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Data Security and Policy Assurance
James Grey
Data Security and Policy Assurance
The electronic computers that progressed from small experimental initiatives in 1940s, became real-world data processors in the 1980s. They have become an integral part to store and process data in our everyday life but the concern about security and protection of valuable data has risen ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EK1qJKk8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Robling Denning, 1982)","plainCitation":"(Robling Denning, 1982)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":216,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/BIQ76NKQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/BIQ76NKQ"],"itemData":{"id":216,"type":"book","title":"Cryptography and Data Security","publisher":"Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.","publisher-place":"Boston, MA, USA","source":"ACM Digital Library","event-place":"Boston, MA, USA","abstract":"From the Preface (See Front Matter for full Preface) Electronic computers have evolved from exiguous experimental enterprises in the 1940s to prolific practical data processing systems in the 1980s. As we have come to rely on these systems to process and store data, we have also come to wonder about their ability to protect valuable data. Data security is the science and study of methods of protecting data in computer and communication systems from unauthorized disclosure and modification. The goal of this book is to introduce the mathematical principles of data security and to show how these principles apply to operating systems, database systems, and computer networks. The book is for students and professionals seeking an introduction to these principles. There are many references for those who would like to study specific topics further. Data security has evolved rapidly since 1975. We have seen exciting developments in cryptography: public-key encryption, digital signatures, the Data Encryption Standard (DES), key safeguarding schemes, and key distribution protocols. We have developed techniques for verifying that programs do not leak confidential data, or transmit classified data to users with lower security clearances. We have found new controls for protecting data in statistical databases--and new methods of attacking these databases. We have come to a better understanding of the theoretical and practical limitations to security.","ISBN":"978-0-201-10150-8","author":[{"family":"Robling Denning","given":"Dorothy Elizabeth"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1982"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Robling Denning, 1982). When computers became accessible to everyone and malwares started to effect computers. After viruses were discovered, programmers often generated to send a joke or to check programming capabilities. But soon it became a real concern when government operated computer systems were hacked, and confidential information started to leak.
Data security is the study of approaches to protect data stored in computer and communication systems from unauthorized disclosure and modification. Since 1975, data security has advanced rapidly. Data security provides a predefined set of technologies and standards which tend to shield data from accidental or intended damage, exposure, or modification. Data security can be applied in numerous ways to protect the data. They include a variety of methods and techniques like physical security, logical and administrative controls, structural standards, and more practices that stop unknown and unauthorized individual or processes to access the sensitive information.
Cryptography is used as a method for data security which involves the algorithm derived from mathematical concepts to convert the sensitive data to a code. In this way instead of raw data, the coded information is transmitted, and the chances of data theft are reduced significantly.
There has been considerable advancement in methods of cryptography which includes key safeguarding schemes, Data Encryption Standard (DES), digital signature, key distribution protocols, and public-key encryption. There are also algorithms developed to validate the programs to ensure that no confidential information is leaked, and level of security clearance is suitable. New and advanced controls are established to keep data in statistical databases safe, as recently several methods to attack and damage this data have appeared. A better understanding of hypothetical and practical drawbacks of current security is developed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FzKFERLr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Robling Denning, 1982)","plainCitation":"(Robling Denning, 1982)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":216,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/BIQ76NKQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/BIQ76NKQ"],"itemData":{"id":216,"type":"book","title":"Cryptography and Data Security","publisher":"Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.","publisher-place":"Boston, MA, USA","source":"ACM Digital Library","event-place":"Boston, MA, USA","abstract":"From the Preface (See Front Matter for full Preface) Electronic computers have evolved from exiguous experimental enterprises in the 1940s to prolific practical data processing systems in the 1980s. As we have come to rely on these systems to process and store data, we have also come to wonder about their ability to protect valuable data. Data security is the science and study of methods of protecting data in computer and communication systems from unauthorized disclosure and modification. The goal of this book is to introduce the mathematical principles of data security and to show how these principles apply to operating systems, database systems, and computer networks. The book is for students and professionals seeking an introduction to these principles. There are many references for those who would like to study specific topics further. Data security has evolved rapidly since 1975. We have seen exciting developments in cryptography: public-key encryption, digital signatures, the Data Encryption Standard (DES), key safeguarding schemes, and key distribution protocols. We have developed techniques for verifying that programs do not leak confidential data, or transmit classified data to users with lower security clearances. We have found new controls for protecting data in statistical databases--and new methods of attacking these databases. We have come to a better understanding of the theoretical and practical limitations to security.","ISBN":"978-0-201-10150-8","author":[{"family":"Robling Denning","given":"Dorothy Elizabeth"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1982"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Robling Denning, 1982).
The information technology departments of many great mainframe computing companies of 1960s and 1970s created security approached which were applicable and effective in their era nut now they now gone outdated for two major reasons. One of the reasons, is that the number of dedicated users has increased significantly. The applications developed are user friendly so that everyone can use them conveniently. Among large number of users, many are not aware of the potential threats to their systems. Even those who know about these threats, are not capable to deal with them. The other factor, that has made the initial efforts to protect data ineffective, is development of Networked remote-access system. the devices are being interconnected for various communication purposes. Also, the number of people using the internet has increased significantly. Due to which the person operating a mainframe may not know one device is accessible to a huge number of users throughout the world. It has become important to comprehend risks and actions required ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YooJ6hWT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pfleeger & Pfleeger, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Pfleeger & Pfleeger, 2002)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":217,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/ISEQ86EZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/ISEQ86EZ"],"itemData":{"id":217,"type":"book","title":"Security in Computing","publisher":"Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference","edition":"3rd","source":"ACM Digital Library","abstract":"From the Book:PREFACE: When the first edition of this book was published in 1989, viruses and other forms of malicious code were fairly uncommon, the Internet was used largely by just computing professionals, a Clipper was a sailing ship, and computer crime was seldom a headline topic in daily newspapers. In that era most people were unconcerned about--even unaware of--how serious is the threat to security in the use of computers. The use of computers has spread at a rate completely unexpected back then. Now you can bank by computer, order and pay for merchandise, and even commit to contracts by computer. And the uses of computers in business have similarly increased both in volume and in richness. Alas, the security threats to computing have also increased significantly. Why Read This Book? Are your data and programs at risk? If you answer \"yes\" to any of the following questions, you have a potential security risk. Have you acquired any new programs within the last year? Do you use your computer to communicate electronically with other computers? Do you ever receive programs or data from other people? Is there any significant program or data item of which you do not have a second copy? Relax; you are not alone. Most computer users have a security risk. Being at risk does not mean you should stop using computers. It does mean you should learn more about the risk you face, and how to control that risk. Users and managers of large mainframe computing systems of the 1960s and l970s developed computer security techniques that were reasonably effective against thethreatsof that era. However, two factors have made those security procedures outdated: Personal computer use. Vast numbers of people have become dedicated users of personal computing systems, both for business and pleasure. We try to make applications \"user friendly\" so that computers can be used by people who know nothing of hardware or programming, just as people who can drive a car do not need to know how to design an engine. Users may not be especially conscious of the security threats involved in computer use; even users who are aware may not know what to do to reduce their risk. Networked remote-access systems. Machines are being linked in large numbers. The Internet and its cousin, the World-Wide Web, seem to double every year in number of users. A user of a mainframe computer may not realize that access to the same machine is allowed to people throughout the world from an almost uncountable number of computing systems. Every computing professional must understand the threats and the countermeasures currently available in computing. This book addresses that need. This book is designed for the student or professional in computing. Beginning at a level appropriate for an experienced computer user, this book describes the security pitfalls inherent in many important computing tasks today. Then, the book explores the controls that can check these weaknesses. The book also points out where existing controls are inadequate and serious consideration must be given to the risk present in the computing situation. Uses of This Book The chapters of this book progress in an orderly manner. After an introduction, the topic of encryption, the process of disguising something written to conceal its meaning, is presented as the first tool in computer security. The book continues through the different kinds of computing applications, their weaknesses, and their controls. The applications areas include: general programs operating systems data base management systems remote access computing multicomputer networks These sections begin with a definition of the topic, continue with a description of the relationship of security to the topic, and conclude with a statement of the current state of the art of computer security research related to the topic. The book concludes with an examination of risk analysis and planning for computer security, and a study of the relationship of law and ethics to computer security. Background required to appreciate the book is an understanding of programming and computer systems. Someone who is a senior or graduate student in computer science or a professional who has been in the field for a few years would have the appropriate level of understanding. Although some facility with mathematics is useful, all necessary mathematical background is developed in the book. Similarly, the necessary material on design of software systems, operating systems, data bases, or networks is given in the relevant chapters. One need not have a detailed knowledge of these areas before reading this book. The book is designed to be a textbook for a one- or two-semester course in computer security. The book functions equally well as a reference for a computer professional. The introduction and the chapters on encryption are fundamental to the understanding of the rest of the book. After studying those pieces, however, the reader can study any of the later chapters in any order. Furthermore, many chapters follow the format of introduction, then security aspects of the topic, then current work in the area. Someone who is interested more in background than in current work can stop in the middle of one chapter and go on to the next. This book has been used in classes throughout the world. Roughly half of the book can be covered in a semester. Therefore, an instructor can design a one-semester course that considers some of the topics of greater interest. What Does This Book Contain? This is the revised edition of Security in Computing. It is based largely on the previous version, with many updates to cover newer topics in computer security. Among the salient additions to the new edition are these items: Viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and other malicious code. Complete new section (first half of Chapter 5) including sources of these kinds of code, how they are written, how they can be detected and/or prevented, and several actual examples. Firewalls. Complete new section (end of Chapter 9) describing what they do, how they work, how they are constructed, and what degree of protection they provide. Private e-mail. Complete new section (middle of Chapter 9) explaining exposures in e-mail, kind of protection available, PEM and PGP, key management, and certificates. Clipper, Capstone, Tessera, Mosaic, and key escrow. Several sections, in Chapter 3 as an encryption technology, and Chapter 4 as a key management protocol, and in Chapter 11 as a privacy and ethics issue. Trusted system evaluation. Extensive addition (in Chapter 7) including criteria from the United States, Europe, Canada, and the soon-to-be-released Common Criteria. Program development processes, including ISO 9000 and the SEI CMM. A major section in Chapter 5 gives comparisons between these methodologies. Guidance for administering PC, Unix, and networked environments. In addition to these major changes, there are numerous small changes, ranging from wording changes to subtle notational changes for pedagogic reasons, to replacement, deletion, rearrangement, and expansion of sections. The focus of the book remains the same, however. This is still a book covering the complete subject of computer security. The target audience is college students (advanced undergraduates or graduate students) and professionals. A reader is expected to bring a background in general computing technology; some knowledge of programming, operating systems, and networking is expected, although advanced knowledge in those areas is not necessary. Mathematics is used as appropriate, although a student can ignore most of the mathematical foundation if he or she chooses. Acknowledgments Many people have contributed to the content and structure of this book. The following friends and colleagues have supplied thoughts, advice, challenges, criticism, and suggestions that have influenced my writing of this book: Lance Hoffman, Marv Schaefer, Dave Balenson, Terry Benzel, Curt Barker, Debbie Cooper, and Staffan Persson. Two people from outside the computer security community were very encouraging: Gene Davenport and Bruce Barnes. I apologize if I have forgotten to mention someone else; the oversight is accidental. Lance Hoffman deserves special mention. He used a preliminary copy of the book in a course at George Washington University. Not only did he provide me with suggestions of his own, but his students also supplied invaluable comments from the student perspective on sections that did and did not communicate effectively. I want to thank them for their constructive criticisms. Finally, if someone alleges to have written a book alone, distrust the person immediately. While an author is working 16-hour days on the writing of the book, someone else needs to see to all the other aspects of life, from simple things like food, clothing, and shelter, to complex things like social and family responsibilities. My wife, Shari Lawrence Pfleeger, took the time from her professional schedule so that I could devote my full energies to writing. Furthermore, she soothed me when the schedule inexplicably slipped, when the computer went down, when I had writerÕs block, or when some other crisis beset this project. On top of that, she reviewed the entire manuscript, giving the most thorough and constructive review this book has had. Her suggestions have improved the content, organization, readability, and overall quality of this book immeasurably. Therefore, it is with great pleasure that I dedicate this book to Shari, the other half of the team that caused this book to be written. Charles P. Pfleeger Washington DC","ISBN":"978-0-13-035548-5","author":[{"family":"Pfleeger","given":"Charles P."},{"family":"Pfleeger","given":"Shari Lawrence"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pfleeger & Pfleeger, 2002).
Another method of data security is to implement steganography. In steganography, the important data is hidden with other data in such a way that unimportant bits in a computer file are replaced with invisible data. In this way, the hacker will not be able to extract the valuable data. It is a simple process however, it has some downsides regrading maintenance of security, extraction, strength, and capacity to embed data. Moon & Raut proposed technique where the image and audio are embedded as confidential data into the arbitrarily selected frames of video through multi frame using the modification direction (MFEMD) algorithm. This makes it hard to interpret which video part hides the data. A forensic tool for verification is implemented at the receiving end which enhances the data security. To improve the extraction and efficiency of the method, multiple attacks were applied during the transmission of video, including histogram, visual, chi-square etc. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3irPvs5a","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Moon & Raut, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Moon & Raut, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/UT8EASUY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/UT8EASUY"],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"article-journal","title":"Information security model using data embedding technique for enhancing perceptibility and robustness","container-title":"International Journal of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics","page":"70-95","volume":"11","issue":"1","source":"inderscienceonline.com (Atypon)","abstract":"Information concealing using steganography is simple, but to maintain its security, perceptibility, robustness, embedding capacity and better recovery of both covers as well as secret data are the major issues. This paper is focused on the improvement in all these major issues. The proposed technique embedded the image and audio as secret data into the randomly selected frames of the video using multi frame exploiting modification direction (MFEMD) algorithm. Hence, it is very difficult to understand in which part of video, data is hidden. At the receiver end, we have used the forensic tool for authentication to improve the data security. Furthermore the obtained simulation results are found to be better than any other existing methods in terms of good visual recovery of both original video and secret data, embedding capacity, security of hidden secret data. Different types of attacks are applied on stego video during transmission like visual, chi-square, histogram, etc. to improve the perceptibility and robustness of secret data.","DOI":"10.1504/IJESDF.2019.096528","ISSN":"1751-911X","journalAbbreviation":"International Journal of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics","author":[{"family":"Moon","given":"Sunil K."},{"family":"Raut","given":"Rajeshree D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",12,6]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Moon & Raut, 2018).
Big data is a recent technology which deals with large structured or unstructured data and methods to process and analyze the data sets which cannot be processed with traditional computer systems. The importance of big data is now appreciated by tech companies, industries and government. The effective mining of Big Data provides viable benefits in various sectors like medical, social, economic and research etc. Usually it is observed that the aim of Big Data Security is to monitor data in real-time so that it can perceive liabilities, risks, and anomalous actions, casual access based on role, and showing indicators based on security level ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YBRtjtdF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fatima-Zahra Benjelloun & Ayoub Ait Lahcen, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Fatima-Zahra Benjelloun & Ayoub Ait Lahcen, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":221,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/4IZ2X26Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/4IZ2X26Q"],"itemData":{"id":221,"type":"article-journal","title":"Big Data Security: Challenges, Recommendations and Solutions","container-title":"IGI Global","URL":"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ayoub_Ait_Lahcen/publication/278962714_Big_Data_Security_Challenges_Recommendations_and_Solutions/links/577bfc8808ae213761cab725.pdf","author":[{"literal":"Fatima-Zahra Benjelloun"},{"literal":"Ayoub Ait Lahcen"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,18]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fatima-Zahra Benjelloun & Ayoub Ait Lahcen, n.d.).
Information technology has greatly influenced the public sectors including finance and business. And hence the significance of data security is inevitable too. This becomes more significant when a disaster hits an area. The damage caused to assess also include loss of data at computing systems. It can be physical loss of data or at such vulnerable times, the hackers attack to steal data. It greatly effects the data security and business of numerous. For such incidents business continuity plans are prepared and implemented. These also includes plan to avoid security breaches during a catastrophe as there is huge need to address the issues of integrity and confidentiality of data. It is often noted that the major threat to business continuity is unavailability of services like bank’s payment gateway goes out of order. This disrupts the transaction process. In some situations, after the damages from disaster effect the banking system. Therefore, bank is not able to proceed with transactions due to data unavailability or administrative issues. This results in financial loss to the bank and dissatisfaction of clients. Apart from mismanagement, in certain cases the personal and confidential data is exposed. For this reason, there are cautionary measures to avoid the loss of data. The data can be transferred to a secure location and be recovered in better conditions. It is arguable that Data security is a significant part of Business Continuity Plans for any organization. It sets parameters of authorized access to systems and information during disaster and recovery period. It also defines the measures which are essential to stop intrusions. There are many cases where a company gets access to data center of its competitor and uses its information to drive it out of business. It is also very crucial for a company to implement BCP to protect the data of its customers. For a bank which does not protect data of its customer efficiently can face loss of millions through identity theft and hacking. Moreover, if bank does not have enough means to secure integrity of data and utilizes services of a third party for this purpose, the government can take strict action against it.
It is well-known fact that baking sector is perfect and easiest target for data theft and hacking. According to a survey conducted in 2016, it is stated that every year there is an average of 85 serious breach attempts on banks and 36% of them were successful in their aim. In response to this, the companies and industries are developing methods to have more control over cyberspace. One of the data threats is attack of malware. One of the malware types is Ransomware which operates in two ways. It either encodes data or it steals it. In order to release the data, the cybercriminal asks for money. It all happens in cyberspace hence it is more difficult to catch the criminal. This problems not only involves security of a single company but also has consequences on national and international levels ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kDn8ncd0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wilner et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Wilner et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":218,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/JH6NNSUU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/JH6NNSUU"],"itemData":{"id":218,"type":"article-journal","title":"On the social science of ransomware: Technology, security, and society","container-title":"Comparative Strategy","page":"347-370","volume":"38","issue":"4","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"Ransomware is a type of malware that either encrypts or steals digital data and demands a financial ransom from the victim in order to release or return them. While criminals have been linking theft and hostage-taking to ransoms for a long time, the frequency and severity of contemporary ransomware, the nature and motivation of the perpetrators who use these methods of attack, and the type of targets victimized by these attacks – from federal governments to city municipalities, and from private companies to private citizens – suggests that ransomware be afforded much greater scholarly attention by social scientists. Ransomware is not solely a computer science problem. It is a security problem that has international, political, intelligence, and diplomatic ramifications. This article provides a detailed description of ransomware tailored to the social sciences. Using seven ransomware case studies, the article breaks down the technology's technical barriers, making ransomware more accessible to public policy and national security debates and analysis.","DOI":"10.1080/01495933.2019.1633187","ISSN":"0149-5933","title-short":"On the social science of ransomware","author":[{"family":"Wilner","given":"Alex"},{"family":"Jeffery","given":"Anna"},{"family":"Lalor","given":"Jacqueline"},{"family":"Matthews","given":"Kathleen"},{"family":"Robinson","given":"Krystene"},{"family":"Rosolska","given":"Alexandra"},{"family":"Yorgoro","given":"Catherine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wilner et al., 2019).
One of the highlighted examples of such attack was ransomware attack on the City of Atlanta in March 2018. Due to this attack, the computer systems operated by government, city services, courts, parking services and other utilities were greatly affected. Many offices were compelled to complete the essential tasks manually as computer were out of services for 5 consecutive days. The attackers asked for $52,000 as ransom amount. After paying ransom and gaining control, the total cost spent to recover fully was $17 million. Out of which $3 million were paid to crisis management forms and emergency IT Consultants. After the regain of control, the complete recovery took several months. This incident revealed that the city of Atlanta was not prepared for this. An audit two month before this attack had revealed cyber-vulnerabilities ranging from 1,500 to 2,000. The reason was use of outdated softwares and IT applications through undocumented processes. This example became a significant lesson and reason to include Cybersecurity in BCPs of any organization ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GLe0EMB7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Blinder & Perlroth, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Blinder & Perlroth, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":220,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/IHXHYW2J"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/YgsdZK9k/items/IHXHYW2J"],"itemData":{"id":220,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"A Cyberattack Hobbles Atlanta, and Security Experts Shudder","container-title":"The New York Times","section":"U.S.","source":"NYTimes.com","abstract":"Atlanta’s city government has been struggling for days with ransomware that has crippled its computer networks and forced it back to doing business with ink and paper.","URL":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/27/us/cyberattack-atlanta-ransomware.html","ISSN":"0362-4331","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Blinder","given":"Alan"},{"family":"Perlroth","given":"Nicole"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",3,27]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,18]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Blinder & Perlroth, 2018)
A rapid increase in cybercrimes in the past few years have enhanced the need to integrate data security measures in risk management systems and plans. Also, many companies have made teams of business continuity and disaster management as integral part of their companies. Backup solution might not be able to stop the loss of data but will provide means to recover the data quickly.
References
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Blinder, A., & Perlroth, N. (2018, March 27). A Cyberattack Hobbles Atlanta, and Security Experts Shudder. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/27/us/cyberattack-atlanta-ransomware.html
Fatima-Zahra Benjelloun, & Ayoub Ait Lahcen. (n.d.). Big Data Security: Challenges, Recommendations and Solutions. IGI Global. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ayoub_Ait_Lahcen/publication/278962714_Big_Data_Security_Challenges_Recommendations_and_Solutions/links/577bfc8808ae213761cab725.pdf
Moon, S. K., & Raut, R. D. (2018). Information security model using data embedding technique for enhancing perceptibility and robustness. International Journal of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics, 11(1), 70–95. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESDF.2019.096528
Pfleeger, C. P., & Pfleeger, S. L. (2002). Security in Computing (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference.
Robling Denning, D. E. (1982). Cryptography and Data Security. Boston, MA, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.
Wilner, A., Jeffery, A., Lalor, J., Matthews, K., Robinson, K., Rosolska, A., & Yorgoro, C. (2019). On the social science of ransomware: Technology, security, and society. Comparative Strategy, 38(4), 347–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2019.1633187
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