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What Is So Critical About Critical Theory?
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What is so critical about Critical Theory
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What is so critical about Critical Theory
OUTLINE
Introduction
Body
Critical Theory
Criticism on Marxism
Criticism of Capitalism
Criticism of Realism
Criticism on Idealism
Feminists concerns regarding Critical Theory
Critical Theory vs. Post-modernism
Future of Critical Theory
Conclusion
Introduction
The possession of power inevitably spoils the free use of reason (Emanuel Kant). Kant is considered the first critic of Capitalism as he wrote about social injustice and exploitation caused by the elites. He believes that excess of power in the hands of a few capitals lead to social injustice because they think that no one can hold them responsible for their wrongdoings when power belongs to them. Karl Marx took a bold step ahead and started an overt crusade against Capitalism. He did not call it an unjust system, but he claimed that it is a highly exploitative social, political, and economic system that would cause a great depression among masses and it would lead to a great red (bloody) revolution against the bourgeoisie. Marx highly influenced the masses in Russia, Europe, and America. The famous Russian Revolution was the result of his ideology, but it could not lead to a national and international social structure that was proposed by Karl Marx. Thus, it became a failed ideology rather prophecy and the social scientists of the 20th century turned uneasy with this phenomenon. It encouraged them to re-examine social beliefs, stereotypes, and underlying philosophies. Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) is a social scientist who pioneered a school of thought to assess the traditional philosophies that rule the world, to identify social issues and their causes, to analyze their effects, and to propose possible solutions to the social issues. Horkheimer gathered many known social scientists of the 20th century like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, and Jurgen Habermas on the platform of Frankfurt School. No one of them believed to be a philosopher rather they claimed to be social scientists and they proposed that social issues can be addressed by producing rational institutions. By rational institutions, they meant they a kind of global government(s) that can identify the contemporary issues faced by masses in the true meaning and that has the capability to address those issues on humanitarian instead of being prejudiced by any kind of political association. In simple words, they claimed that the Social Critical theory is an evolving theory that would continue to analyze the social system in the world and would propose rational solutions to the issues actively. It would challenge the status quo as it believes in emancipation, and it would continue criticism of the social system until we achieve a just society (Agar, B., 2006). After developing through many stages Critical Theory has become so critical that one segment of its theorists criticize every social structure and the other one agrees with the traditional view of Realists about the social structure. Thus, the theory has become a Pandoras box that proposes many theories, but it seems unable to show uniformity in its ideas.
Body
The critical theorists are categorized in generations. The first generation appears when Max Horkheimer laid the foundation of Frankfurt School in Germany during the 1920s. They were encouraged by the philosophies of Emanuel Kant, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud who all are famous for criticizing the social structure and traditional beliefs in society. Horkheimer was accompanied by Theodor Adorno (1903-1969), Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979), Walter Benjamin (1892-1940), and some other famous sociologists of the 20th century. This school of thought was banned in Germany during the 1930s that obliged them to migrate to the most peaceful country of that time the USA. They had a warm welcome in California, and they started their research at the University of California in 1935. It got global attention when Horkheimer gave his commentary on the question What is Theory in his 1937 article Traditional and Critical Theory. He claimed that traditional theory separates theory from praxis and therefore it has no significance. The critical theory believes vice versa and stresses upon a change in society. The second generation of Critical theorists began with Jurgen Habermas during the 1970s. Habermas and his contemporary theorists widened the scope of critical theory and started analyzing social stereotypes through language construction and traditional values. The third generation of critical theorists is categorized into two groups. The first group of this generation was influenced by the philosophy of Habermas that theory must be explanatory, practical, and normative. The other group believes that there is no possibility of establishing any such sharp boundaries. Andrew Feenberg belongs to this group.
Men make their history, but they do not make it as they please they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past (Karl Marx). Karl Marx believed that the social injustice that was prevailing in the society because of capitalism was the product of history. Moreover, he claimed that history would not stop here, and it would lead to a great bloody revolution because masses would not be able to tolerate this exploitation for a long period. He held responsible for the class system for this exploitation and injustice that resulted from the unjust division of wealth in the society. The critical theorists criticized Marx for focusing upon the only class system (Elite, Middle, Poor) rather they believed that it is gender inequality that leads to inequality in every institution and it causes injustice. Marx indeed wrote about women subjugation in his book Das Capital, but he did not consider this factor the core issue of society because he believed that elite women have less social restrictions and issues despite subjugation, unlike poor and middle-class women who face exploitation at the hands of both their men and the social institutions. Theodor Adorno claims that Marx was making a mistake to propose the idea of a communist society in his book The Communist Manifesto because it was an impractical idea. Marx claimed that the future society will consist of equals where all the members of society would function as equal parts of the social system. He proposed a classless society where no government is in power nor any party or concept of the class exists rather it is called the society of communists who participate in the generation of goods with equal participation and they share the wealth produced as they share the labor. According to Adorno, this flawed and impractical idea became the cause of its failure and that is why it flopped (Zinn-Justin, J., 1996). He claims that a communist society is a sham and we cannot achieve this dream. Furthermore, it would be more harmful if we achieve it because it would be a society vulnerable to any catastrophe because the escalation of any conflict would be no difficulty if there is no authoritative government over there. He concludes his arguments that the flawed philosophy of Marx became the cause of a cruel authoritarian government in Russia.
Capitalism offers every member of society to achieve his goals according to his full potential because the government would neither create any obstacle in his way nor would allow anyone else to do so. Jurgen Habermas wrote many articles and essays in condemnation of Capitalism that some scholars believe that he was a Marxist by the soul. Habermas claimed that capitalism is wrong in its routes because its exploitation is never-ending. The rich continue to increase his resources and gives almost nothing to the poor class who is depending upon it. Moreover, a group of capitals becomes so strong that it can hijack national government(s) anytime and it can veto the decisions of government(s). It is useful to recollect the Marxian idea about capital in a simplified way to understand the argument of Habermas. Marx says that the production of an item requires three things idea, money, and labor. He claims that the profit should also be divided equally into three parties who provide these three things. In a capitalist system, he argues, money and idea generally come from the capital (entrepreneur). It automatically enables him to claim two-thirds of the profit. The laborer is left with one part to claim because capitalism does not enable him to invest in the business. The capital does not give him even this share and give merely 2-5 of the profit that leaves the laborer with hand to mouth. The capital does not stop here. He introduces the items in a glamourous way in the society that consumes the salary of the laborer and he becomes bound to wait for the next months salary. 95 of profit continues enriching the capital with more resources that would lead to more exploitation. The capital joins some other capitals and they hijack the national government(s). A material example of Habermas commentary can be taken from the 1990s US attack on Iraq. The IR theorists believe that the US government was not ready to attack the country because they knew the consequences, but some invisible forces obliged the US to attack Iraq that produced catastrophic results for the world. Habermas believes that this extent of capitals power should be curtailed.
Realism in IR believes in power-politics. It means that the social system of the world is anarchic because human instinct is conflictual and the state who has more power is safer and can impose its rules and laws. States are the only actors in Realism, and every other entity like non-governmental organizations, personalities, and groups of people or secondary importance. This idea conforms with Darwins theory of the survival of the fittest. It allows the states to maximize their power as much as they can to be functional and executive members of the global system (Kellner, D., 1989). The critical theorists influenced by Haberman criticize this theory for encouraging the world to engage in a long struggle of armament. This criticism got strength from the Great Wars. In fact, it was equally understandable in the context of Cold War history. Europe became vulnerable to WW-I when almost every European country enriched itself with arms. It caused the death of millions of Europeans and behaving so irrational they started WW-II merely after 20 years despite knowing the consequences of such type of wars. The US has emerged as a superpower after all the major European countries were left with mass destruction during the 1940s. The other major power of the world was the Soviet Union. These powers started another struggle of armament despite knowing the consequences of this practice in Europe. It started a new different kind of war the Cold War. This war lasted for almost four decades and ended with the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1990. It caused hunger and death for millions of Afghanis and Soviets. These results convinced the critical theorists to claim that realism is an irrational theory to rule the world.
Idealism believes that the world is not in an ideal state currently and we can achieve this goal by promoting progress beyond the borders. This term originated from the USA and famous American president Woodrow Wilson who is credited with playing a positive role during the first World War is considered the first Idealist (Agger, B., 1991). He claimed that tackling poverty at home should be occupied with tackling poverty abroad, so we would be able to achieve a just global society. the idealists propose to encourage non-governmental organizations to work for social justice and prosperity throughout the world. Andrew Feenberg criticizes this theory as well. He claims that encouraging private entities can weaken the executive entities (governments) in the world without which social justice is in danger (Feinberg, A., 1991). He uses the example of the UNO to prove that if an institution lacks executive power, it would be considered a useless institution and thus an unreliable for the masses. This phenomenon can cause anarchy and can lead to global uncertainty. Feenberg believes that the world should have executive bodies with apparent sovereignty, and they should have enough power to oblige their citizens to respect the constitution. Only this process can make the world a combination of responsible subjects. Idealism is more like a critical phenomenon that has attracted people and rhizospheres from the different and unique dimensions of the world where this is the world is not ideal because it is an imitation of something extraordinary that is located above their temporary world. It is highlighted that the idealism theory can also be traced back to the statements and theories proposed by Aristotle affirming that this world is not original it is a copy and every human being in this world is in the complex of misinterpretations that he is creating a copy from the original. In reality, this world is the copy from which the artists and other people having aesthetic sense try to imitate. It is significant to note that idealism is presented in both, original and the spiritual way. It is both, a concept that adheres to the phenomena of understanding human behavior as well as human thought that is connected to spirituality in how spirituality derives human connotation of this world.
Feminists concerns regarding Critical Theory are another major dimension to address because the kit is asserted that critical theory has laid the foundation of a human approach that has considered women of toady equal to men. It is affirmed that the critical theory in terms of feminism asserted that women have the right to live their life independently. They should be given the right to proactive their own will and they should be given the freedom to live. Critical theory negated the ideology of treating women as others, in fact, the theory promoted that women are the one who has somewhere laid the foundation of this world in terms of spiritual connotation that is found in different religions of the world (Adams, H. and Searle, L. eds., 1992). Its also asserted that critical theory for the first time highlighted how male tarte women in the form of an object. The objectificationn of women and their treatment as a commodity in this world is something that is highly criticized by the feminist theory. It is also important to note that without the critical theory of feminism, there would not have been any space of women in the world like they exist today because critical theory highlighted how things and emotions are programmed to keep the women suppressed such as the sue of abusive terns. also, the dress code is one of the most important and cortical though-provoking points which highlight that women are made to wear high heel as a necessity so that they cannot walk freely like man, In the past women, were made to wear those clothes that exhausted them by creating hurdles in breathing and it was something that was considered as a say no to points. Also, the feminist theory brought into limelight the treatment of men in contorts to the treatment of women. How women are made to overcome and accept all the torture and violence in the name of self-esteem whereas men can express what they feel in the name of being depressed or having greater authority as compared to women. It would not be wrong to say that the critical theory of feminism has made women realize that they are made to be subjugated where they won the right to free-living and they can make up the ambitions of free-living by all means. IR has added to an acknowledgment of these beliefs and ideologies over to the other nations and countries.
Critical theorists are known for every contemporary or recent social theory or philosophy currently, they are in arms struggle with postmodernism. Postmodernism and critical theory have much in common, but they stand against each other at the same time. Habermas is a leading critical theorist contemporary to postmodernism. He criticizes Derrida, Foucault, and postmodern theory, and his associates carried out crusades against Lyotard (Honneth 1985 Benhabib 1984), Foucault (Honneth 1986), Derrida (McCarthy 1989), and other postmodern theorists. Critical theorists and postmodernists have much in common. They both claim to rebel against status-quo. They both criticize the class system and marginalization of weaker communities and ethnicities. They both have issues with the patriarchal structure of language. The polemics of critical theory criticize modern values like rationalization and domination over weaker states/communities. Postmodernists and critical theorists agree also on one idea that is feminism. They agree that women have been being exploited for centuries and for the pursuance of a progressive and just society this exploitation is needed to be ended. Postmodernism and critical theory believe to achieve a just society by renouncing many traditional beliefs like the belief that women are suitable only for a home job and men should contribute to the development of society. They both believe that the pursuit of a just society is essential for the progress of humankind. Despite these similarities, these two schools of thought do not conform to each other in many respects. For instance, critical theory has many boundaries like nature and history, the economic and political, true and false needs, high and low culture, emancipation and domination, left and right, etc. whereas postmodernism is devoid of such peripheries. Postmodernism considers that it has evolved historically and it covers all segments of society and knowledge like medicine, technology, business, politics, arts, literature, and even religion. On the other side, critical theory considers itself a recent theory that has rebelled against status-quo. The critical theorists sometimes appear as they criticize for the sake of criticism because they do not accept any other philosophy whether it conforms with their philosophy (Benhabib, S., 1989). They consider them the most advanced generation of humankind who has challenged all the philosophies that rule the world. This is the reason that many critical theorists do not agree with even one another like Lyotard and Foucault who criticize macro theoretical, global aspects of critical theory. They stress upon a micrological approach to theory and politics. This factor reduces the sphere of critical theory unlike postmodernism that talks about macro theoretical philosophy in this global era of human history.
The future of Critical Theory is much like the future of different philosophers that have been presented by different philosophers over time. It is highlighted that critical theory has set the stage of critical thinking and life if there would be no critical thinking there would not have been any progression in their world. Taking into account the example of the philosophical works by artists and other philosophers, it is highlighted that there are a lot of contemporary issues that are being sold in the light of knowledge that is gained from the past worlds, In the same way, critical theory is more like an approach and a phenomenon that has widened the way for understanding this world. A flashback and a critical look at all the critical theories assert that all the theories are still treated with the same significance, even all the issues are discussed in the context of these theories. It would not be wrong to say that critical theory is a code of conduct that has managed to arrange for the solution and contrastive arguments for the happenings in the world. In future the same will happen, Critical theory will tend to reflect on the human doe logy and express expert human behaviors in the light of the facts and figures that are driven from some real experiences and how these experiences are changing the dimensions of the world. All the current issues, international relations., distribution of wages and the analysis of industrialization, even the societal dilemmas are all influenced by the impact of these theories because these theories have the basic principles that are contributing to the solutions for the flutier issues. In a nutshell, the future of critical theory is more like a code of conduct that would be added by some philosophers over time but it will continue to serve the world and the worldly affairs in a highly unique and novel way. The theory of IR is more like a set platform that analyses how human actions and human approaches are twisted and tilted under the impact of different perspectives and the vision of the world.
Conclusion
The critical theorists believe in active contribution to the social system by identifying the flaws in traditional systems and beliefs, and to propose a solution to those flaws. It has examined almost every theory of IR and has identified many flaws and imperfections in the social structure and beliefs. This theory believes in achieving a just society by renouncing the traditional philosophies and experimenting with new ideas in society. Critical theory has criticized Marx for talking about class-system instead of gender inequality. Capitalism is criticized for empowering a small segment of society that can hijack the government(s). The critical theorists attack at Realism for encouraging insane struggle for armament that can create a catastrophe in society. Liberalism also could not escape critical theorists because it talks about the empowerment of non-governmental organizations that can mislead masses and that can fade the role of government in a society that is instrumental to maintain law and order. Many claims and ideas of critical theory are in harmony with postmodernism, but the critical theorists polemics against postmodernism marginalizes postmodernism also. The feminists claim that despite criticizing traditional theories and philosophies, the critical theory itself has become a traditional theory. Additionally, they imply that critical theory is less successful in highlighting the gender disparity than postmodernism. The issue with critical theorists is that they have become so critical that they criticize every theory and propose some solutions, but they are not sure that the proposed solutions are universally applicable and acceptable. Moreover, they have not been able to agree on one proposed solution and it has caused grouping in the Critical Theorists. A major problem with the critical theory is that its subject is states and individuals rather than the global world collectively. They should understand that they have left the path of Max Horkheimer who claimed that this theory would go beyond mere identification of social issues and would propose practical solutions to contemporary social issues.
References
Zinn-Justin, J., 1996.Quantum field theory and critical phenomena. Clarendon Press.
Adams, H. and Searle, L. eds., 1992.Critical theory since Plato(p. 70). New York Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Feinberg, A., 1991. Critical theory of technology.
Kellner, D., 1989.Critical theory, Marxism and modernity(Vol. 1). Cambridge Polity Press.
Agar, B., 2006.Critical social theories. Paradigm Publishers, PO Box 605, Herndon, VA 20172-0605.
Agger, B., 1991. Critical theory, poststructuralism, postmodernism Their sociological relevance.Annual review of sociology,17(1), pp.105-131.
Benhabib, S., 1989. Critical theory and postmodernism On the interplay of ethics, aesthetics, and utopia in critical theory.Cardozo L. Rev.,11, p.1435.
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