods

Research Methods For The Health Sciences

Research methods for health sciences

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Research methods for health sciences

Randomized control trial (RCT) is one of the study designs used to test hypothesis on clinical trials and compare between intervention and control groups. The study design takes the highest rank for quality of research designs. This document aims to explain the use and effectiveness of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The design has been compared with the other study designs based on methodology, effectiveness, legal, and ethical issues. The internal and external validity has been questioned comparing using available evidence with other research strategies. Lastly, various confounders have been identified and how they affect the internal and external validity of an RCT.

Randomized controlled trials

RCT is a type of experimental study design which involves testing hypothesis by incorporating participants randomly in two different groups; experimental group and control group ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"H6s8q5yr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bhide, Shah, & Acharya, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Bhide, Shah, & Acharya, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":86,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/7QG9VK4G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/7QG9VK4G"],"itemData":{"id":86,"type":"article-journal","title":"A simplified guide to randomized controlled trials","container-title":"Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica","page":"380-387","volume":"97","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Bhide","given":"Amar"},{"family":"Shah","given":"Prakesh S."},{"family":"Acharya","given":"Ganesh"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bhide, Shah, & Acharya, 2018). The distribution of participants into two groups is purely random compared to non-randomized trials where participants are chosen and grouped based on personal choice. Because of the selection and distribution process, the non RCTs are subject to selection and outcome, whereas evidence from RCTs is regarded as the highest quality research evidence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tseLbhgR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017).

Additionally, randomized trials also provide a strong basis and evidence for systematic reviews and meta-analysis, therefore getting popular in a variety of researches. However, it is important to note that RCTs can be inappropriate and prone to bias if inefficiently done. Another important consideration to make is that the whole process of RCT design, conduction, results, interpretation, and distribution is complicated and requires a lot of effort and time ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qTU8rKPK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland et al., 2017).

Feasibility/appropriateness

RCTs and other experimental studies are considered more applicable than observational studies. The observational studies are completely based on observation of a phenomenon and presentation of information related to it. The RCTs are most suitable for measurement of effectiveness in pre-clinical and clinical researches. The intervention is followed prospectively after allocation to two or more groups. In the case of clinical trials, the intervention is proposed on the basis of logic, previously done similar researches or laboratory studies. Observational studies show the effectiveness of, but they are highly prone to bias ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SIcquVQw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bhide et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Bhide et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":86,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/7QG9VK4G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/7QG9VK4G"],"itemData":{"id":86,"type":"article-journal","title":"A simplified guide to randomized controlled trials","container-title":"Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica","page":"380-387","volume":"97","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Bhide","given":"Amar"},{"family":"Shah","given":"Prakesh S."},{"family":"Acharya","given":"Ganesh"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bhide et al., 2018). The questions to be answered in an RCT design are free of participants' opinions, and the research proceeds without any risk of bias.

It must be noted that the RCTs involve putting people on trials of various types, which requires ethical clearance. According to researches, it is ethically not right to put people on risk of a clinical trial if the outcomes are not scientifically contributable. Some researches involving harmful health practices do not get ethical clearance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mMpehVjA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland et al., 2017). One such example is oral/intravenous administration of alcohol to pregnant women because of the damages it causes to the mother and developing fetus ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QBEPQfCQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bhide et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Bhide et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":86,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/7QG9VK4G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/7QG9VK4G"],"itemData":{"id":86,"type":"article-journal","title":"A simplified guide to randomized controlled trials","container-title":"Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica","page":"380-387","volume":"97","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Bhide","given":"Amar"},{"family":"Shah","given":"Prakesh S."},{"family":"Acharya","given":"Ganesh"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bhide et al., 2018).

In some cases, RCTs are considered inappropriate even after granting of ethical clearance, especially when the research fails to contribute to participant’s treatment. Therefore, it is crucial to carry all steps carefully and responsibly to minimize the risk of harm to participants and produce valuable outcomes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"447LL7zg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bondemark & Ruf, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Bondemark & Ruf, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":90,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/RF85P3AX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/RF85P3AX"],"itemData":{"id":90,"type":"article-journal","title":"Randomized controlled trial: the gold standard or an unobtainable fallacy?","container-title":"European Journal of Orthodontics","page":"457–461","volume":"37","issue":"5","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Randomized controlled trial","author":[{"family":"Bondemark","given":"Lars"},{"family":"Ruf","given":"Sabine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bondemark & Ruf, 2015). Moreover, contrary to all the advantages mentioned above, RCT design is not appropriate to study history or pattern of disease and the diseases which take a long time to develop.

Internal validity/External validity

Internal validity is the amount of trustworthiness a study carries for cause and effect relationship between an outcome and an intervention. Many factors contribute to an increase in internal validity, including randomization, blinding, experimental studies, and study procedures. An RCT design successfully accomplishes most of them compared to other designs like non-randomized controlled trials; which do not follow the random allocation method, observation studies; which do not involve any kind of experiment on the chosen population, case control, or cohort studies. However, the risk of bias still exists in RCTs because of some potential confounding factors, blinding methods, and study procedures ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"g2gWzhRU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cartwright, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Cartwright, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":88,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/XPQTWKU7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/XPQTWKU7"],"itemData":{"id":88,"type":"article-journal","title":"Are RCTs the gold standard?","container-title":"BioSocieties","page":"11-20","volume":"2","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Cartwright","given":"Nancy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cartwright, 2007).

In contrast to internal validity, external validity refers to the amount of implacability of the research to other study settings. It is measured as generalizability or transferability of the study findings. External validity can be ensured by considering inclusion/exclusion criteria, replication, and field experiment. The selection criteria need to be defined precisely and accurately for the replication of study in a different setting. Field experiment means research should be conducted outside a laboratory in on general population.

However, some situational variables like time and location, sample features, selection bias, and pre-post test effects have a negative impact on external validity of the research. Some other designs can prove to have the highest external validity if confounders are efficiently addressed. Therefore, it is important to recognize the internal and external factors which can affect the outcome of interest in any study design and propose ways to address them.

Confounding/bias

Comparing two or more groups in an observational study, may not yield significantly credible results as the differences observed may not be because of exposure or intervention, instead can be caused by changes in groups themselves. This is called confounding ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vWdGRUhb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cartwright, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Cartwright, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":88,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/XPQTWKU7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/XPQTWKU7"],"itemData":{"id":88,"type":"article-journal","title":"Are RCTs the gold standard?","container-title":"BioSocieties","page":"11-20","volume":"2","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Cartwright","given":"Nancy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cartwright, 2007). However, if the sample is sufficiently large, the differences are believed to exist because of intervention and not the sample. The confounding in RCT makes the other study designs like observational studies a better approach. The only way to handle such disparities is random allocation; allocating each participant randomly to either intervention or control group ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XAh77wsv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Howards, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Howards, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":87,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/AXPKYSP8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/AXPKYSP8"],"itemData":{"id":87,"type":"article-journal","title":"An overview of confounding. Part 1: the concept and how to address it","container-title":"Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica","page":"394-399","volume":"97","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Howards","given":"Penelope P."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Howards, 2018). Randomization can be individual or clustered. Individual randomization refers to assorting all the participants randomly into control and treatment groups, whereas cluster randomization refers to classifying clusters or groups of participants for treatment and control. Cluster randomization does not offer a true or valid comparison between the two study groups, and the research is more susceptible to limitation of confounding ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"A6KMPlHW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Miettinen & Cook, 1981)","plainCitation":"(Miettinen & Cook, 1981)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":94,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/96VLCLK5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/96VLCLK5"],"itemData":{"id":94,"type":"article-journal","title":"Confounding: essence and detection","container-title":"American journal of epidemiology","page":"593-603","volume":"114","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Miettinen","given":"Olli S."},{"family":"Cook","given":"E. Francis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Miettinen & Cook, 1981). To ensure the credibility of such clustered trials and minimize confounding, it is suggested to keep the sample size higher.

Confounding leads to various types of bias. Bias refers to any type of systematic error that cause incorrect measurement of the effect of exposure/treatment on the results of the study. There can be various factors acting as potential confounders in a study ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t0e7svyD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Brookhart, St\\uc0\\u252{}rmer, Glynn, Rassen, & Schneeweiss, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Brookhart, Stürmer, Glynn, Rassen, & Schneeweiss, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":96,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/Q8JPITAP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/Q8JPITAP"],"itemData":{"id":96,"type":"article-journal","title":"Confounding control in healthcare database research: challenges and potential approaches","container-title":"Medical care","page":"S114","volume":"48","issue":"6 0","author":[{"family":"Brookhart","given":"M. Alan"},{"family":"Stürmer","given":"Til"},{"family":"Glynn","given":"Robert J."},{"family":"Rassen","given":"Jeremy"},{"family":"Schneeweiss","given":"Sebastian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Brookhart, Stürmer, Glynn, Rassen, & Schneeweiss, 2010). One mentioned above is the existence of individual differences among groups to be compared. Other than that, some outside variables can be a potential source of impact higher than the intervention itself, causing misleading results.

Blinding help to reduce participant’s or researcher’s bias. Double blinding which is keeping the randomization from both the participants and the observer help to maximize the quality of the results. Single blinding, on the other hand, involves randomization for the subjects, not the researcher ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t0e7svyD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Brookhart, St\\uc0\\u252{}rmer, Glynn, Rassen, & Schneeweiss, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Brookhart, Stürmer, Glynn, Rassen, & Schneeweiss, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":96,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/Q8JPITAP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/Q8JPITAP"],"itemData":{"id":96,"type":"article-journal","title":"Confounding control in healthcare database research: challenges and potential approaches","container-title":"Medical care","page":"S114","volume":"48","issue":"6 0","author":[{"family":"Brookhart","given":"M. Alan"},{"family":"Stürmer","given":"Til"},{"family":"Glynn","given":"Robert J."},{"family":"Rassen","given":"Jeremy"},{"family":"Schneeweiss","given":"Sebastian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Brookhart, Stürmer, Glynn, Rassen, & Schneeweiss, 2010).

Conclusion

To sum up, it can be said that RCTs generate high quality outcomes by accurately and precisely following all the steps. They are the most feasible designs for clinical trials and intervention studies. Internal and external validity of an RCT can be ensured by identifying the possible confounders and addressing them properly. One of the confounding factors is the differences between control and intervention groups. Others include outside variables like the environment. The large sample sizes, precisely defined selection criteria and defined procedures, help to limit the confounding and bias in a RCT. However, the RCT is not a suitable design to measure long term epidemiology of a disease. And even efficiently done, the susceptibility of research to bias cannot be ignored.

References

Boland, A., Cherry, G., & Dickson, R. (Eds.). (2017). Doing a systematic review: A student's guide. Sage.

Bhide, A., Shah, P. S., & Acharya, G. (2018). A simplified guide to randomized controlled

trials. Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica, 97(4), 380-387.

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bhide, A., Shah, P. S., & Acharya, G. (2018). A simplified guide to randomized controlled trials. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 97(4), 380–387.

Boland, A., Cherry, G., & Dickson, R. (2017). Doing a systematic review: A student’s guide. Sage.

Bondemark, L., & Ruf, S. (2015). Randomized controlled trial: The gold standard or an unobtainable fallacy? European Journal of Orthodontics, 37(5), 457–461.

Brookhart, M. A., Stürmer, T., Glynn, R. J., Rassen, J., & Schneeweiss, S. (2010). Confounding control in healthcare database research: Challenges and potential approaches. Medical Care, 48(6 0), S114.

Cartwright, N. (2007). Are RCTs the gold standard? BioSocieties, 2(1), 11–20.

Howards, P. P. (2018). An overview of confounding. Part 1: The concept and how to address it. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 97(4), 394–399.

Miettinen, O. S., & Cook, E. F. (1981). Confounding: Essence and detection. American Journal of Epidemiology, 114(4), 593–603.

Research Methods For The Health Sciences

Research methods for health sciences; Education and mortality risks

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Research methods for health sciences; Education and mortality risks

Mortality rates are defined as the number of deaths in a particular period. The rates vary in different parts of world, even in different parts of the same country. Such disparities have been associated with a number of factors including socioeconomic status, risk taking behaviors, gender, age, health facilities and level of education. Correlation of morbidities to the level of education have been debated for long. This document presents five research articles studying education and death rates as primary or secondary objective. The research design of choice, its components, advantages, disadvantages and risk of bias have been also discussed.

Mortality and education

The correlation of mortality and education has been studies by many researchers. Dupre, Silberberg, Willis, & Feinglos (2015) studied two factors related to mortality, diabetes and education. The survival rates were found to be low in people with lower education and suffering from diabetes. Mortality risks were also found to be higher in children with lower education leading to increasing rates of child labor ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ezPYBPbl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Estevan & Baland, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Estevan & Baland, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":98,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/NC75RZLV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/NC75RZLV"],"itemData":{"id":98,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mortality risks, education and child labor","container-title":"Journal of Development Economics","page":"118-137","volume":"84","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Estevan","given":"Fernanda"},{"family":"Baland","given":"Jean-Marie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Estevan & Baland, 2007). Lower education is accompanied with lower survival rates among adult population of US ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gli3CBXM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":103,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/BBAT2IY9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/BBAT2IY9"],"itemData":{"id":103,"type":"article-journal","title":"The effect of educational attainment on adult mortality in the United States","container-title":"Population bulletin","page":"1","volume":"68","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Hummer","given":"Robert A."},{"family":"Hernandez","given":"Elaine M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hummer & Hernandez, 2013). ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9gVvEClz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Krueger, Tran, Hummer, & Chang, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Krueger, Tran, Hummer, & Chang, 2015)","dontUpdate":true,"noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/28TAW32E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/28TAW32E"],"itemData":{"id":101,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mortality attributable to low levels of education in the United States","container-title":"PloS one","page":"e0131809","volume":"10","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"Krueger","given":"Patrick M."},{"family":"Tran","given":"Melanie K."},{"family":"Hummer","given":"Robert A."},{"family":"Chang","given":"Virginia W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Lxd0jeqV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sandow, Westerlund, & Lindgren, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Sandow, Westerlund, & Lindgren, 2014)","dontUpdate":true,"noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/9ES8XY8R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/9ES8XY8R"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"article-journal","title":"Is your commute killing you? On the mortality risks of long-distance commuting","container-title":"Environment and planning A","page":"1496-1516","volume":"46","issue":"6","author":[{"family":"Sandow","given":"Erika"},{"family":"Westerlund","given":"Olle"},{"family":"Lindgren","given":"Urban"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Sandow, Westerlund, & Lindgren (2014) and Krueger, Tran, Hummer, & Chang (2015) also observed a decrease in death rate with increase in education.

Papers selected

Presented below is the list of titles of papers selected to study the link between education levels and morbidity rates.

‘Education, glucose control, and mortality risks among U.S. older adults with diabetes’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cJGRarcJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dupre, Silberberg, Willis, & Feinglos, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Dupre, Silberberg, Willis, & Feinglos, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":97,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/RNCU2YL8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/RNCU2YL8"],"itemData":{"id":97,"type":"article-journal","title":"Education, glucose control, and mortality risks among US older adults with diabetes","container-title":"Diabetes research and clinical practice","page":"392-399","volume":"107","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Dupre","given":"Matthew E."},{"family":"Silberberg","given":"Mina"},{"family":"Willis","given":"Janese M."},{"family":"Feinglos","given":"Mark N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dupre, Silberberg, Willis, & Feinglos, 2015).

‘Mortality risks, education and child labor’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DVZHtQMM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Estevan & Baland, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Estevan & Baland, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":98,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/NC75RZLV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/NC75RZLV"],"itemData":{"id":98,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mortality risks, education and child labor","container-title":"Journal of Development Economics","page":"118-137","volume":"84","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Estevan","given":"Fernanda"},{"family":"Baland","given":"Jean-Marie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Estevan & Baland, 2007).

‘The Effect of Educational Attainment on Adult Mortality in the United States’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"n1iWkbt5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":103,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/BBAT2IY9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/BBAT2IY9"],"itemData":{"id":103,"type":"article-journal","title":"The effect of educational attainment on adult mortality in the United States","container-title":"Population bulletin","page":"1","volume":"68","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Hummer","given":"Robert A."},{"family":"Hernandez","given":"Elaine M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hummer & Hernandez, 2013).

‘Is your commute killing you? On the mortality risks of long-distance commuting’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zqh4gqo6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sandow et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Sandow et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/9ES8XY8R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/9ES8XY8R"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"article-journal","title":"Is your commute killing you? On the mortality risks of long-distance commuting","container-title":"Environment and planning A","page":"1496-1516","volume":"46","issue":"6","author":[{"family":"Sandow","given":"Erika"},{"family":"Westerlund","given":"Olle"},{"family":"Lindgren","given":"Urban"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sandow et al., 2014).

‘Mortality attributable to low levels of education in the United States’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9Y1wd8gE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Krueger et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Krueger et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/28TAW32E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/28TAW32E"],"itemData":{"id":101,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mortality attributable to low levels of education in the United States","container-title":"PloS one","page":"e0131809","volume":"10","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"Krueger","given":"Patrick M."},{"family":"Tran","given":"Melanie K."},{"family":"Hummer","given":"Robert A."},{"family":"Chang","given":"Virginia W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Krueger et al., 2015).

Evidence table

The table given below sums up important characteristics of researches studying the relationship between number of morbidities and education level. Most of them are based on adult populations, whereas some are limited to children. It can be observed that in some studies, education is not the only variable studied. However, mortality risk has been recorded as a primary outcome in all the researches.

Citation

Study setting

Study design

Population

Intervention

Outcome

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sK7ht5Vk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dupre et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Dupre et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":97,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/RNCU2YL8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/RNCU2YL8"],"itemData":{"id":97,"type":"article-journal","title":"Education, glucose control, and mortality risks among US older adults with diabetes","container-title":"Diabetes research and clinical practice","page":"392-399","volume":"107","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Dupre","given":"Matthew E."},{"family":"Silberberg","given":"Mina"},{"family":"Willis","given":"Janese M."},{"family":"Feinglos","given":"Mark N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dupre et al., 2015)

Global

Prospective cohort

Those born between 1931 and 1941

Diabetes mellitus and education

Mortality risks

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tAb1xRqN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Estevan & Baland, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Estevan & Baland, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":98,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/NC75RZLV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/NC75RZLV"],"itemData":{"id":98,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mortality risks, education and child labor","container-title":"Journal of Development Economics","page":"118-137","volume":"84","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Estevan","given":"Fernanda"},{"family":"Baland","given":"Jean-Marie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Estevan & Baland, 2007)

Global

Literature review

Adult populations in the US

Child labor and education

Mortality risks

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tOcZ0bCl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":103,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/BBAT2IY9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/BBAT2IY9"],"itemData":{"id":103,"type":"article-journal","title":"The effect of educational attainment on adult mortality in the United States","container-title":"Population bulletin","page":"1","volume":"68","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Hummer","given":"Robert A."},{"family":"Hernandez","given":"Elaine M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hummer & Hernandez, 2013)

Global

Literature review

Global

Education

Adult mortality

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ikQCwBXJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sandow et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Sandow et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/9ES8XY8R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/9ES8XY8R"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"article-journal","title":"Is your commute killing you? On the mortality risks of long-distance commuting","container-title":"Environment and planning A","page":"1496-1516","volume":"46","issue":"6","author":[{"family":"Sandow","given":"Erika"},{"family":"Westerlund","given":"Olle"},{"family":"Lindgren","given":"Urban"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sandow et al., 2014)

US

Using registry data

Population between 1985 and 2008

Long distance commuting

Mortality

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TOkt2h1p","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Krueger et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Krueger et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/28TAW32E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/28TAW32E"],"itemData":{"id":101,"type":"article-journal","title":"Mortality attributable to low levels of education in the United States","container-title":"PloS one","page":"e0131809","volume":"10","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"Krueger","given":"Patrick M."},{"family":"Tran","given":"Melanie K."},{"family":"Hummer","given":"Robert A."},{"family":"Chang","given":"Virginia W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Krueger et al., 2015)

US

Survey interview

US population in 2010

Low education levels

Mortality

Table 1. Evidence table of studies selected

Questions to be addressed

In order to choose a study design for a research question, a few questions need to be addressed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KueKNrXc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017). Before starting a research on a specific question, it is essential to know the amount and type of research done on the same topic. If the area has been covered already, a strong rationale must be provided to justify the need of further research (Mulrow, 1994).

Gaps in available studies

Identifying the gap refers to finding out the area in the topic of interest which has not been covered by previous researches ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KueKNrXc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017). This gap provides the rationale for conducting the research. Many researches have been published studying the correlation of mortality rates and education. However, no systematic review has been produced on this topic.

Chosen study design

The chosen study design for this study is systematic review, systematic reviews provide highest level of evidence on research questions. Systematic review is a secondary study design which uses and presents the related data form previously done researches. It follows a systematic approach of data collection, synthesis and analysis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KueKNrXc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017). Systematic review is best chosen design to measure the correlation of morbidity to level of education as the information of number of deaths has been previously collected and analyzed in previous researches. Moreover, it will save the time of lengthy data collection procedures which will be used for analysis and interpretation.

Components

Figure 1 shows the components of a systematic review from selection of question to analysis of results. The first and foremost stage is the development of a research question. After the development of a question comes designing research criteria. The research criteria must be broad enough to cover all parts of the question and precise enough to filter out irrelevant researches. Once the inclusion/exclusion criteria have been formulated, the literature search is performed using online databases. The choice of database is based on the type of research question ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KueKNrXc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017). The keyword selection is another important step in literature search. Keywords are chosen related to population, intervention, comparison and outcome and combined with an AND. The literature search gives a list of articles including the keywords in full text, summary or title. These papers are then screened in first and selected by reading titles/abstracts and full articles, respectively. The second selection provides a final list of papers to be included in the systematic review ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KueKNrXc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017).

After the papers are obtained, they are subject to critical appraisal tools. The choice of tool purely relies on the type of study design like CASP, JBI and McMaster. Each study design has a specific appraisal tool. After the appraisal, data is extracted and synthesized from the studies (Mulrow, 1994). The extracted data is then combined using a meta-analysis approach if the results are similar enough to be combined. Otherwise, best evidence synthesis is employed to present the findings. Data can be presented in form of tables, graphs, pie charts or figures. It must be noted that all components of a systematic review are predefined and are performed in a highly precise manner that is why it is called a systematic review. Therefore, systematic review has been chosen for this study.

Fig. 1 Components of a systematic review

Type of study design

Two main categories of study designs are observational and experimental. Observational studies (cohort and case control studies) are those measuring the effect of a test, treatment or any other type of intervention whereas experimental studies (randomized controlled trials) introduce an intervention in a preset population and measure its effects. A systematic review including observational studies is called systematic review of observational studies. On the other hand, the one including experimental is called systematic review of experimental studies. Some systematic reviews include both experimental and observational studies. This study will include both the designs based on number and type of studies found. Additionally, limiting the type of designs can reduce the number of participants and in turn reduce population size.

Advantages and disadvantages

Systematic reviews have several advantages over other study designs. They save the time of the researcher which can be utilized on the analysis and interpretations. Other than time, systematic reviews also save resources (Mulrow, 1994). The biggest advantage is quality. They provide high quality evidence by combining a variety of researches. On contrast to all the advantages, the combination of different studies is sometimes not possible as the original studies are carried out in different study settings. Moreover, validity of the results may be affected because the published researches only contain the significant effect (Knobloch, Yoon, & Vogt, 2011).

Risk of bias

Systematic reviews are affected by various types of bias. Selection bias can harm the interpretation of findings as the researcher can report the outcome of interest. Similarly, journal editors can cause publication bias by publishing more compelling or audience drawing researches and ignoring others (Knobloch, Yoon, & Vogt, 2011). Risk of bias can be minimized by double data extraction methods and employers two reviewers who perform the data extraction independently ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KueKNrXc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":93,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YjWHJPzk/items/GUTIK5NI"],"itemData":{"id":93,"type":"book","title":"Doing a systematic review: A student's guide","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-5264-1658-1","author":[{"family":"Boland","given":"Angela"},{"family":"Cherry","given":"Gemma"},{"family":"Dickson","given":"Rumona"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boland, Cherry, & Dickson, 2017).

.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Boland, A., Cherry, G., & Dickson, R. (2017). Doing a systematic review: A student’s guide. Sage.

Dupre, M. E., Silberberg, M., Willis, J. M., & Feinglos, M. N. (2015). Education, glucose control, and mortality risks among US older adults with diabetes. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 107(3), 392–399.

Estevan, F., & Baland, J.-M. (2007). Mortality risks, education and child labor. Journal of Development Economics, 84(1), 118–137.

Hummer, R. A., & Hernandez, E. M. (2013). The effect of educational attainment on adult mortality in the United States. Population Bulletin, 68(1), 1.

Krueger, P. M., Tran, M. K., Hummer, R. A., & Chang, V. W. (2015). Mortality attributable to low levels of education in the United States. PloS One, 10(7), e0131809.

Sandow, E., Westerlund, O., & Lindgren, U. (2014). Is your commute killing you? On the mortality risks of long-distance commuting. Environment and Planning A, 46(6), 1496–1516.

Knobloch, K., Yoon, U., & Vogt, P. M. (2011). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement and publication bias. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 39(2), 91-92.

Mulrow, C. D. (1994). Systematic reviews: rationale for systematic reviews. Bmj, 309(6954), 597-599.

Research Methods For The Health Sciences

Research Methods for the Health Sciences

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research Methods for the Health Sciences

Health care and nursing is an important profession and it comes as a blessing for the calamity stricken people who have been suffering from any sort of disease. The profession of healthcare and nursing contains a great amount of risk as well as it involves dealing with the human lives and a little negligence at the part of healthcare professional may result in the loss of a precious life. The professional of medicine becomes a blessing and helpful for the general public when the solution of the problem has been found after a thoroughly sought out research process.

Different forms of research methodologies are adopted in the case of various diseases as every medical issue demands a different approach to be catered (Aarons, Fettes, Sommerfeld, & Palinkas, 2012). For example, the study design for malaria will be completely different as compared to the study design adopted for measles. One of the examples that will be considered in this assignment for which study design is to be established is the study of the relationship between in-home treated drinking water and the occurrence of the case of diarrhea. The research will be conducted in order to check the total no of households that have an in-home water purifying system and how often the children in these homes fall sick, especially due to diarrhea.

Secondly, the next research design will be developed to check the prevalence of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) among male college students. This research will be conducted among ten colleges, out of which five are present in the city area where there is enough awareness about STIs and five are in suburban or rural areas where there is not much awareness about such kind of things. And last but not the least, the third example that will be considered for the development of a research design is the relationship of the health status and the existence of the grocery stores with liquor in the neighborhood.

References

Aarons, G. A., Fettes, D. L., Sommerfeld, D. H., & Palinkas, L. (2012). Mixed Methods for Implementation Research: Application to Evidence-Based Practice Implementation and Staff Turnover in Community Based Organizations Providing Child Welfare Services. Child Maltreatment, 17(1), 10.1177/1077559511426908. http://doi.org/10.1177/1077559511426908. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3841106/

Research Methods For The Health Sciences

Title page

Research methods

Descriptive research questions differ from questions of relationship that are based on various research methods. These questions focus on uncovering responses or views of individuals towards the questions. These questions focused on quantifying the responses by inquiring time, regularity and percentage. These questions are used for quantifying the responses that is easy to compute. Descriptive questions are different from relationship-based questions because they focus on identifying association between variables. Through these questions, it is possible to determine the relationship between two or more variables. These questions are used for studying the relationship between job satisfaction and salary. The relationship is determined by taking job satisfaction as a dependent variable and salary as an independent variable. While descriptive questions are asked as; “how often do you study?” The variable selected for this is number of hours that a student is given to study. For descriptive questions, demographics are defined such as students having ages between 16 to 21 years. The descriptive questions suggest focusing on a small group and using their perceptions for understanding the responses of a larger population. The opinions and viewpoints of the respondents are used for understanding the perceptions of the larger population.

Finding evidence-based practices is an essential step for research in health sciences. The researcher should determine if prior research exists on the intended research topic or not. Certain methods can be adopted such as finding relevant research articles and papers from the scholarly database. To find previous studies on the selected topic, it is also appropriate to enter the relevant search terms. If a researcher is searching topics related to healthcare in medical databases like CINAHL, ProQuest, Medline and PubMed are used. Entering the search terms will help the researcher to find if previously, research has been conducted on the topic or not. Previous studies provide comprehensive view of the designs, techniques and the methods used by the previous researchers related to the topic.

It is important for the researcher to assure that the previous studies used for research offers quality. An important criterion for evaluating the quality of research study is by considering its impact factor CITATION Som03 \l 1033 (Saha, Saint, & Christakis, 2003). Validity of the impact factor is used for assessing the quality of the medical journal. Another factor considered for choosing the good quality papers is by considering the credibility of the source. The best way is to choose articles that are published on reliable databases like PubMed, CINAHL, ProQuest and Medline. These are credible databases that contain significant number of research studies, journals and articles related to health sciences and medicine. This suggests that the researcher must avoid using non-credible sources. The sources obtained from unauthentic sites or database undermines the credibility and quality of research. The articles must be selected that clearly give information about the aims of the study. The sources must also provide a clarity on the research questions that it is attempting to solve.

The quality of the paper or article also depends on the sample. It must consist of an adequate sample size and representatives that could help in making analysis and using it for the new research. The sampling techniques chosen by the researcher must be free from bias and adds further to the credibility. Credible articles highlights the research designs selected for the study such as experimental and pre-experimental studies. The criteria of measurement should reflect the validity and reliability of the study. Data analysis techniques are also considered because they give the idea of the models and statistical methodology used for the computation of the results. Selection of high-quality is also possible by identifying the methods used by the researcher for avoiding personal bias. It is also important to determine the methodology such as quantitative or the qualitative methods, if they are adequate for investigating the participants or not. Such as in case of a small sample size, qualitative methods are more practical while for a large sample size, quantitative surveying is more appropriate. The factors identified are important for making assessment about the quality of the articles or sources. This helps the researcher to choose only credible sources and avoid using the ones that lacks credibility and reliability.

Formulation of a research question should follow consultation with the scholarly literature. This is due to the fact that literature review helps in finding what was done previously on the research question and how it can be used for determining the relationship between the selected variables. Literature review is also followed because it tells how it can be applicable on the selected research question. It also tells the researcher, what can be done and what has already been done. This adds to the benefit of the researcher because it offers the reasoning for choosing the research question. Providing evidentiary support through literature, improved the credibility and reliability of the research topic. This also reveals that the question is supported by the previous studies or not. This is a practical way of saving time and following the already provided direction by the existing research studies. A good research question must be proved by the empirical evidence and the data provided by other research studies. So it is important to consider the possibilities or the outcomes of previously available studies.

References

Griffee, D. T. (2005). Research Tips: Interview Data Collection. Journal of Developmental Education, 28(3), 36–37.

Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41). Sage publications.

Meltzoff, J. (2007). Critical Thinking About Research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Saha, S., Saint, S., & Christakis, D. A. (2003). Impact factor: a valid measure of journal quality? J Med Libr Assoc, 9 (1), 42–46.

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences

Income Levels and Mortality

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Income Levels and Mortality

One question that has always fascinated the economists as well as the health experts is that how the income and the quality of life are linked with one another. The relationship specially that exists between the life expectancy at the national level as well as the national income index is something that is talked about at quite an extensive detail. Despite the fact that there is considerable interest in this issue and both these things are quite integral when it comes to measuring the national health level, there has not been many comprehensive researches that have taken into account how both of these things are linked to one another. Thus, this research is going to be focussing on the fact that how the connection between the life expectancy and the income level of the people tend to relate with one another.

Hypothesis

The easiest explanation that can be given in this regard is that how the food supply is related with the mortality of the individual. Even if one looks at the history, it can be seen that there are quite a lot of parallels that exist between the price index of the food and the level of mortality that is witnessed in the country at the particular point of time. When there is higher level of income prevailing in the country, it means that the overall quality of the life improves. It means that they are more likely to be having access to better housing, but they would be getting better health services. The same goes with the diet, the higher the level of income at the given level, and the greater is going to be the likelihood that the people are going to be in the position that they would be having good food. That does not mean that the direct relationship tends to exist among both of these variables, as it has been seen that the relationship between having higher level of income and the life expectancy is not that straightforward and one the income level reaches at a certain threshold, the same thing cannot be witnessed at the given point of time. The other thing that has to be looked at is that how to define a country that is developed and how both these things are related to one another. So, at the deeper level, all these variables are related quite closely to one another as far as the way decision making is supposed to be made.

Research Question

The major premises of this research are going to be how the income level and the healthcare premises such as the mortality rate of the population are connected with one another. Not only research is going to look at some of the ways the innate income level of the populace is going to be related with one another, the idea is also to make sure that some insight how the income level affects the healthcare level of the general population.

Conclusion

There are many dimensions that one is going to be seeing during the course of this research such is that how the criterion for the higher income and development is going to be determined. The other thing that has to be done is to ensure that what are some of the income levels at which the mortality rate is going to be lowered and at what income levels it is going to increase. Most importantly, income is not the only criteria, and a number of countries that are wealthy but not industrialised are not included in the list. Many mineral resource-rich economies, for example, have a high per capita GDP, often far exceeding the standard US$20,000 threshold for a country to be considered as ‘developed’, but are not considered developed countries because of export diversification criteria.

References

Backlund, E., Sorlie, P. D., & Johnson, N. J. (2016). The shape of the relationship between income and mortality in the United States: evidence from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. Annals of epidemiology, 6(1), 12-20.

Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., Lochner, K., & Prothrow-Stith, D. (2017). Social capital, income inequality, and mortality. American journal of public health, 87(9), 1491-1498.

Rodgers, G. B. (2019). Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: an international cross-section analysis. Population studies, 33(2), 343-351.

Smith, G. D. (2016). Income inequality and mortality: why are they related?

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences

Research Methods of the Health Sciences

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

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Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Research Methods of the Health Sciences

Summary of the News Article

Many of us are worried about our body shape, especially during the college years. Several experts stress the need to maintain a healthy mind-body connection CITATION Pom17 \l 1033 (Pompili & Laghi, 2017). A certified mind-body nutrition coach and eating psychologist, Tessie Tracy, states that she employs a practice called " eating psychology coaching" to aid her clients with body image challenges and problems like binge eating and overeating. She believes in focusing on what is appropriate for every individual’s unique body and personal style. Tracy considers the health band eating issues, a place of exploration while working together, and states that these challenges must be seen as an opportunity of self-improvement and growth, rather than enemies. Tracy tries to help her clients by asking them to first relate any personal body health issues with their living conditions, as she believes that family, relationships, work, stress, and other life circumstances have a huge impact on health and weight. Tracy mentions some of the conditions that affect eating habits and the most important of them is ‘stress eating’. It affects the fight or flight chemicals and the hormones of the body by increasing cortisol, which prevents fat burning and reduces metabolism and insulin levels. She advises to focus more on eating well; eating slowly and enjoying the food. Tracy points out a fact about emotional eating that food is designed to give pleasure and food is consumed for pleasure because it boosts the endorphins in the body. She suggests proper planning for the leftover food and for the meals to be taken ahead to avoid overeating. According to Tracy, binge eating causes depression, decrease in restful sleep and the ability of body to rebuild muscles and proteins. She concludes by stating that an individual himself knows his body conditions and if he is concerned, he must seek out some professional help.

Research Question

What are physical, cognitive, and emotional effects of binge eating and drinking?

Hypothesis

The physical, cognitive, and emotional effects of binge eating and drinking.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Pompili, S., & Laghi, F. (2017). Binge eating and binge drinking among adolescents: The role of drinking and eating motives. Journal of Health Psychology, 24(11), 1505-1516. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1359105317713359#

Tulp, S. (2017). The key to avoiding binge eating and drinking, according to science. USA TODAY. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/college/2017/09/01/the-key-to-avoiding-binge-eating-and-drinking-according-to-science/37434929/

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences

Research Methodology

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Research Methodology

Importance of Sampling and Sampling Frame

The population is the actual phenomenon or the large reality about which you want to comment or study. The population is what the researcher is trying to measure (e.g. purchasers of a certain product), and the sampling frame is the group of individuals who you are trying to sample from (e.g. people who have an email address). One may not be able to capture all purchasers through people who have email (there are plenty of people who don't have an email), but one can get close. In most of the research work, one does not know the universe or even when it is known, it would be too expensive to study the entire universe. Sampling itself is the most critical part of the research in all the studies, it is the motherhood of any research, and it is generally the first step with which a researcher begins research ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Vg94mCKe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/GWVTVWX2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/GWVTVWX2"],"itemData":{"id":1273,"type":"article-journal","title":"Sampling in qualitative research: Insights from an overview of the methods literature","container-title":"The Qualitative Report","page":"1772-1789","volume":"20","issue":"11","author":[{"family":"Gentles","given":"Stephen J."},{"family":"Charles","given":"Cathy"},{"family":"Ploeg","given":"Jenny"},{"family":"McKibbon","given":"K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015). It ought to be strong to support the foundation; hence sampling is a very crucial step in research that has to be sorted out very carefully before listing some objects as the focus of interest.

There may be several variables that affect the study variable. If one does not sample from all categories, then the final conclusions may be flawed. A sample frame is a list of objects from the population that could be your potential sample. Sample, on the other hand, is a sample subset chosen from the sampling frame ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Vg94mCKe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/GWVTVWX2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/GWVTVWX2"],"itemData":{"id":1273,"type":"article-journal","title":"Sampling in qualitative research: Insights from an overview of the methods literature","container-title":"The Qualitative Report","page":"1772-1789","volume":"20","issue":"11","author":[{"family":"Gentles","given":"Stephen J."},{"family":"Charles","given":"Cathy"},{"family":"Ploeg","given":"Jenny"},{"family":"McKibbon","given":"K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015). When we take samples of a population of things, we want our sample to be representative of the population. In other words, the researcher wants the sample to be free from bias, or speaking technically, they want the random variation to be the only source of deviation in our population. Sampling frame refers to a list, map or other specification of the sampling units, which constitute the available information about the designated population for a particular scheme. In the absence of a good sampling frame, that is not adequate to meet the need; it results in sampling error consequently impacting the results of the study. Sampling error refers to the part of the difference between population value and estimate, derived from a sample. This error can be reduced by increasing the size of the sample.

In addition, sample frames are just an acknowledgment that (for pragmatic reasons) researchers often have to sample from a subset of a population, not from the population in its entirety. Thus they need to be aware of what their sample frame is so that they do not unintentionally introduce a bias in our results. The ultimate aim of a research process is to compute associations or correlations from a group under study whose results can be inferred to define the impacts in a larger and general population.

Impacts of Poorly Specified Sampling Frame on the Research Process

As discussed above, the sampling technique and accuracy in the sampling methods play an imperative role in the quality of research outcomes and results. Poorly specified sampling frame results in the frame error, it is a major problem because if the sample is drawn from such a frame, it may lack the representation of the population of interest, from which the sample is drawn. Such error results in a biased estimate of the population under study. Thus, the aim of researchers is to minimize or avoid bias in the sampling frame. The error arising from poor or inaccurate sampling is also referred to as sampling error. Sampling error is the expected deviation of a sample estimate from the population parameter. In this case, the researcher is not able to evaluate the entire population and fails to capture the sample that is the true representative of that population. Nevertheless during the sampling process if the researcher systematically or deliberately excludes certain part of the population and proceed their sampling for getting information, then the sample estimate also differs from the population parameter which is known as bias. The poorly specified sampling frame can result in negative instances such as the exploitation of the unprofitable things and leading to incompetence in the application of the results of studies.

Convenience Sampling Validity

Convenience Sampling (also known as availability sampling) is a non-probability / non-random sampling method used to generate samples according to the ease of access, readiness to be part of the sample, accessibility at a specified time slot or any other practical requirements of a specific component (Murphy, Staffileno, & Foreman, 2018). The researcher selects participants based on closeness and does not consider whether or not they constitute the entire population. Using this method, they possibly can observe habits, views, and viewpoints. This strategy of collecting sample has definitely some clear advantages in terms of saving time and cost. In addition, it is the easiest, least expensive to implement, and thus it is very popular in developmental research.

However, there are many demerits of using this sampling technique, one of the common disadvantages is that they generally involve a lesser number of underrepresented sociodemographic subgroups; as a result, it is not easy to detect subgroup differences in a sociodemographic factor. In addition, these underrepresented sociodemographic subgroups, though in the smaller number but introduce variations in the sample. This results in the statistical noise in the sample owing to the variation in the data. Thus, it is reasonable to say that the use of convenience sampling in the research studies may be partly responsible for a few inconsistent effects that impact developmental science. Albeit, convenience sampling is the most common sampling technique, but it has some scientific disadvantages that negatively impacts the practical advantages that this study provides ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UOH1T3Kc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bornstein, Jager, & Putnick, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Bornstein, Jager, & Putnick, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1270,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6P8CHR86"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/6P8CHR86"],"itemData":{"id":1270,"type":"article-journal","title":"Sampling in developmental science: Situations, shortcomings, solutions, and standards","container-title":"Developmental Review","page":"357-370","volume":"33","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Bornstein","given":"Marc H."},{"family":"Jager","given":"Justin"},{"family":"Putnick","given":"Diane L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bornstein, Jager, & Putnick, 2013). Comparative to population-based probability sampling, this sampling technique is undoubtfully easy to implement, and unlike probability sampling, this technique results in the estimates that lack the ability to be generalized on a larger population, and any identifiable target population. It also offers insufficient power to sense variances amid sociodemographic subgroups hence producing noise in the data. These demerits do not make the studies invalid that employs convenience sampling. However, studies report that when researchers use this sampling technique, they may not consider conventional or heterogeneous but should consider homogeneous convenience. This sampling technique should not be discouraged owing to the benefits it offers in developmental science ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JUjJkEat","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jager, Putnick, & Bornstein, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Jager, Putnick, & Bornstein, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1272,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/KSI6AJDG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/KSI6AJDG"],"itemData":{"id":1272,"type":"article-journal","title":"II. More than just convenient: The scientific merits of homogeneous convenience samples","container-title":"Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development","page":"13-30","volume":"82","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Jager","given":"Justin"},{"family":"Putnick","given":"Diane L."},{"family":"Bornstein","given":"Marc H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jager, Putnick, & Bornstein, 2017).

External validity referred to the generalizability of study findings across different settings, populations, outcomes, and treatments. Random sampling is a sampling technique of drawing a sample from a population wherein the selection is grounded on chance, and every single component of the population is characterized by a known, non-zero probability of being selected. Random sampling is a preferred method in which external validity can be optimized to the maximum level as in random sampling each respondent has an equal chance to participate in a study. Random sampling is an unbiased sampling method in which a population is identified to which the study results need to be generalized. Then a fair sampling unit (participants) are selected, and due to this unbiasedness of the random sampling method, there is strong evidence for external validity.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bornstein, M. H., Jager, J., & Putnick, D. L. (2013). Sampling in developmental science: Situations, shortcomings, solutions, and standards. Developmental Review, 33(4), 357–370.

Gentles, S. J., Charles, C., Ploeg, J., & McKibbon, K. (2015). Sampling in qualitative research: Insights from an overview of the methods literature. The Qualitative Report, 20(11), 1772–1789.

Jager, J., Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2017). II. More than just convenient: The scientific merits of homogeneous convenience samples. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 82(2), 13–30.

Murphy, M. P., Staffileno, B. A., & Foreman, M. D. (2018). Research for Advanced Practice Nurses. Part II. Building Blocks for Evidence. Chapter 10: Sampling Methods. Third Edition. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. Available via EBSCOHOST

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences Dis 3

Research Methods of the Health Sciences

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

My research topic is “Effect of sexual abuse on the mental health of adolescents”. The main ethical issues that I can face in conducting research are informed consent, beneficence- do not harm, respect for confidentiality and anonymity and respect for privacy ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fouka</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>158</RecNum><DisplayText>(Fouka &amp; Mantzorou, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>158</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1571636665">158</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fouka, Georgia</author><author>Mantzorou, Marianna</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What are the major ethical issues in conducting research? Is there a conflict between the research ethics and the nature of nursing?</title><secondary-title>Health Science Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Health Science Journal</full-title></periodical><volume>5</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1108-7366</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Fouka & Mantzorou, 2011).

Informed consent

Informed consent means that a person voluntarily, knowingly, intelligently, and clearly, gives his/ her consent”. Before collecting data I will provide information to all participants regarding the benefits and potential risks associated with the research. I will tell the purpose of my study as well about the procedure which I will follow to my participants. In this study, I will also mention in the informed consent that participation is voluntary and the participant can refuse to take part in this study. For me, the interest of my participants will prevail over science and social interest. Comprehension, disclosure, voluntariness, and competency will be part of the informed consent which I will take from my participants.

Beneficence and non-maleficence

"Beneficence relates to the research benefits whereas non-maleficence is related to the potential risks of participation". In my study in which I will determine the effect of sexual abuse on the life of a female can cause the emotional and psychological discomfort among my participants as this study deals with the opening of participants old wound. Therefore as a researcher, I will take all possible measures to avoid the risk to a maximum extent.

Confidentiality

Another ethical dilemma that I can face as a researcher is a break of confidentiality. Confidentiality means that individuals have the full right to give and withhold as much information which they wish. Therefore I will take every possible measure to protect the anonymity of the participants. While taking interviews I will bear in my mind all social and psychological implications that a confidentiality breach may have on my participants.

Respect for the Privacy

Another ethical dilemma that can be associated with this study is the invasion of privacy. According to Kelman, this happens when private information such as attitude, belief, records, and opinion are shared with other persons without his consent and knowledge ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kelman</Author><Year>1977</Year><RecNum>159</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kelman, 1977)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>159</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1571636799">159</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kelman, Herbert C</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Privacy and research with human beings</title><secondary-title>Journal of Social Issues</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Social Issues</full-title></periodical><pages>169-195</pages><volume>33</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>1977</year></dates><isbn>0022-4537</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kelman, 1977). Therefore to avoid this ethical dilemma in this study, I will convey aims, methodology, and instruments to my participants.

References

ADDIN EN.REFLIST Fouka, G., & Mantzorou, M. (2011). What are the major ethical issues in conducting research? Is there a conflict between the research ethics and the nature of nursing? Health Science Journal, 5(1).

Kelman, H. C. (1977). Privacy and research with human beings. Journal of Social Issues, 33(3), 169-195.

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences SLP 3

Research Methods of the Health Sciences

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

Study objectives

To access the reporting of adverse drug reaction reporting among nurses in tertiary care hospitals

To determine the factors that are associated with the poor reporting of ADR among nurses

Describe the type of sampling strategy most appropriate for your research study.

There are four basic samplings strategies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ingham-Broomfield</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>163</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ingham-Broomfield, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>163</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1571655718">163</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ingham-Broomfield, Rebecca</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A nurses&apos; guide to quantitative research</title><secondary-title>Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The</full-title></periodical><pages>32</pages><volume>32</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ingham-Broomfield, 2014).

Random sampling

Stratified random sampling

Rational subgrouping

Systematic sampling

In this study, a simple random strategy will be used. Random sampling is that in which each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sampling process. Random sampling usually protects against the bias that can be introduced in the sampling process and it helps in getting a representative sample. In this study, probability sampling is used to ensure that all doctors, nurses and pharmacists working in different clinical units have an equal opportunity to be selected in this study.

The approximate number of nurses, pharmacists, and doctors in each clinical unit will be established and therefore a proportionate number of participants will be requested to fill the questionnaire, relative to the number of participants present in that clinical unit and the hospital.

Identify your target population and how you would determine your sampling frame and sample size.

The participants of this study will be nurses and pharmacists and pharmacists working in tertiary hospitals.

The inclusion and exclusion criteria for this study will be:

All doctors, nurses and pharmacists that are working in tertiary care hospitals and are in a position to handle adverse drug reaction in patients.

All pharmacists, nurses and physicians who will be willing to participate in this study.

Those nurses, pharmacists, and physicians will not be included in this study who are not involved directly in the clinical care of patients.

Those who will not be willing to participate in this study.

Determination of the Sample Size

The sampling frame is defined as a list from which population units are drawn as a sample. A sampling frame is important so that everyone is identified in the population and have an equal opportunity to be selected. In this study, sampling frame will be determined by getting the list of all the pharmacists, nurses, and physicians that will be working in the tertiary care hospitals.

The sample size is defined as part of the population that is chosen for an experiment and a survey. In a quantitative research study, it is very important to determine the sample size that can represent the target population. Most of the researchers want to work on a large sample but it is not always possible especially for students as it requires money, time and resources. For this study, Cochran’s formula for the minimum sample size will be determined by using the following formula ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kotrlik</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>160</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kotrlik &amp; Higgins, 2001)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>160</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1571655486">160</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kotrlik, JWKJW</author><author>Higgins, CCHCC</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organizational research: Determining appropriate sample size in survey research appropriate sample size in survey research</title><secondary-title>Information technology, learning, and performance journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information technology, learning, and performance journal</full-title></periodical><pages>43</pages><volume>19</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2001</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kotrlik & Higgins, 2001).

Where;

𝑛 = required sample size

Ζ = Standard deviation at 95% confidence level

Ρ = Proportion of the respondents

𝒬 = [1-Ρ]

d = precision level at 5%

Discuss the merits and shortcomings of your selected sampling strategy.

In this study, random sampling is used. A random sampling includes simple random sampling, stratified sampling or cluster sampling. Following are some advantages of using this strategy ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sedgwick</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>161</RecNum><DisplayText>(Sedgwick, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>161</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1571655566">161</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sedgwick, Philip</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cross sectional studies: advantages and disadvantages</title><secondary-title>Bmj</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Bmj</full-title></periodical><pages>g2276</pages><volume>348</volume><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>1756-1833</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Sedgwick, 2014).

Equal chance of selection

Random sampling allows everyone to have an equal chance of being selected within a defined region. This increases accuracy and fairness” into the research that is being conducted process. As individuals are chosen randomly and have an equal chance of being selected in a larger population and due to this, there is a chance of bias.

Simplicity

It is the simplest form of data collection. As random sampling takes some respondents from a large population, it is easy to create a sample group from a larger sampling frame. This helps to begin the data collection process faster than any other form of data collection allowed.

Generalizability

Random sampling allows the results to be generalized to the whole population. Random sampling is a preferred method in which external validity can be optimized to the maximum level as in random sampling, each respondent has an equal chance to participate in a study.

Disadvantages

Complex and time-consuming method of research.

With random sampling, it involves more resources and more time to collect data from the respondents, which makes this process tedious and time-consuming.

High cost and difficulty in obtaining a list of large populations.

Other than the time which it takes to collect data, there is also a high cost that is associated with it.

Require high skills and experience.

Random sampling usually requires high skills and experience to efficiently collect the data.

Explain how you will address the shortcomings in terms of threats to internal and external validity.

Internal validity defines how well a specific study is conducted, whereas external validity relates to the generalizability of the findings to the whole population. Internal validity can be enhanced by the Randomization to remove bias, binding, random selection, experimental manipulation and by defining the study protocol. The factors which threatened the internal validity are maturation, testing, a section of subject and instrumentation. According to Fraenkel and Wallen, standardization of those conditions under which research study is conducted is a way to reduce the threat from instrumentation and history. By gathering as much information as possible helps to minimize the threat from the selection. By choosing a proper research design also helps to minimize threats to internal validity ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McDermott</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>162</RecNum><DisplayText>(McDermott, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>162</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1571655630">162</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McDermott, Rose</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Internal and external validity</title><secondary-title>Cambridge handbook of experimental political science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Cambridge handbook of experimental political science</full-title></periodical><pages>27-40</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McDermott, 2011).

The threats to the external validity include selection biases, confounding and construct. These threats can be minimized by using random sampling instead of non-random sampling. Blind data collection methods can also help to increase the external validity.

References

ADDIN EN.REFLIST Ingham-Broomfield, R. (2014). A nurses' guide to quantitative research. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The, 32(2), 32.

Kotrlik, J., & Higgins, C. (2001). Organizational research: Determining appropriate sample size in survey research appropriate sample size in survey research. Information technology, learning, and performance journal, 19(1), 43.

McDermott, R. (2011). Internal and external validity. Cambridge handbook of experimental political science, 27-40.

Sedgwick, P. (2014). Cross sectional studies: advantages and disadvantages. Bmj, 348, g2276.

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences- Discussion

Research Methods of Health Sciences

Jody-Ann Ovesen

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Research Methods of Health Sciences

Mobile technology accessibility for research in the field of health sciences can improve the outcomes of research (Young, Holloway, & Swendeman, 2014). Technology can be incorporated into research in the health sector in multiple ways. Firstly, with the use of advanced algorithms and models, data can be processed at much higher rates. Comparative analysis of data is made easy with the use of the software. With the use of mobile applications, data can be gathered conveniently from hundreds of users, even at distance. Creating a database for analysis and modeling is an innovative approach to incorporating technology. The research using a technological approach can decrease the cost of the process as well as the time required to conduct surveys.

The Health care sector can benefit from technology in multiple ways. Every day new advancements in technology is leading to innovation in health research which are reassuring healthy lifestyles and habits among people. Various research groups are taking benefits of technological advancements to obtain, assess and share data. The results are evidence that the incorporation of these approaches is mean to accelerated progress in the health sector (Lang, 2011).

Where technology has made data easily accessible to many, security and privacy is a significant concern. If devices with sensitive information are lost, it can be a threat to data security. In case these devices are connected to the internet, they can also become the target of malware, hacking and viruses. Patient records are highly sensitive and can be sold for more than $10 each. The record stolen is sold for marketing purposes or to create bogus identifications to claim fraudulent insurance policies or obtain drugs or equipment illegally. With increased dependence on data stored online, in case of internet connectivity issues or bandwidth unavailability can cause lag in the process of research. With the use of advanced technology, the systems can be improved but there still exists the probability of human error.

References BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lang, T. (2011). Advancing Global Health Research Through Digital Technology and Sharing Data. Science, 714-717.

Young, S. D., Holloway, I. W., & Swendeman, D. (2014). Incorporating guidelines for the use of mobile technologies in health research and practice. International Health, 6(2), 79-81.

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences- Relection Essay

Research Methods of the Health Sciences

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

The first concept is about the implementation of different learning and assessments to prevent child maltreatment. The Child welfare system deals with the quantitative and qualitative analysis of different behaviors, case studies and the application of analytical approaches in order to understand and then provide consultations to address the matter. This is a very important topic and can help the researcher and health workers come up with possible solutions to overcome the physical and mental abuse inflicted on children. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), almost a quarter of the adults were physically abused when they were children CITATION Chi16 \l 1033 (Child maltreatment, 2016). The causes of a child suffering from this maltreatment may include medical abuse, neglect, emotional and sexual abuse. These kinds of abuses have a lot of severe consequences. The consequences of maltreatment can be depression, obesity, involvement in smoking and drug addiction CITATION May \l 1033 (Staff, n.d.). To prevent the children from such suffering, children must be educated and by the visits of the nurse to the parents to provide support and information. Special programs for children must be conducted to teach them how they should respond in such situations.

The second concept is about the use of different methods to study chronic illness. The topic is very essential for a medical student for future prospects as a student will have to deal with the issues frequently. There are several qualitative and quantitative methods used by the doctors in order to identify the reason for illness. Epidemiology is a branch that deals with the distribution and possible control of the diseases and many other aspects related to health CITATION Epi \l 1033 (Epidemiology, Treatment, and Prevention of Human T-Cell Leukemia). It contains many methods of assessment that involve the detailed analysis of the tests from the samples of the patient. Comparing the results from the tests to that of the symptoms is a way that helps the doctors and health officers to determine what kind of illness is inflicted on the patient. After identification, there are several treatments available that are particular to the disease.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Aaron, G. A. (2010). Mixed Methods for Implementation Research: Application to Evidence-Based Practice Implementation and Staff Turnover in Community-Based Organizations Providing Child Welfare Services. Sage journals.

Child maltreatment. (2016, September 30). Retrieved from World Health Organization: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment

Epidemiology, Treatment, and Prevention of Human T-Cell Leukemia. (n.d.). American Society of Microbiology, 15. Retrieved from American Society for Microbiology.

Jason, L. A. (2004). The use of mixed methods in studying a chronic illness. Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine .

Staff, M. C. (n.d.). Child Abuse . Retrieved from Mayo Clinic: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/child-abuse/symptoms-causes/syc-20370864

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences- SLP

Research method of Health Sciences - SLP

Jody-Ann Ovesen

Research method of Health Sciences - SLP

Research is the basic component which plays a fundamental role in improving the health sector and developing secure, reliable and beneficial medical treatments. For development and improvement of remedies and therapy techniques, research has played a vital role which led to advancements in surgical techniques, medicine, medical devices and health informatics. (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). Research provides knowledge of risk, health threats, diseases, treatment results, care trends, and cost of healthcare etc.

Data collection procedures

Collection of data for research and hospital administrative purposes has many resources for example, nursing handover records, discharge/transfer records, direct observation by skilled, and 24-hour memory of key person (Sarkies, et al., 2015). Qualitative research includes field notes, notes and recordings of interviews, in order account, and the note of researcher (Pope & Mays, 2006). To obtain relevant and precise data when supporting an argument or proving a fact, it’s better to use quantitative data. Quantitative research sampling is biased towards statistics rather than theory and allows researchers to examine changing factors. It has been interesting to see that we can procure a large amount of data over a large time period. For research, the management data is not accurately stated, with previous literature stating that use of this information in combative proceedings, and also for billing dedication might result in data which is not accurate.

Variables and measurement

Variable is a basic term in research and it means referring to something that can be measured or calculated in a case study or research, and is known as a variable. Variable are properties like height, weight temperature etc. It takes on different values and produces different outcomes under different conditions. Variables can be classified as dependent or independent variable. An independent variable does not have effect on another variable and is used in experimental techniques while dependent variable has effect on other variable used for prediction and possibilities. Intervening, adjusting and interceding variable can affect the relation between dependent and independent variables. They also aid to demonstrate unconventional relation between these two. It is a common practice that some of the researchers use the term ‘Independent variable’ when they are referring to experiment based research while some do not utilize this term. This is observed particularly in health research sector and the terms like treatment or cure are more like to be used when referring to independent variables. Similarly, a lot of researchers use ‘outcome’ alternative to dependent variable (Flannelly, Flannelly, & Jankowski, 2014).

Data analysis procedures

The extensive and practically accurate approaches of data mining and analysis have taken over. The analysis of data collected by humans is still widely used as compared to the world wide practice of Electronic Medical Record in clinical care. But this trend has been changing with time. The Big data analysis in healthcare sector includes compilation and analysis of considerable amount of contrasted data, digital health records and biomedical data. Healthcare improvement initiatives introduced health information exchanges (HIEs), electronic medical records (EMRs), and electronic health records (EHRs) and many patient record and continuity of care documents (CCDs) which help clinicians and care providers handle data in a manner that is less time consuming and much more efficient. Large data is used recently, along with the quick revolution in technologies and digital applications. So for that reason, data analytics have been proven a key tool in health sector which handle a good amount of data. This is leading to advancement in medical research to obtain a better and accurate results. It is important to understand and realize the key factors involved data analysis and their significance before performing data analysis.

Study validation and ethics

For the purpose of explanation, validations can be broken into two types. One is external and other is internal validation. Internal validation refers to precision of trial and to limit to design and organization of trial, excludes biasness. External validation refers to the limit, a trial can provide grounds to generalize for other cases. Research outcomes must be validated internally before external validation.

Study Limitation

The limitation is unavailability of advanced health care systems in small organizations and health clinics. It is due to high cost with decreased efficiency. It requires long standing training and position specialist. Another study limitation can be Inadequate amount of validated data and general reasons to incorporate reliable research methods. It is difficult to conclude clinical trials with less probabilities when credible and sufficient data is not available.

Conclusion

The ultimate goal of research is to provide well-adapted and beneficial health care system to cater maximum number of patients. The results will be presented in tabular and graphical form to show relation between different variables. It will not only present data values but also demonstrate how factors are affecting the case study. The research would be presented in conference and published in a journal to benefit researchers. Health Education Research, Health Services Research, and Journal of Public Health will be considered for publishing research. The study will act as a guideline for researchers to learn more thorough analysis and results. The achieved results can be used in comparative analysis which will enable researchers to gain insights on this topic.

References

Flannelly, L. T., Flannelly, K. J., & Jankowski, K. R. (2014). Independent, Dependent, and Other Variables in Healthcare and Chaplaincy Research. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy, 161-170.

Sarkies, M., Bowles, K.-A., Skinner, E., Mitchell, D., Haas, R., Ho, M., . . . Haines, T. (2015). Data collection methods in health services research: hospital length of stay and discharge destination. Applied clinical informatics, 96-109.

McCusker, K., & Gunaydin, S. (2015). Research using qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods and choice based on the research. Perfusion, 30(7), 537–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267659114559116

Pope, C., & Mays, N. (2006). Qualitative methods in health research. Qualitative Research in Health Care, 3, 1–11.

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences-Case

Research Methods of the Health Sciences-Case

Student’s Name

Institution

Introduction

In the article, the author investigated the increasing burden of chronic illness, self care and some of the hierarchy which exist in the modern partnership in solving the chronic illness in the society. The study states that the importance of self care changed from patriarchal and hierarchical model to partnership. It also illustrates the essential of primary care provider (PCPs) in providing support for patients in self management programs. It further explores the level at which PCPs beliefs in the importance of patient role in regard to the way in which the engagement occur.

Research questions

In order to conduct proper investigation the author set a clear question for to participants to answer. Therefore, the research question “Does the providers beliefs about the importance of the patient role and the way those beliefs are linked to the reporting behavior in clinical encounters. It investigate if clinician beliefs motivates the behaviors obtain in greater or less patient activation, which could be a point of leverage in creating changes, which can help in improving the outcome of care.

Variable examined in the study

In this, there are two variables used to analyze and illustrate the data and the study. The independent and dependent variables are used to present the data. The independent variables are used to measure clinicians support in for patient activation. In this case, the PCPs provide answers in four scale level, where 1 is important and 4 is extremely importance. It is obtained that CS-PAM showed high reliability and therefore, clinicians’ beliefs is importance for the treatment of chronic illness in the society. However, dependent variables are used to engage the chronic illness management support behavior. In this case, the seven (7) items adapted from Patient Assessment for Chronic Illness Care (PACIC) were designed ant set to measure the degree of belief, activation and care provided to self care patients. The dependent variable was designed to be the average amount or level of change obtains in patient activation score, which a PCP’s patient panel obtains over the last one year. In the study, patient panel is the term, which was used to refer to the patients who have been seen by a provider in the last one year. Since Fairview does collect patients’ data more often, the outcome of the study measure was derived based on the electronic medical records. But the patients’ activation scores were not obtained from the same data source, where the clinicians’ survey was obtained.

Study design used in the study

In order to conduct an efficient investigation, the relationship between clinician support of patient activation (CS-PAM and the outcome such as clinician behavior in support of behavior change, to support patient self management and the actual change in patient activation measure scores (PAM), which happens among the PCP’s patient panel. However, the survey was used to collect relevant data regarding CS-PAM. The analysis of the data focused on various aspects to provide accurate result. The primary analysis focused on the relationship between clinician behavior and CS-PAM and the secondary analysis explore the relationship, which exist between changes in patient activation and CS-PAM.

However, the high positive PCP scores are obtained from senior citizens aged 60 years and above and have been working for the last 5 to 10 years. The result also indicates that nurse physician assistant have the highest score 71.8 followed by family practitioner at 66.0 and the least score was registered by nurse practitioners. Moreover, among the participants female patients registered the higher scores on PCP at 68.2. Based on the result obtained regarding PCP and participants, it is evident that physician assistants have the highest belief in the treatment measurement being offered to address chronic illness in the society. Among the working class in the society, the result indicates that people who have worked for 5 to 10 years have high scores in regard in PCP CITATION Alv16 \l 1033 (Alvarez, Greene, Hibbard, & Overton, 2016).

Importance statistical result

It is pointed that 226 PCPs were invited to take part in the survey and only 181 completed the survey and therefore, the response rate is 68%. The sample size was n=64 and 60% were female of under 50 years of age. It is also indicated that 56% of the participants were family physicians and the 44% of participants had worked at Fairview. The result show that one-third of the PCPs obtained a CS-Pam score of below 58.6, which is the a third of the scores. It is also indicated that providers from the lowest tercile are least likely to show any positive belief on the importance of patient knowledge and any kind of involvement in care. However, when compared to individuals in the middle and highest tercile the lowest tercile had lowest score in belief of the importance. It is also obtained that female PCPs managed to get the CS-PAM score of only 5 points higher which is p<0.5 on average compared to male PCPs. The result also indicates that there is no other provider features could be associated with CS-PAM scores. The analyzed data indicates the difference which exists in the way individuals believe in PCPs and the importance of their beliefs to the provision of treatment to chronic illness.

The difference in p-value illustrates different aspect of hypothesis. In this cases, the p-value is greater than 0.05 (p-value <0.05), which means that the significant differences cannot be concluded. It is therefore, means that the result is not significant and therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and therefore, there s differences which exist between importances of PCP belief among difference the key stakeholders CITATION GBo05 \l 1033 (Bohm, 2005).

Limitation of the study

The study was conducted using report behavior not the actual behavior and therefore, the accuracy of the data can be questioned. The volume of data used to complete the study was also limited since only 226 participants were invited and only 188 people completed the study. This therefore, limits the scope of the study and provides only limited results. However future studies require a lot of data to get accurate result. The data is also obtained from a single healthcare organization and therefore, this limits the scope of the study. The findings also is based on a cross sectional analysis, which limits the understanding of the temporary behavior and beliefs. It is difficult to confirm a cross sectional survey data.

Conclusion

The finding of the study indicates that the role of PCP can used to increase patient engagement in the care system. The findings also shows high degree of variation which exist among PCPs in regard to their beliefs and behavior towards the provision of support self management patients. It is also obtained that the types of variation which exist in the primary care depend on the activation within patients’ panel.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alvarez, C., Greene, J., Hibbard, J., & Overton, V. (2016). The role of primary care providers in patient activation and engagement in self-management: a cross-sectional analysis. BMC Health Services Research , 12 (3), 12-38.

Bohm, G. (2005). Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis for health care analysis. International Journal of science , 2-34.

Research Methods Of The Health Sciences-slp

Research Methods of the Health Sciences - SLP

Author

Institutional Affiliations

Author’s Note

Research Methods of the Health Sciences - SLP

In the reformed health care system, the research methods to improve the scope of health sciences is imperative to broaden the research horizon. The research process is a foundation for making informed and effective decisions in order to improve the health standards. The application of right research methods assist in comprehensive view of the care and treatment designs. Research is an important tool in improving the health objectives by bringing about innovations in the medical treatment, remedies and preventions strategies. The empirical research in the field of health sciences is either a qualitative or quantitative research methodology. The research can be carried out on various features including health policies and health systems, demographics and epidemiology of communicable and non-communicable diseases, mother and child health, nutrition, social behavior and cultural and ethical values of patients in a cultural diverse health care system ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Z9avdTz0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Salazar, Crosby, & DiClemente, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Salazar, Crosby, & DiClemente, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":611,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/CWK4CUK3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/CWK4CUK3"],"itemData":{"id":611,"type":"book","title":"Research methods in health promotion","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons","ISBN":"1-118-40906-X","author":[{"family":"Salazar","given":"Laura F."},{"family":"Crosby","given":"Richard A."},{"family":"DiClemente","given":"Ralph J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Salazar, Crosby, & DiClemente, 2015). The development in the health sciences substantially lies on the application of efficient procedures, well-defined variables, analytical tools, validation testing while considering the ethical implications and limitations of the study.

Data Collection Procedures

Data collection procedures vary significantly, as it is entirely dependent on the type of research study being carried out. In order to conduct research including the health care motives, the data can be collected from the hospital records, staff interviews and handbooks, practitioner’s notes, observatory methods and referring to the previously published literature review. In carrying out a quantitative research, the sampling procedure lies on the statistical analysis and applying certain correlation tests. There might be some bias in the studies as the study does not depend on the theoretical assumptions. Such studies include multiple variables that might change according to the need of the study. The quantification of the empirical research can be achieved by the measurement of the variables, population estimation parameters and statistical testing. In qualitative research method, the sampling can be done by conducting opinion surveys, questionnaires, notes and interviews etc. The systematic review qualitative studies are carried out by analyzing the literature reviews and extracting the results by content analysis. However, quantitative studies are best used when it is required to support any arguments or proving any fact ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PYntCZ00","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015)","plainCitation":"(McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":613,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/PZYEVGUI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/PZYEVGUI"],"itemData":{"id":613,"type":"article-journal","title":"Research using qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods and choice based on the research","container-title":"Perfusion","page":"537-542","volume":"30","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"McCusker","given":"Kevin"},{"family":"Gunaydin","given":"Sau"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). During a research, data management is needed to accurately stated while comparing it with previous literature.

Variables and Measurement

Variables are the most important factors in a research study that can be measured or calculated in any case study for deducing specific results. Variables can be anything in order to determine the physical characteristics or the properties of any component or incident involved in the study. Different variables exhibit different outcomes under different circumstances and changes in the study conditions. Variables can either be dependent or independent and others can be discrete or continuous based on the clinical research trials and strategies. The experimental approach helps in manipulating or assigning the independent variables. The criteria for the evaluation of variables is defined on the basis of frequency of complications and by changing the extent of exposure and dose of the treatments. Variables also help in the randomization of the study as the distribution of extraneous variables among different groups. However, it is necessary to compare the distribution of variables in order to ensure the validity of the inferences that can be drawn from the study. An independent variable does not have any influence on any other variable while dependent variables have an effect on other factors that are used for the predictions and association studies. The correlation between the dependent and independent variables can be affected by the interventions and interceding strategies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ib740akf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(WHO, 2001)","plainCitation":"(WHO, 2001)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":614,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/ZGP3QJNG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/ZGP3QJNG"],"itemData":{"id":614,"type":"book","title":"HEALTH RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A Guide for Training in Research Methods","publisher":"World Health Organization","publisher-place":"Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila","edition":"2nd","event-place":"Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila","author":[{"family":"WHO","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (WHO, 2001). Measuring the variables which are the precedent of any study or the outcome is more practicable in the experimental studies instead of analytical studies especially in the case control and cohort study designs.

Data Analysis Procedures

In contrast to the descriptive research methodologies, the analytical studies involve the hypothesis testing along with the comprehensive description of the population. The study that is being conducted will have a particular research hypothesis formulated on the basis of research objective and observations during the research. Thus, the inference of the study is a two steps procedure including the estimation of parameters that are relevant to the probability distribution and significant testing of the parameters. The statistical testing involves several steps that begin with identifying the null hypothesis which should be testable. Then decision on the validity of the hypothesis has to be dichotomous; wither to accept it or simply reject it therefore, two types of errors might occur during the inference of the hypothesis. Next step is determining the suitable statistical test for the said variables. Based on the variables and their distribution and prevalence the type of test will be selected; either a z-test or the chi square test. The tests are performed by comparing the values with the theoretical values and the hypotheses are either accepted or rejected on its basis. In the end, the power of the test is calculated by a P-value test for analyzing the significance of the results ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"I6xRAqOF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Khan, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Khan, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":615,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/HGGF73LJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/HGGF73LJ"],"itemData":{"id":615,"type":"webpage","title":"Hypothesis testing and p-values (video)","container-title":"Khan Academy","URL":"https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/significance-tests-one-sample/more-significance-testing-videos/v/hypothesis-testing-and-p-values","author":[{"family":"Khan","given":"Sal"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,10]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Khan, n.d.).

Study Validation and Ethics

The validity of any test is the validation whether the results of the study are comparable to the initial hypothetical measurements. Two different types of validity are considered during a research study; internal and external. Internal validity refers to the effects of the study that either they are due to the manipulation of some independent variables. It is determined by the causal relationship among the dependent and independent variables. Threats to internal validity can be removed by controlling the extraneous variables and removing any investigator factors. External validity, on the other hand, refers to the extent to which the inference of any test can be generalized with ecological, population and historical validity. Threats to external validity can be removed by including random samples and removing bias ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zoXJq23X","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lavrakas et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Lavrakas et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":617,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/GG2ER96E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/GG2ER96E"],"itemData":{"id":617,"type":"article-journal","title":"Probability Survey‐Based Experimentation and the Balancing of Internal and External Validity Concerns","container-title":"Experimental Methods in Survey Research: Techniques that Combine Random Sampling with Random Assignment","page":"1-18","author":[{"family":"Lavrakas","given":"Paul J."},{"family":"Kennedy","given":"Courtney"},{"family":"Leeuw","given":"Edith D.","non-dropping-particle":"de"},{"family":"West","given":"Brady T."},{"family":"Holbrook","given":"Allyson L."},{"family":"Traugott","given":"Michael W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lavrakas et al., 2019). The research studies conduct in any health care setting including the sensitive information of the patients and nurses via the electronic health records or continuity of care documents should be used within ethical limits. The consent of the patients, hospitals, health care providers and other individuals or organization involved in the study should be consulted before conducting the study.

Study Limitations

The study limitations should be identified before conducting and the study and after the study has been completed, the limitation are needed to be mentioned in the publications. It provides the insight for looking towards advanced or previously missed options and study gaps that can be addressed in the future research studies. A few of the study limitations might be unavailability of the advanced health care systems and costly data sampling.

Conclusion

The result compilation is an important part of the study,. It should be very comprehensive and descriptive. Some results might be represented in the tabular or graphical forms. The detailed discussion section should explain all the tests and their results while comparing them with the theoretical studies. The research article will be published in a renowned journal such as Health Education Research, Health Services Research or Journal of Public Health. The articles published in these journals will assist the future researchers to incorporate the findings of this study in their research.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Khan, S. (n.d.). Hypothesis testing and p-values (video). Retrieved November 10, 2019, from Khan Academy website: https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/significance-tests-one-sample/more-significance-testing-videos/v/hypothesis-testing-and-p-values

Lavrakas, P. J., Kennedy, C., de Leeuw, E. D., West, B. T., Holbrook, A. L., & Traugott, M. W. (2019). Probability Survey‐Based Experimentation and the Balancing of Internal and External Validity Concerns. Experimental Methods in Survey Research: Techniques That Combine Random Sampling with Random Assignment, 1–18.

McCusker, K., & Gunaydin, S. (2015). Research using qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods and choice based on the research. Perfusion, 30(7), 537–542.

Salazar, L. F., Crosby, R. A., & DiClemente, R. J. (2015). Research methods in health promotion. John Wiley & Sons.

WHO. (2001). HEALTH RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A Guide for Training in Research Methods (2nd ed.). Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila: World Health Organization.

Research Paper

Research Paper

[Name of the Student:]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Abstract

Asthma is prevalent in children from birth to the early years of their school-going. Researches have been conducted that have established certain independent variables involved in acquiring of asthma by the children. These factors include mothers’ smoking addiction, families headed by single mothers, and genetic characteristics inherited by the child. The variables considered in this research specifically for inflicting asthma in children are health insurance facility, housing standards, and ethnicity. The research aims at finding out the impact of socioeconomic status on children in acquiring asthma. The mixed approach to research methodology is adopted to collect necessary data, which entails both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to be applied to the research problem. The research has been developed by making a comparative study of different peer-reviewed articles to deduct useful conclusions on the issue. It has been assured that the focus of study should be to establish the fact that socioeconomic status of families is directly correlational with the proportion in which children are prone to have asthma. A notable fact is that the income status influence on children’s asthma becomes minimized when other factors of maternity, insurance, etc. are considered in the study. This implies that several factors together cause the occurrence of asthma in childhood.

Introduction

Low income of families have been associated with several adverse consequences on the individuals. People deprived of the essential facilities of life has been observed to be more prone to health hazards. Availability of adequate financial resources makes it possible for the individuals to benefit from better medical facilities available in a community. People who can afford health insurance policies have the opportunity to get timely examination of diseases and subsequent medical treatment as per the standards applied. A number of studies conducted on people with higher and lower socio-economic statuses also reinforce the idea that members of a family with low income and social status have increased risks of asthma. The ratio of acquiring this particular disease is even higher in the children of these low-income families. Clinical situations, literary research articles, and peer reviews suggest that the effect of income size has a connection to the mental as well as physical health of people.

Thesis Statement

Due to the lack of insurance, access to medical care, and financial resources, the prevalence of asthma is more closely related to family income; and the financial issues can increase the occurrence of asthma in children in low-income families.

Objectives

The existing researches have focused on the relationship between low-income and health hazards. People living in poor life conditions due to lack of financial stability are prone to become victims of several diseases that are unlikely to prevail among people living with comparatively higher standards. Asthma is a disease that is burdening the children more frequently who live in urban communities with economic disadvantages. Observation proves that children belonging to low-income families need to visit doctors and get hospitalized more often once they acquire the disease than those coming from high income households. Fluctuations in family incomes from pre-birth period to early childhood also affect the probabilities to get infected with the disease. The measurements made more frequently to assess the effects of socio-economic status on childhood asthma gave more thoughtful information than those made at a single point. The problem with the existing data on the subject is that comparative studies to get consistent results have been avoided. This restricts the study on the subject by creating a void of information on prolonged poverty and chronic asthma with respect to childhood. The objective of this research is to find the relationship of changes occurring in income status with respect to acquisition of asthma in children over a long period from birth to the early childhood. The methodologies used for finding the facts align with the requirements of study. Certain research projects would be considered and analyzed to produce a valuable insight of the issue by comparing and combining their findings and deducting useful conclusions.

Methodology

The problem under discussion is that children living in poor conditions are more vulnerable to asthma. Poor living standards are caused by low social or economic status, and a less focus on fulfilling the basic requirements of life with care. A connection exists between the low-income background of children and acquiring asthma. This connection has been reported in many studies, but not revealed with ample evidence. The problem to be solved in this study is that the increased risk of acquiring asthma due to the lower socio-economic status needs to be assessed precisely by studying early stages of childhood thoroughly from this perspective. To this end, a mixed approach of study will be applied that comprises both qualitative and quantitative approaches of research methodology ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sEL68ezl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kumar, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Kumar, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":116,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/ECMUMST8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/ECMUMST8"],"itemData":{"id":116,"type":"book","title":"Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners","publisher":"Sage Publications Limited","ISBN":"1-5264-5708-3","author":[{"family":"Kumar","given":"Ranjit"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kumar, 2019). The comparative study of the peer-reviewed articles on the issue has the potential to reveal certain useful facts and conclusions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MSVn4OCV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Liamputtong, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Liamputtong, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":119,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/79HNN9V7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/79HNN9V7"],"itemData":{"id":119,"type":"article-journal","title":"Qualitative research methodology and evidence-based practice in public health","container-title":"Public Health: Local and Global Perspectives","page":"171-187","author":[{"family":"Liamputtong","given":"Pranee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Liamputtong, 2016). Data will be collected through interviews to know the relevant information from the subjects or patients. Moreover, questionnaires will be used for assessing the information in systematic way ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pXQJPpNu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Watson, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Watson, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":120,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/IT95ZTWG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/IT95ZTWG"],"itemData":{"id":120,"type":"article-journal","title":"Quantitative research","container-title":"Nursing Standard (2014+)","page":"44","volume":"29","issue":"31","author":[{"family":"Watson","given":"Roger"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Watson, 2015). The sources of data collection in the research papers considered are primary as well as secondary. The study relies on ten selected peer-reviewed articles that provide information and insight on the issue. These sources shall be analyzed and compared to find out deductive knowledge and make important conclusions. The research would be applied in its nature and makes an analysis of the information derived from the selected sources. The qualitative approach will help to interpret the problem in-depth, and the quantitative study will help in understanding the issue objectively ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"53Iq55Ic","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Silverman, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Silverman, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":118,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/64LWZ8N5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/64LWZ8N5"],"itemData":{"id":118,"type":"book","title":"Qualitative research","publisher":"Sage","ISBN":"1-4739-8484-X","author":[{"family":"Silverman","given":"David"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Silverman, 2016). The questionnaires used contain open-ended questions as well as closed-ended questions. The interviews done are both structured as well as unstructured (Flick, 2015). People involved in the researches are thousands in number. The current research will explore details and different aspects of the relationship between childhood asthma and low income status. It describes information collected from different sources. It creates causal linkages among the findings of all researches selected for discussion and develop useful conclusions. The research uses different models to analyze the information collected through the stated resources, e.g., longitudinal latent-class models. The likelihood of having asthma in children will be determined with different family income ranges considered, that is, always exposed to low incomes, increasing incomes, decreasing incomes, and chronic high incomes. The ages of a child for studying the effect of income status will be considered to be from birth to early school going ages. The above discussion helps in building the research question. The research question would be, “Does a connection exist between occurrence of asthma in childhood and socio-economic status of the family, what is the exact nature of this relationship, and does this relationship alter with a change in provided variables?”

Discussion

Asthma is a complex and serious disease that needs to be cured at the first instance. Patients with symptoms of asthma can be prone to severe health hazards if not treated properly ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"N5a7KYuE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pijnenburg et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Pijnenburg et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":124,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/Z9N5IQYV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/Z9N5IQYV"],"itemData":{"id":124,"type":"article-journal","title":"Monitoring asthma in children","container-title":"European Respiratory Journal","page":"906-925","volume":"45","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Pijnenburg","given":"Mariëlle W."},{"family":"Baraldi","given":"Eugenio"},{"family":"Brand","given":"Paul LP"},{"family":"Carlsen","given":"Kai-Håkon"},{"family":"Eber","given":"Ernst"},{"family":"Frischer","given":"Thomas"},{"family":"Hedlin","given":"Gunilla"},{"family":"Kulkarni","given":"Neeta"},{"family":"Lex","given":"Christiane"},{"family":"Mäkelä","given":"Mika J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pijnenburg et al., 2015). Uncontrolled asthma can lead to fatal consequences. The disease becomes more sensitive in situations where children are involved. It is the need of the hour to trace the reasons behind disproportionate occurrence of diseases in children, and find out the connection between these diseases and their causing factors ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"D8ssSS1f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bush, Fleming, & Saglani, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Bush, Fleming, & Saglani, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":125,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/8K74GE84"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/8K74GE84"],"itemData":{"id":125,"type":"article-journal","title":"Severe asthma in children","container-title":"Respirology","page":"886-897","volume":"22","issue":"5","author":[{"family":"Bush","given":"Andrew"},{"family":"Fleming","given":"Louise"},{"family":"Saglani","given":"Sejal"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bush, Fleming, & Saglani, 2017).

A study conducted at a maternity hospital involving more than two thousand and five hundred children after birth examined different factors affecting the children of different ages, i.e., from 1 to 10, and 14 years. Later, the children having asthma at the ages of six and fourteen were examined for the likelihood of acquiring asthma. Certain patent surveys were made to complete the study. The group of children selected for sampling was reduced in number due to loss of follow-up with them. The mothers of these children were found to be mostly single mothers who have less education and have been through stress and poverty in their life.

The research attempted to measure the childhood experiences against economic adversities over time. The longitudinal techniques used for measuring the results classified children based on their backgrounds, disease acquisition, and change in symptoms with a change in variables ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"01n1qI6p","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Arif & Korgaonkar, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Arif & Korgaonkar, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":121,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/4VCHQJSH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/4VCHQJSH"],"itemData":{"id":121,"type":"article-journal","title":"The association of childhood asthma with mental health and developmental comorbidities in low-income families","container-title":"Journal of Asthma","page":"277-281","volume":"53","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Arif","given":"Ahmed A."},{"family":"Korgaonkar","given":"Purva"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Arif & Korgaonkar, 2016). The model use a group based strategy and estimated the probability of children’s lower income status with time and duration of family’s low income. Trajectories were drawn to measure the impact of income on asthma acquisition.

The study findings were that the reasons for asthma in the children vary as per their backgrounds. The household living condition factors were reported to be most influential in these acquisitions of the disease. It was found that fourteen percent of the children were those who suffered from low income chronically. These children were aged six. The decrease in acquisition of the disease was seen at the age of fourteen. It was observed to be 7 percent decrease in the disease acquisition as compared to the children aged six. Further, the study revealed that the major cause of low income of these families whose children showed more likelihood of having asthma was that they were headed by one parent only, mostly the mother. These family repeatedly experienced stress in their life events, and they were still leading a life with hardships. Further, certain families having children with asthma were those that were headed by female parents having little education. It was found in the study that asthma at the age of six was mostly associated with stress taken by mothers during the pregnancy period. The maternal effects on asthma in children were also obvious. However, low-income families who were in this economic fix chronically were the families most of the time that they have children with asthma. The study revealed that 22 percent of the children who lived with low income mostly had the problem of asthma at the age of six. Among other factors, the low-income family variable was found to be the most crucial in determining the rate of having asthma in children. The single mother families demonstrated the highest rate of having asthma in the children of age six.

It can be generalized from the follow up of the fourteen year old that they have two times increase risk of acquiring asthma. This implies that the supposition of association between asthma and chronic poverty is correct. The trajectory method enables to show sequential changes in family income and measure their effect on asthma acquisition. To summarize, it was established through the findings of study that the association of asthma with chronic less income was stronger at higher ages of children compared to that in the lower aged children.

The relationship between the two variables becomes weak when other variables are considered also. Other variables include family stress, maternal habits pre-birth and post-birth, and the careless attitude toward availing the facilities of life. The single parent family with increasing income has proved to be linked with a decreased risk of acquiring asthma at the age of fourteen. Moreover, the study found that family stress is associated with the persistence of poverty. The variables of poverty, stress, and early life hardships were associated with asthma independently. Considering these variables in children asthma, it was found that these dependent variables mitigated in impact and suggested that they have the role of a pathway between asthma and socioeconomic status.

Researches have disclosed that the children with low income family background suffer from asthma because they have to bear hardships of life while being exposed to the harsh environment. The statistics reveal that such cases of emergency in asthma-related disorders cost more to the healthcare system for providing care and hospitalization. The group of children selected for sampling consisted of twenty seven children who have been brought to the city central hospital in emergency for the treatment of asthma. These children were aged from 1 year to 9 year old. The mothers were interviewed in an unstructured way, depending upon the situation of the case. The mothers were assessed for providing details of their family members, income status, and their social relationships among the community members. The interviews conducted with these women revealed that these women belong to lower middle class, and they had to work day and night for meeting their needs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7AxEMK4d","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cruz, Stelmach, & Ponte, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Cruz, Stelmach, & Ponte, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":122,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/32UAUYMY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/32UAUYMY"],"itemData":{"id":122,"type":"article-journal","title":"Asthma prevalence and severity in low-resource communities","container-title":"Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology","page":"188-193","volume":"17","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Cruz","given":"Álvaro A."},{"family":"Stelmach","given":"Rafael"},{"family":"Ponte","given":"Eduardo V."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cruz, Stelmach, & Ponte, 2017). They cannot attend their children and they live a life with tight daily schedule. The most notable thing they mentioned was that ninety percent of these mothers were not able to have a health insurance policy for their children. They could not bring their children to hospitals frequently for that reason. Asthma is a disease that needs continuous care whereas these women did not bring their children for check-up most of the time, which kept them ignorant of the developing disease of their children. The study statistics compared with other studies disclosed that the children without having the facility of continuous care through a health insurance policy were five times more prone to acquiring the disease than their counterparts. Though most of the subjects were not able to benefit from health insurance facility, the research found that the care given to these children was at the time when they were brought to the hospital having acute condition of the disease. The reason behind this delay was also lack of sufficient funds that could enable them to prioritize their children’s regular check-ups. It is the responsibility of the policy makers, however, to facilitate families of such backgrounds so that they may not be deprived of their basic right of receiving appropriate healthcare for children.

Another study was conducted on the black community that live in the Kansas City in an isolated housing area. The housing area has been allotted to these people because of their relatively lower socio-economic status. This kind of disparity is not a rare example. The black Americans have mostly suffered from discriminating attitudes and behaviors of the white people. They have been isolated from the main cities and forced to live in less developed areas since long time. The utilities and facilities of life are also not available in their housing societies usually. This study has an additional variable of ‘housing’ to understand the effect of low income and suppressed social status on the chances to acquire asthma by children.

A number of black children were screened for grouping to develop the sample for study. These children live in poor housing systems, which does not offer necessary comforts of a house. Their houses do not have proper heating systems to give them a suitable temperature and protect them from harshness of severe weathers. The kitchens are not hygienic; and the drinking water is not safe. Their societies are not properly vaccinated against viruses and bacteria. The study was conducted in the form of questionnaires as well as interviews to gather the required data. The children affected by asthma were found to be deprived of proper housing facilities. They were exposed to weather, their mothers used to cook in unhygienic conditions, and their fathers do not have enough resources to improve the living conditions. The children were not brought to the hospitals in time for treatment of fever and cold. The questionnaires had been distribute among mothers of these children who were admitted in the general ward of the government hospital ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"69UdfKk9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bellin et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Bellin et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":123,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/J5Z6B53P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/wreEcalP/items/J5Z6B53P"],"itemData":{"id":123,"type":"article-journal","title":"Characterization of stress in low-income, inner-city mothers of children with poorly controlled asthma","container-title":"Journal of Urban Health","page":"814-823","volume":"94","issue":"6","author":[{"family":"Bellin","given":"Melissa H."},{"family":"Collins","given":"Kathryn S."},{"family":"Osteen","given":"Philip"},{"family":"Kub","given":"Joan"},{"family":"Bollinger","given":"Mary Elizabeth"},{"family":"Newsome","given":"Angelica"},{"family":"Lewis-Land","given":"Cassie"},{"family":"Butz","given":"Arlene M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bellin et al., 2017). The questionnaire was designed to get data about the social and economic background of these families. The data analysis revealed that ninety-eight percent of children were living in below average housing schemes. This indicates a direct correlation between poor housing and asthma in children. The study was limited in some aspects. Therefore, it could not describe a causal relationship of children’s asthma with other variables. However, it can be easily deducted that asthma’s acquisition in children is associated strongly with the social and economic conditions of the families. Poor housing means poor resources available for living, which refer to low income and low social status.

A comparison of the studies presented above suggest that some common factor exists in every scenario that proves its authenticity. This factor is the income status of families to which the children having asthma belong. Each of the study conclude that the relationship between the two variables do exist, which is directly correlational, and increases or decreases with the absence or presence of other variables involved. The researches use different approaches to collect data, including questionnaires, interviews, and others. However, they all end with the same conclusion.

Conclusion

The researches provided above present facts about different scenarios that cause increased risks of asthma in children. The studies have one variable in common and that is ‘low income, or low socioeconomic status.’ People who do not afford to buy proper comforts, facilities, and care for their children are those who suffer from low socioeconomic conditions. Their societies are also not hygienic to provide their children a safe and clean environment. They could not purchase proper health insurance policies for their children so that they can get continuous care for any of the acquired diseases. Minor infections become serious and children has to be admitted to the wards. These children were examined at different ages with changes considered to their backgrounds, such as low income, high income, increasing income, and decreasing income of families. This was done to know the connection between different variables involved in the study. Several factors were considered to know the impact of income on childhood asthma, including maternal influences, housing facilities, health insurance availability, etc. It was found that the effect of low-income on childhood asthma was diminished in the presence of other variables. However, the comparative study of the results generated in the researches presented above indicates that the relationship between socioeconomic status and acquisition of asthma in children is certain and consistently exists in all scenarios. The relationship between the two variables is directly correlational. The variable of asthma acquisition changes with the change in income status. It can be concluded, “the prevalence, morbidity, and severity of asthma are higher in children who belong to low-income households.”

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Arif, A. A., & Korgaonkar, P. (2016). The association of childhood asthma with mental health and developmental comorbidities in low-income families. Journal of Asthma, 53(3), 277–281.

Bellin, M. H., Collins, K. S., Osteen, P., Kub, J., Bollinger, M. E., Newsome, A., … Butz, A. M. (2017). Characterization of stress in low-income, inner-city mothers of children with poorly controlled asthma. Journal of Urban Health, 94(6), 814–823.

Bush, A., Fleming, L., & Saglani, S. (2017). Severe asthma in children. Respirology, 22(5), 886–897.

Cruz, Á. A., Stelmach, R., & Ponte, E. V. (2017). Asthma prevalence and severity in low-resource communities. Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 17(3), 188–193.

Kumar, R. (2019). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. Sage Publications Limited.

Liamputtong, P. (2016). Qualitative research methodology and evidence-based practice in public health. Public Health: Local and Global Perspectives, 171–187.

Pijnenburg, M. W., Baraldi, E., Brand, P. L., Carlsen, K.-H., Eber, E., Frischer, T., … Mäkelä, M. J. (2015). Monitoring asthma in children. European Respiratory Journal, 45(4), 906–925.

Silverman, D. (2016). Qualitative research. Sage.

Watson, R. (2015). Quantitative research. Nursing Standard (2014+), 29(31), 44.