Final Paper
[Name]
[Institute]
Author Note
Final ProjectWorking Title: The prevalence and the effects of racial discrimination in workplace among corporate employees in the New York City, USA.
Introduction
Even in the present age, despite where we turn, a visible difference in the power, wealth and status held by few individuals in society. These individuals hold a higher status in society and this higher status is accompanied by privileges. This inequality in the system results in social stratification, where unfair treatment is often directed at a certain social groups or group of individuals. This bias against such group is referred to as discrimination. Given the prevalence of discrimination at present, it can be based on a number of different characteristics. This includes gender, age, ethnicity, religion and even weight. Discrimination often occurs as a result of prejudice, where people are stereotyped on the basis of the behavior or preconceived notion of the society regarding certain members of that group. This pre-formed perception is often negative and detrimental to the health and well-being of such individuals as it makes them feel inferior or lesser than compared to their co-workers or peers. Such a perception is often found in workplaces, where employees are paid unequally for serving the same number of hours as their co-workers but paid differently on the basis of their ethnicity or gender. This has the possibility of resulting in physical and mental health issues among such employees, especially since they are not receiving their due wages from their corporations.
Literature Review
An exhaustive review of literature shows that discrimination in workplace is an issue that is becoming more and more prevalent in corporate sector in the present age. People are judged more on the color of their skin, rather than their education and their capabilities, which can give rise to frustration, depression and even severe mental health issues.
One such examples can be found in a research carried out by ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U8ZGwzwl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fekedulegn et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Fekedulegn et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":670,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/BW884FLV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/BW884FLV"],"itemData":{"id":670,"type":"article-journal","title":"Prevalence of workplace discrimination and mistreatment in a national sample of older U.S. workers: The REGARDS cohort study","container-title":"SSM - Population Health","page":"100444","volume":"8","abstract":"Although workplace discrimination and mistreatment (WDM) has recently drawn widespread media attention, our understanding of the prevalence of these phenomena remains limited. In the current study, we generated national prevalence estimates of WDM from a community-based cohort of employed black and white men and women aged ≥48 years. Measures of WDM in the current job were obtained by computer-assisted telephone interview (2011–2013) involving dichotomous responses (yes or no) to five questions and deriving a composite measure of discrimination (yes to at least one). Prevalence estimates and age- and region-adjusted prevalence ratios were derived with use of SUDAAN software to account for the complex sample design. Analyses were stratified by race and sex subgroups. This sample represents over 40 million U.S. workers aged ≥48 years. The prevalence of workplace discrimination ranged from a high of 25% for black women to a low of 11% for white men. Blacks reported a 60% higher rate of discrimination compared to whites; women reported a 53% higher prevalence of discrimination, compared with men. The prevalence of workplace mistreatment ranged from 13% for black women to 8% for white men. Women reported a 52% higher prevalence of mistreatment compared to men, while differences by race were not significant. Mistreatment was 4–8 times more prevalent among those reporting discrimination than among those reporting none. Subgroup differences in mistreatment were confined to the wage-employed. Findings suggest that middle age and older wage-employed blacks and women experience the highest prevalence of WDM; moreover, discrimination is strongly associated with mistreatment. This study contributes to our understanding of at-risk segments of the U.S. labor market and the need for targeted interventions to reduce WDM.","DOI":"10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100444","ISSN":"2352-8273","journalAbbreviation":"SSM - Population Health","author":[{"family":"Fekedulegn","given":"Desta"},{"family":"Alterman","given":"Toni"},{"family":"Charles","given":"Luenda E."},{"family":"Kershaw","given":"Kiarri N."},{"family":"Safford","given":"Monika M."},{"family":"Howard","given":"Virginia J."},{"family":"MacDonald","given":"Leslie A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Fekedulegn and his colleagues (2019). The current study aimed to generate estimates with regard to the workplace discrimination and mistreatment (WDM) observed among men and women aged over the age of 48 years that are active participants of the current workforce. For the purpose of this study, telephone interviews were conducted between the year 2011 and 2013 using five questions with yes or no answers. One of the aforementioned questions would relate to discrimination at workplace to measure the prevalence of discrimination across the country. Estimates were derived using the SUDAAN software, since the study worked with a complex survey design. Here, analyses were divided by race and sex subgroups. According to the results obtained, the highest prevalence was obtained among black women, i.e. by 25% as compared to white men i.e. 11% which was the lowest. Furthermore, black people were subjected to 60% higher rate of discrimination compared to white people. This shows that blacks and women experience the highest prevalence of WDM in the country.
Another study that explored a similar prospect was the employment experience and discrimination faced by individuals suffering from Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). This study encompassed sample population from 35 countries and tried to be diverse with regard to the age, race and employment status of the population. The participants chosen for this study were diagnosed with MDD in the past year and were subjected to an interview using Discrimination and Stigma Scale (DISC-12). The results obtained were subjected to exhaustive statistical analysis, including Analysis of variance and linear-mixed models. The results showed that around 62.5% of sample population faced discrimination at work, with 60% deliberately refusing to apply themselves at work.
The present study design derives several aspects from both aforementioned review of literature, both of which were integral in composition of the survey i.e. questionnaire and interview questions.
Methods
Design
Firstly, considering that this study is situation around a certain segment of the workforce, and the researcher cannot manipulate any and all variables of the situation. This includes the same population, as well as the predictor variable. Thus, a non-experimental research design would be the most appropriate. Additionally, the research design will be qualitative and descriptive in nature, making use of questionnaire and a short interview to study how the corporate workforce in New York City feels about the discrimination they have to face. For this purpose, the research design will study the prevalence of the situation using existing literature and use it as the baseline to compose a survey and distribute it across the sample population ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"B0O8S7WX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Reio Jr, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Reio Jr, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":664,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/2AC59ARK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/2AC59ARK"],"itemData":{"id":664,"type":"article-journal","title":"Nonexperimental research: Strengths, weaknesses and issues of precision","container-title":"European Journal of Training and Development","page":"676-690","volume":"40","issue":"8/9","author":[{"family":"Reio Jr","given":"Thomas G."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Reio Jr, 2016).
Participants
Given the barriers placed in finding a cooperating set of sample population that can be persuaded to participate in a short survey and interview, the guidelines given by ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8bs7jkdr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ellard-Gray, Jeffrey, Choubak, & Crann, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Ellard-Gray, Jeffrey, Choubak, & Crann, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":665,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/BIHLYCYP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/BIHLYCYP"],"itemData":{"id":665,"type":"article-journal","title":"Finding the Hidden Participant:Solutions for Recruiting Hidden, Hard-to-Reach, and Vulnerable Populations","container-title":"International Journal of Qualitative Methods","page":"1609406915621420","volume":"14","issue":"5","abstract":"Certain social groups are often difficult for researchers to access because of their social or physical location, vulnerability, or otherwise hidden nature. This unique review article based on both the small body of relevant literature and our own experiences as researchers is meant as a guide for those seeking to include hard-to-reach, hidden, and vulnerable populations in research. We make recommendations for research process starting from early stages of study design to dissemination of study results. Topics covered include participant mistrust of the research process; social, psychological, and physical risks to participation; participant resource constraints; and challenges inherent in nonprobability sampling, snowball sampling, and derived rapport. This article offers broadly accessible solutions for qualitative researchers across social science disciplines attempting to research a variety of different populations.","author":[{"family":"Ellard-Gray","given":"Amy"},{"family":"Jeffrey","given":"Nicole K."},{"family":"Choubak","given":"Melisa"},{"family":"Crann","given":"Sara E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Ellard-Gray and the rest of his colleagues (2015) were followed. It shows the very best means to recruit participants for the study and the ethics involved with regard of participation of individuals in the process. Furthermore, stratified sampling would be used to choose participants and classify them on the basis of their race to understand the existing trends in workplace discrimination. The racial groups chosen for this purpose included white men and women, black men and women, Hispanic men and women, and finally, Asian men and women that are a part of the present corporate workforce. The sample size would not exceed 200 individuals, with the number equally divided between all groups.
Furthermore, certain key organization will be used to study the prevalence of the matter in a discreet manner. This would prevent bias from seeping into the study and alter the outcomes of the study. The chosen means of research design and population is most appropriate in the present situation because it presents a well-rounded and encapsulating image of the desired workforce. Finally, the sample population would be restricted to New York City, USA, a city with the biggest workforce available for the purpose of study to further validate the sample population and remove the possibility of bias.
Procedure
Using the scientific method, the study would be carried out in the following order. Starting with observation, the difference in payscale among different races and gender groups that make up our current workforce, it is essential to study how being paid differently for a job where you work the same number of hours can psychologically impact the wellbeing of an individual. This leads one questioning the mental health of such individuals and how they can stay sane and be a productive part of the workforce, despite the odds. Thus, a hypothesis is generated, can people work just as well as other members on their team when they are paid differently on the basis of the racial group they adhere to.
Once a hypothesis has been put into place, an experiment is designed which utilizes stratified sampling to choose the sample population. This sample population will be part of a survey, the results obtained will be subjected to a 5-point rating scale ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2mzBem4S","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sullivan & Artino, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Sullivan & Artino, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":667,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/GY57AYFR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/GY57AYFR"],"itemData":{"id":667,"type":"article-journal","title":"Analyzing and interpreting data from likert-type scales","container-title":"Journal of graduate medical education","page":"541-542","volume":"5","issue":"4","archive":"PubMed","archive_location":"24454995","DOI":"10.4300/JGME-5-4-18","ISSN":"1949-8349","journalAbbreviation":"J Grad Med Educ","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Sullivan","given":"Gail M"},{"family":"Artino","given":"Anthony R","suffix":"Jr"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sullivan & Artino, 2013) and a statistical analysis that is descriptive in nature. The results will then be formulated and presented in a cohesive format.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics will be used for the purpose of data analysis. It will yield well-rounded results with respect to the sample population and ensure that the data obtained can be subjected to further research. For this purpose, the data obtained through survey and interview will be rated using a 5-point rating scale ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VVNZYZV5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sullivan & Artino, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Sullivan & Artino, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":667,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/GY57AYFR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/GY57AYFR"],"itemData":{"id":667,"type":"article-journal","title":"Analyzing and interpreting data from likert-type scales","container-title":"Journal of graduate medical education","page":"541-542","volume":"5","issue":"4","archive":"PubMed","archive_location":"24454995","DOI":"10.4300/JGME-5-4-18","ISSN":"1949-8349","journalAbbreviation":"J Grad Med Educ","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Sullivan","given":"Gail M"},{"family":"Artino","given":"Anthony R","suffix":"Jr"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sullivan & Artino, 2013) and then subjected to statistical analysis. Statistical analysis would be carried out using XL Stat 2010 and will include correlation matrix, Analysis of variance and generalized linear mixed models.
Ethical Issues
One of the biggest constraints to any research is bias. This bias is capable of replicating the impacts of the Hawthorne effect and render the entire research process moot ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"03zjU7dU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sedgwick & Greenwood, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Sedgwick & Greenwood, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":669,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/XGXQ2VMH"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/XGXQ2VMH"],"itemData":{"id":669,"type":"article-journal","title":"Understanding the Hawthorne effect","container-title":"Bmj","page":"h4672","volume":"351","author":[{"family":"Sedgwick","given":"Philip"},{"family":"Greenwood","given":"Nan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sedgwick & Greenwood, 2015). Thus, in order to ensure that such an occurrence is minimized, the participants will not be informed of the real intent of the survey in order to prevent a conflict of interest, since no company would take a study of racial discrimination in their organization lightly. This will also ensure that the participants are kept safe from the detrimental effects of their participation. However, confidentiality will be maintained throughout the experiment, especially in terms of a participants and the organization they belong to.
Conclusion
Many social groups are marginalized, but it does not mean that they stay at the edge of society. At present, with various groups making an effort to remove workplace discrimination, this study will help by providing the prevalence of the issue in society, so the right interventive can appropriately take place.
References
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Ellard-Gray, A., Jeffrey, N. K., Choubak, M., & Crann, S. E. (2015). Finding the Hidden Participant:Solutions for Recruiting Hidden, Hard-to-Reach, and Vulnerable Populations. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 14(5), 1609406915621420.
Fekedulegn, D., Alterman, T., Charles, L. E., Kershaw, K. N., Safford, M. M., Howard, V. J., & MacDonald, L. A. (2019). Prevalence of workplace discrimination and mistreatment in a national sample of older U.S. workers: The REGARDS cohort study. SSM - Population Health, 8, 100444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100444
Reio Jr, T. G. (2016). Nonexperimental research: Strengths, weaknesses and issues of precision. European Journal of Training and Development, 40(8/9), 676–690.
Sedgwick, P., & Greenwood, N. (2015). Understanding the Hawthorne effect. Bmj, 351, h4672.
Sullivan, G. M., & Artino, A. R., Jr. (2013). Analyzing and interpreting data from likert-type scales. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 5(4), 541–542. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-5-4-18
