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Causes and Effects of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was considered to be a period of essential political disorder in Europe and France. The society of France experienced several changes as religious, aristocratic, and feudal privileges ceased to exist. The monarchy was eliminated, and traditional ideas about culture and hierarchy gave into new Enlightenment absolute rights and citizenship principles. The French Revolution transformed the world, and even today the people of France celebrated the Bastille Storming on 14 July 1789 as their national holiday. The social, political, and economic problems lead France into a revolution and consequently, influenced the urban development of the country.
Absolutism is considered to be one of the most significant political cause of the French revolution. Before the revolution, France was under the absolute monarchy role where monarch demanded the power of the divine. Such monarchy was absolute in the sense that no individual, group, or institution had the right to resisting the command of the king. Their power was supposedly handed by God therefore, no one cannot ask about their power legitimacy. However, asking the monarchy was also considered to be blasphemy. Questioning their decisions was not accountable to anyone else except God. Consequently, they lived in extravagance and luxurious lifestyle at their royal palaces. If anyone wanted to oppose the monarch, they had to face extreme punishment. According to the law, which was based on the Letter de Cachet, the monarch was authorized to arrest any individual at any time and could imprison them on their opposition. As a result, the people of France got angry and started seeking the reformation of their status.
Similarly, inequality of rights was considered to be another significant French revolution political cause. Before the revolution, Parisian were separated into legal categories which were known as the three estates or orders. Due to which the rights of people were varied from each other which was considered to be totally unjust. The most significant social division before the revolution in France was between commoner and noble. The first estate had the clergy which was composed of more than a hundred thousand people. More than ten per cent of the land was owned by the church. This clergy was exempt from the chief tax of France although the church had agreed for paying a voluntary contribution after every five years to the state.
The Second Estate was considered to be the nobility which contained more than three hundred thousand people who owned more than thirty per cent of the land. Under Louis XVI and Louis XV, the nobility had continued for playing a crucial and important role in the society of France, that hold several leading positions in the law courts, military, government, and the higher offices of the church. Similarly, it had also been observed that several heavy French industries were also controlled by the nobles with the help of ownership or investment of metallurgical and mining enterprises.
Third, and last, there was the rest of the French population. The Third Estate was known as society commoners, which constituted the overwhelming French population majority. They were divided by the huge differences in wealth, occupation, and level of education. This Estate consisted of shopkeepers, skilled artisans, peasants, and other wage earners in the cities. The 18th century had been considered to be the period of quick urban growth as ninety per cent of French towns had fewer than ten-thousand inhabitants and only nine cities had more than fifty thousand inhabitants. In the 18th century, the prices of consumer rose rapidly than wages, as a result of which such urban societies experienced a decrease in the power of purchasing. The Third state had their own grievances because they were excluded from the political and social privilege that was monopolized by the nobles. Such middle-class resentments remained for a longer period of time which was assumed to be a major French revolution cause.
The French Revolution destroyed such seigneurial systems vestiges which had remained in Paris and also consolidated the Paris status as the centralized France capital. Some Revolution's major event took place in Paris. Under the Directory and the Thermidorians, the Boulevard des Italiens was considered to be the frivolous and the fashionable resort, whereas the population favoured the Boulevard du Temple. After the First Empire Inauguration, in 1806 Napoleon ordered the triumphal Carrousel arches and Etoile to be initiated. While the style of Neoclassical reminded imperial Rome and considered to be great works of the utility of public which served for modernizing the Paris through Bourse, new bridges, new quays, canals of Saint-Martin, several fountains, market places, slaughterhouses, wine market, and Bercy warehouses. Industrialization which was in progress in the period of Napoleon advanced quickly under the July Monarchy and Restoration. Lightening of Gas was introduced, Services of Omnibus began and Paris had got the first railway track. New districts with new societies also grew up on Paris outskirts. Haussmann was considered to be the modern Paris creator. He started the water systems and new sewers by rebuilding the ancient Halles market and four new bridges of Seine and also built again some old ones. The prosperity and brilliance of Paris under Napoleon III were significant.
During the French revolution, the poor urban citizens and peasants resented the huge amount of taxes that were placed upon them. They were feeling desperate after years of drought, poor harvest, and droughts. It has brought several changes in music, art and theatre. Following and leading up to French Revolution Neo-classicism was considered to be the predominant style of art in France. This art was considered to be realistic and embodied the philosopher’s idea from that time like the importance of morality and the basic rights of human. The transforming ideas during the revolution of France also brought about the transformation in the artwork. Jacques-Louis David was considered to be one of the most influential painters during the Revolution of France. French Revolution also terminated the era of Rococo painting style which had been popular in France instead of which Neoclassical art style emerged. During the reign of Louis XIV, the crown of France controlled tightly the artistic patronage. One of the greatest painters of France known as Watteau worked for private customers and dealers like Edme-Francois Gersaint. Similarly, the Old Master painting connoisseurship was becoming professionalized. This transformation was reflected in the scholarly approach utilized by dealers like Pierre-Jean Mariette. The increasing art-historical body and critical writing were reflected in the Denis Diderot Salon criticism. Paris in the nineteenth century became the centre of principal European for the innovation of art, though often in official opposition face. One of the features of the contemporary market of art was its increasing internationalism. Some significant figures in the contemporary art of Paris were considered to be Theodore Vibert, Adolphe Goupil, and Alfred Cadart who were considered to be the first dealer of France for exploiting the market in the United States.
The collapse of the financial status of government was also considered to be the most important cause of the French revolution. Before the French revolution, the government of France was experiencing crises of economy and was well short of money. The expenditures of government were continued for growing due to costly royal extravagance and wars. The monarchy enhanced the taxes for earning more revenues of government, but yet the enhanced taxes did not fulfil the budget deficit of the government. Therefore, in order to fulfil the expenditure of the government, it was heavily dependent on taking loans. The magistrate, prelates, and nobles were also refused for cooperating in bad condition of the economy. The attempt of government for completing the expenditures alone brought several disasters. Due to which the state experienced heavy bankruptcy whereas fully fifty per cent of the annual budget of France went for paying interest of loans and other fifty per cent were available for maintaining the military, spending on the court and the royal family as well as the state's productive functions respectively. Such crises directly struck the monarchy which had lost some of their royal authority upon the Third Estate.
Another political consequence of the French revolution was the absolute monarchy transformation into the representative government. As monarch had ruled over France for more than four hundred years which was terminated by the revolution of French. As it was highlighted in the representative government that the king remained the head of state, but the power of lawmaking resided in the National assembly. Although the monarchy was reestablished by the great powers after Napoleon downfalls, still it could not survive beyond 1830 as the monarchs were already weakened by the transformation caused by the revolution of French.
Declaration of man rights was another significant consequence of the revolution in France. In the 18th century, the men of France never entertained the idea that the rights of citizen and men were reserved only for the Frenchmen. The constitutional parliament or assembly came out with the human rights documents. It guaranteed representative government, equality, freedom of an individual, and liberty such as freedom of property ownership, worship, association, press, and speech. As they were abused during the period of terror, they became the freedom foundation. Moreover, the rights inequalities during the past political system had also transformed by the reforms of the constitution, so the particular privilege for the nobles could be abolished. The revolutionaries also thought of equality and liberty as the mankind common birthright.
The leading social stress cause in France before the revolution was considered to be its large population. At the starting of the 19th century, France had twenty million people living near its borders, and this number was equal to nearly twenty per cent of the population of Europe of non-Russian. Over the century course, this number was enhanced by another eight to ten million as acute food shortages and epidemic diseases were diminished, and the death rate was declined. It has risen by only one million between the fifteenth century and sixteenth century, and this population was concentrated in the rural side of France which was considered to be nearly thirty million French under Louis XVI.
Music was also transforming during the Revolution of France. The leaders of the Revolution took the music very seriously and also realized that it is a beneficial tool for transforming the feeling and thinking of people. Artists during the French Revolution was encouraged for creating the revolutionary songs Le Marseillaise that is also considered to be the national anthem of France. Music during that time was very powerful and was created for boosting the moral and celebrating the Revolution.
The French Revolution was not only confined to policy, politics and governments but it was also considered to be the revolution of a cultural and social phenomenon which showed how people communicated, lived, and saw the world. The values and ideas of the revolution were expressed through arts, music, literature, and culture and also in the ways that how people communicated and dressed. One of the most significant French Revolution symbols was considered to be cockade, that is tight coloured ribbons knot which was pinned to one's sleeve, lapel, tunic or hat. Their colours were selected for displaying loyalty of an individual to a specific ruler, political group or military leader. Another famous symbol of the French revolution was considered to liberty cap which was worn mainly by urban working classes. Liberty tree was considered to be a symbol of the French revolution which featured nature, growth, and fertility. The years which follow the Revolution in France brought several changes and upheaval in the society of France which in turn built profound changes in fashion and dress. In France clothing had been serving as of the most aristocratic status and social privilege visible markers. It is surprising but true that fashion was deeply affected by the revolutionary changes course. During the time of the French revolution, the gap between poor and rich was increasing rapidly, and the stricken of poverty were becoming fed up with the aristocracy. While the poor did not have sufficient to eat, the rich had an excess of food. From estates to their food, to their clothing, the wealthy had each extravagance. During the time of the French Revolution, the fashionable clothing was outrageous at the time. Men wore embroidered waistcoats, and coats elaborately. Women also started wearing ornate clothing which featured wide hoops known as panniers. Both women and men would have applied themselves with the makeup. During that time the most significant fashion accessory was considered to be a wig, particularly for the women. As the century wore on, the wig of women became increasing tall and complicated. They became so tall that they had to utilize pads which they morphed into frames of wire because the padding became very heavy.
Extravagance and high fashion have been returned to France and its states of the satellite under the Directory 1795-99 with the styles of directorie. These trends reached their height in their fashions of classical style during the early nineteenth century. For men waistcoats, coats, and previous decades stocking continued to be fashionable all around the world of the Western side. These people tried to become slimmer and tried to utilize matte fabrics and earthier colours. During the French Revolution, the dress of women was expanded into several kinds of national costume. The dressing of women was getting more urbanized such as women were started wearing white skirts variation that was topped with revolutionary jackets of coloured stripped as well as white gowns of Greek chemise that was accessorized with ribbons, scarves, and shawls. When the aristocracy realized that there should be a great political unrest deal, they attempted to make a transformation which directly affected the urbanization in the form of fashion. At the time there was an enhancing fascination with the life of the country. If someone checks popular art of that time by Boucher or Fragonard, he could understand that there were frolicking shepherdesses everywhere. Such style of living was very appealing to the queen. This time was considered to be the fascination with Ancient Greece. The population found their politics of democracy appealing. This Greece love tricked down into the society facets that includes the fashion specifically in the women. The women started wearing clothes that are inspired by the light, and the flowing dresses that are existed in the art of Greek. The Greek started wearing quite a bit of colour. Even in their hairstyles, women of France emulated the ancient Greeks.
Paris was the main exception. It was the home of approximately six hundred thousand by 1789. Other cities such as Marseilles, Bordeaux, and Lyons had more than one hundred thousand within their limits. Such demographics had a great impact on both outsides and inside France. Moreover, the 18th century also saw capitalism intrusion into everyday life. As a result of the overseas trade's large expansion and domestic trade's longer-term development, the economy experienced continued growth. Although local exchange or self-sufficiency, the predominant style of economic life but such capitalism incursions started drawing everyone into some regional form and even international exchange. Amongst such abroad population and economic shifts, lifestyle in the country remained the same, especially in the small farms of family. Their workers and owners were called as peasants, although they separated considerably in statues and wealth. A few others rented their land to others for work, but still, there were several labourers who were anxious for work in exchange for food to eat and a place to stay.
According to some historians, more than ninety per cent of the peasants lived in the lean years below the level of subsistence earning only enough for feeding their families. The documents on life in the countryside reflected the poverty omnipresence at that time. The Arthur Young who was one of the famous observers of the French countryside in eighteenth-century considered such tiny farms the greatest weakness of agriculture of France, particularly while comparing with the commercial and large farms. Other researchers also commented on the several impoverished peasants before 1789 by blaming them for the tension between poor and rich on the vast social differences of the country.
Additionally, bread was considered to be the main element of their urban diets due to which the sharp rise in prices was felt quickly and were also protested loudly at the market of grains or at the local shops of bakers. Most people also diverted their anger at the suppliers of bread rather than the authorities of politics. As a result of the popularity and credibility of government officials came to be linked to the functioning of bread and grain makers. Urban workers were found an opportunity for expressing their discontent by-elections to the Estates General. These elections were performed in the neighbourhood gatherings form at which the electives collectively complied and designated a representative list of grievances for presenting it to the King, who communicated them for guiding the representative. Many of such petitions expressed opposition to the privileges of officeholders and nobles. The National Assembly decrees against privilege which had been the French social order privilege and was undoubtedly cheered by the populace. This elimination of privilege marked the starting of another social distinctions system which set forth into the new constitution that was introduced by the National assembly.
On the other hand, the most important French revolution consequence was considered to be the establishment and constitution of the rule of law in France history. Till the second last decade of the 18th century, France had no constitution for safeguarding the freedom and rights of people. In 1791, the government of France enacted the constitution which as amended in the last years of the eighteenth century. By the construction of such a constitution, the role of law was reflected in the law for serving the French society which was violated in the past. The constitution also differentiated the legislature, judiciary, and the executive. This constitution also decreased the excessive powers of the king for writing the principle of all sovereignty that is essential for the nation.
Liberalism is a moral and political philosophy which is based on equality and liberty. During the French revolution, the hereditary aristocracy was given with the slogan of “fraternity, equality, and liberty". As a result, France became the first state in the history for granting universal suffrage of male. There were two significant events which marked the liberalism triumph during the revolution. The first was the feudalism abolition in France on the night of August 4, 1789. This noted the feudal collapse and also the traditional privileges and rights. The second event was considered to be the Declaration passage for the rights of the citizen and man in August 1789. This declaration is the document of the foundation of both human rights and liberalism. As a result of the success of revolution of French, governments of liberal were maintained in the nations all around Europe, North America, and South America through the 19th century. Hence the revolution of French is considered to be the defining moment in Liberalism.
The French revolution did not produce ideologies until the 19th century known as communism and socialism. However, it also provided a social and intellectual environment in which such spokesmen and their ideologies could flourish. The communist philosophers of France of the late 18th century not only criticized the personal properties but also known for its establishment and abolition of a society based on the communal and egalitarian ownership of property. The political journalist and agitator of France François-Noël Babeuf went to the extent of the revolutionary action of the advocating violent in the name of wealth socialization.
The French revolution also had a great impact on neighbouring countries. The armies of the French revolution during the 1790s and after under Napoleon, controlled and invaded Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, parts of Germany, and Switzerland. The French invasion of such territories removed the economic and legal barriers which had protected the urban oligarchies, guilds, clergy, and nobility. The revolution of French thus destroyed the power of elites and oligarchies which opposed the economic change. Evidence related to the French revolution suggested that areas which were occupied by the French and underwent reforms of institutions experienced quick economic and urbanization growth particularly after 1850. The arrival of new industrial and economic opportunities in the 2nd half of the 19th century which then resulted in the more economic Europe’s growth.
Before the French Revolution, Catholicism had been considered to be the official religion in France and the Catholic Church of France was also very powerful. It owned around more than ten per cent of the land and received tithes that were considered to be the one-tenth of common people annual earnings which were taken for supporting of the clergy. From such a dominant status, the Catholic Church was destroyed during the French Revolution. The nuns and priest were turned out, its leaders exiled or executed, the property was controlled through states, and the 10 % was abolished. The 1801's Concordat, an agreement between Church and Napoleon, terminated this period and manufactured rule for a relationship between the French State and Church. Although the Concordat restored some traditional Church roles it did not restores its monasteries, lands or power and the worship of religion could never become prominent in France as before.
Nationalism is considered to be the ideology which emphasized the allegiance, devotion, or loyalty to a nation and places such obligations above other group or individual interests. The French revolution started the movement towards the modern state of the nation and played a significant role in the nationalism birth across Europe. As the armies of France under Napoleon captured territories; the nationalism ideology was spread all around Europe. The Revolution did not impact the nationalism of France but also had a long and profound lasting impact on intellectuals of Europe. As a result of such struggle, national liberation became one of the most significant themes of nineteenth and twentieth century of the world and Europe . Before the revolution, Parisian generally lived in the government form which had been placed for centuries, and that form was considered to be a monarchy in several places while after the Revolution, no government was considered to be legitimate without any justification.
The French Revolution also brings some positive effect of institutional reforms in the second half of the nineteenth century. Between 1849 and 1914 a fuller industrial society in France emerged including new forms of diplomatic and of states and also the alignments of the military. Most of the radical institutional transformation in Europe takes place during the period of the French Revolution. France built a commercial court in Aachen in 1794 and followed with some similar courts elsewhere in the Rhineland which were to play a significant role in the industrial and commercial creations business in the years to follow. Several pieces of evidence regarding the French Revolution proves that it is the clear designed, radical and large-scale change of institution. These institutional changes imposed in Europe due to the French Revolution do not have any significant negative impact but only have several major positive impacts on society.
The French Revolution in several dimension weakened the local elite’s power. The growth of the economy as proxied by the urbanization in the areas which underwent the radical reforms of the institution brought by the Revolution of French particularly after 1850. The armies of the French revolution and later Napoleon controlled and invaded the considerable parts of Europe which included areas of Germany where they assumed necessary the same economic, legal and political reforms as in France. This invasion also came with the exploitation and chaos of the occupied territories.
The Revolution toppled the established regime and began a complex method. It involved radical changes of an institution, such as the abolition of feudalism remnants in agriculture, a decrease of nobility power, and the abolition of internal tariffs and guilds. The process of transformation did not terminate at the borders of France, but later Napoleon controlled and invaded huge Europe parts which included Germany areas. The arrival of new industrial and economic opportunities of the industry during the French Revolution resulted in significant European economic growth.
In conclusion, the French revolution had a significant impact on Europe in modern history. There were some major problems such as the political causes which included the collapse of government political economy, rights inequalities, and the absolutism. Although there were some other political factors as well, these three play a significant role in the revolution. The consequences of these causes were considered to the absolute monarchy transformation into the representative government. The second most significant consequence was the man's right establishment where all the people got their privileges and rights regardless of another social status. Similarly, the most significant consequence was the construction of the role of law and constitutions.
Annotated Bibliography
Palmer, Robert R. The world of the French Revolution. Routledge, 2016.
Palmer's book offers a brief history of the French Revolution. He was considered to be one of the most highly regarded historians in the 20th century. The palmer’s main contribution to the debate over the most contentious and significant events in the French Revolution was to deploy evaluation skill of critical thinking for revealing the weakness in existing arguments related to the causes of French Revolution. He described a compelling new narrative for explaining why the monarchy of French destroyed in 1789.
De Tocqueville, Alexis. Recollections: French Revolution of 1848. Routledge, 2017.
Tocqueville offers exciting and candid scenes in his book about what actually happened in the French revolution. Book has a relevance that extends beyond France and other countries. This book shows that Tocqueville was not only an active participant in the Revolution of French in 1848 but also a keen observer with a disconnected attitude of mind. It is presented as a translation basis on the definitive edition of French in 1964. In this, he beautifully described some common economical causes of the French Revolution.
Gough, Hugh. The newspaper press in the French Revolution. Routledge, 2016.
Gough in his book describes the importance of newspaper press in the French Revolution. When the ancient regime destroyed in 1789, the newspaper press was free for the first time in the history of French. This result was an explosion in the newspaper number with over two thousand titles appearing between 1789 and 1799. This book published in 1988 which describes the French Press growth during that time by displaying the importance of provincial newspaper emergence and determining the journalism relationship with political power. The concluding chapters discussed the newspaper economic during that decade by analyzing the machinery of sales, distribution, and printing.
Popkin, Jeremy D. A Short History of the French Revolution (Subscription). Routledge, 2016.
This book of Popkin is considered to be one of the best books on the history of the French Revolution. In this book, the historical events are studied more closely which took place in France between 1789 and 1815. This study seeks to explain the Revolution origins, leader's goals, men and women role in the event for drawing up the balance sheet of its failures and its success. This new edition of A Short History of the French Revolution includes coverage of women during the French Revolution, coverage of struggles over slavery and race, and also some political violence during the Revolution. After reading this book, the readers can get comprehensive knowledge of the causes and consequences of the French Revolution.
Williams, H. (1997). An Eye-Witness Account of the French Revolution by Helen Maria Williams. Jack Fruchtman.
Helen Maria Williams was considered to be English chronicler, novelist and poet of the French Revolution, and accounts for her experiences during the Revolution of France. She was arrested in 1793 and records sorrow and passion of degeneration of Revolution into murder and chaos. She also sketches the colourful personalities of her enemies, friends, and acquaintances. She has beautifully described the scenes of the French Revolution in her writing and considered to be an exceptional writer in this regard. She displayed her enduring optimism which the Revolution would eventually succeed in justice and liberty for the public everywhere.
Constantine, M.A. and Frame, P., 2012. Travels in Revolutionary France and a Journey Across America: George Cadogan Morgan and Richard Price Morgan. University of Wales Press.
In 1789, George Cadogan Morgan who was considered to be the nephew of famous dissenter Richard Price went to France during the time of the French Revolution. In 1808 his family went to America and left Britain, where Richard Price Morgan travelled extensively and also made a descent of Mississippi and Ohio Rivers by raft, and also assisted building some American railroad. The adventure of George Cadogan Morgan was related here through letters that he sent to his family and which was mentioned in the autobiography written by his son in America. In these letters, he beautifully prescribed the scenes during the French Revolution and also described their culture and societies differences.
Mercier, L.S. and Popkin, J.D., 1999. Panorama of Paris-CL. Pennsylvania State Univ Pr.
Mercier's Le Tableau de Paris, is considered to be one of the most significant treasures of the literature of France that offers vivid portraits wealth of life of Parisian. Mercier was considered to be pioneering ethnographer of urban society, which is an observer of a participant who described the society with the same curiosity sense which drove the explorer of the period for portraying the natives of France.
