Critical Analysis Essay

Critical Analysis Essay

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Critical Analysis Essay

Colonisation: European Settlement (1788-1880)

Humans have breathed in Australia for the last 65,000 years, and the archeological records represent the arrival of humankinds on the land of Australia and their dispersion out of the African lands and finally the interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals and Denisovans. In the 18th century, when the first European explorers docked on the vast lands of the continent, it was mainly occupied by Tones Strait Islanders and Aboriginal people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tjpkf2eo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clarkson et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Clarkson et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":103,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/Q4BY2MFP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/Q4BY2MFP"],"itemData":{"id":103,"type":"article-journal","title":"Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago","container-title":"Nature","page":"306","volume":"547","issue":"7663","author":[{"family":"Clarkson","given":"Chris"},{"family":"Jacobs","given":"Zenobia"},{"family":"Marwick","given":"Ben"},{"family":"Fullagar","given":"Richard"},{"family":"Wallis","given":"Lynley"},{"family":"Smith","given":"Mike"},{"family":"Roberts","given":"Richard G."},{"family":"Hayes","given":"Elspeth"},{"family":"Lowe","given":"Kelsey"},{"family":"Carah","given":"Xavier"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Clarkson et al., 2017). Colonisation typically refers to an administrative order where a central system of power controls and governs the lands and the resources found on it. According to ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eoO8CncJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Paradies, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Paradies, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":108,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/JFHZ2HIE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/JFHZ2HIE"],"itemData":{"id":108,"type":"article-journal","title":"Colonisation, racism and indigenous health","container-title":"Journal of Population Research","page":"83-96","volume":"33","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Paradies","given":"Yin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Paradies, 2016), colonisation is the relocation of masses of people from their ancestral lands because of war, ecological destruction, forced labour, slavery, genocide, and the spread of deadly diseases. Often, colonisation is usually a construct of racism, which refers to an elaborate scheme of exploitation and extermination of a group of people perceived to be inferior to the imperial invaders. Upon the discovery of Australia, the lands were claimed by European settlers as deserted, or "terra nullius" hence any actions taken by the Aboriginal people as resistance were inferred as a revolt ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VAcaWKg3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}2008 Year Book Australia No. 90}, 2008)","plainCitation":"(2008 Year Book Australia No. 90, 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/FL267CI9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/FL267CI9"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"book","title":"2008 Year Book Australia No. 90","publisher":"Aust. Bureau of Statistics","number-of-pages":"802","source":"Google Books","note":"Google-Books-ID: 1K7CzUsYhjkC","language":"en","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (2008 Year Book Australia No. 90, 2008). Thus, the Europeans used these claims to justify their occupation and dispossession of land that belonged to the Aboriginals.

However, Australian Bureau Statistics (ABS) (2008) indicates that archaeological evidence suggests that the native people were estimated to be around 0.7 million. In 1788, the population of the natives began to dwindle following the arrival of the first contingent of white settlers who comprised of a crew of about 1,500 British immigrants who settled in Sydney Cove ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"V8BlEAZQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}2008 Year Book Australia No. 90}, 2008)","plainCitation":"(2008 Year Book Australia No. 90, 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/FL267CI9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/FL267CI9"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"book","title":"2008 Year Book Australia No. 90","publisher":"Aust. Bureau of Statistics","number-of-pages":"802","source":"Google Books","note":"Google-Books-ID: 1K7CzUsYhjkC","language":"en","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (2008 Year Book Australia No. 90, 2008). The decline in the population of the natives was mainly attributed to exposure to new infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which created an epidemic that wiped out close to 50% of the population before the arrival of the colonising frontier. Sexually transmitted diseases were also rampant during this early phase of colonisation as a result of the sexual exploitation of native women and girls by the imperial settlers. It is also worth noting that physical injuries. Psychological problems, and mental illnesses were also widespread during the colonisation era due to forceful eviction, loss of traditions, language and Aboriginal laws. In a nutshell, the colonial era was characterised with lasting and detrimental health effects that were felt by the indigenous people who habited Australia in the period between 1788 and 1880 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zhfnPwx1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Adas & Cagle, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Adas & Cagle, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":101,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/P5FTEM7E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/P5FTEM7E"],"itemData":{"id":101,"type":"chapter","title":"Age of Settlement and Colonisation","container-title":"The Ashgate Research Companion to Modern Imperial Histories","publisher":"Routledge","page":"61-93","author":[{"family":"Adas","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Cagle","given":"Hugh Glenn"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Adas & Cagle, 2016).

Protection through Segregation (1890-1950s)

The 1890s marked yet another period of strive for the indigenous population in Australia ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KZlhGC9h","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Calma & Dick, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Calma & Dick, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4ZPW2KBG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4ZPW2KBG"],"itemData":{"id":104,"type":"paper-conference","title":"Social determinants and the health of Indigenous peoples in Australia—A human rights based approach","container-title":"International Symposium on the Social Determinants of Indigenous Health. Adelaide","author":[{"family":"Calma","given":"T."},{"family":"Dick","given":"D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Calma & Dick, 2007). This assertion is founded on the fact that the imperial colonial masters instigated an era of segregation through curtailing the independence of the natives using protection policies. The policy made it difficult for the aboriginals to make ends meet given that it significantly increased the cost of survival since it limited their access to land and placed impositions to the culture, language, family lives and independence of the natives ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8F0N0clQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Calma & Dick, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Calma & Dick, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":104,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4ZPW2KBG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4ZPW2KBG"],"itemData":{"id":104,"type":"paper-conference","title":"Social determinants and the health of Indigenous peoples in Australia—A human rights based approach","container-title":"International Symposium on the Social Determinants of Indigenous Health. Adelaide","author":[{"family":"Calma","given":"T."},{"family":"Dick","given":"D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Calma & Dick, 2007). The British created colonial reserves under the pretext of protecting the indigenous population from violence but their real motive was to forcefully take over their land and control the natives as their colonial subjects ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FzdP7E5M","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Veracini, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Veracini, 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":111,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/93VEN25Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/93VEN25Z"],"itemData":{"id":111,"type":"article-journal","title":"Introducing: Settler colonial studies","container-title":"Settler colonial studies","page":"1-12","volume":"1","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Veracini","given":"Lorenzo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Veracini, 2011). The protection policy adversely affected the life of the natives in that it limited their freedom of movement, speech, right to own property as well as practicing traditional rites and customs given that right of choice of language was curtailed after the prohibition of tribal language and law. It is also worth noting that section 127 of the Australian constitution excluded aboriginals from participating in the census and tribal language and law section 51 conferred the mandate of governance of Aboriginals to states as opposed to federal governments thereby further segregating the natives ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sf16eNDC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Taylor, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Taylor, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":110,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/WWTLL4RG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/WWTLL4RG"],"itemData":{"id":110,"type":"article-journal","title":"A history of Section 127 of the Commonwealth Constitution","container-title":"Monash UL Rev.","page":"206","volume":"42","author":[{"family":"Taylor","given":"Greg"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Taylor, 2016). The effects of this cruelty meted on the natives were profound in that it resulted in extreme poverty, which was manifested in poor nutrition and wellbeing of the aboriginals due to limited access to good quality medical services.

The Impacts of Colonisation policy on Aboriginal People's Health

The effects of colonisation are still rife among the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders. According to ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NmacMF5d","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mitrou et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Mitrou et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":106,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/N4AZ8MFS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/N4AZ8MFS"],"itemData":{"id":106,"type":"article-journal","title":"Gaps in Indigenous disadvantage not closing: a census cohort study of social determinants of health in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand from 1981–2006","container-title":"BMC Public Health","page":"201","volume":"14","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Mitrou","given":"Francis"},{"family":"Cooke","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Lawrence","given":"David"},{"family":"Povah","given":"David"},{"family":"Mobilia","given":"Elena"},{"family":"Guimond","given":"Eric"},{"family":"Zubrick","given":"Stephen R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mitrou et al., 2014), because of colonisation, the wide gap between the health status of non-indigenous and the natives remains to be unacceptably high. This phenomenon has been recognised by the Australian government as well as the United Nations Committee on Human Rights. Most notably, there exists an almost 8 year gap between the life expectancy of natives and non-natives in Australia. The Aboriginal males have average expectancy of 71.6 years while non-Aboriginals live up to 80.4 years. The Aboriginals have shorter expectancies based on poor health, poverty, unemployment, hidden racism, preventable chronic diseases and failure of statesmen to contemplate their problems seriously. Health care system are unable to provide measures for the adequate primary care services. Nutrition is an important factor which needs to be addressed by governments, policy makers and public health organizations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"r2rnSBcm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Korff, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Korff, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":90,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/HL57KCQ3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/HL57KCQ3"],"itemData":{"id":90,"type":"webpage","title":"Aboriginal life expectancy","container-title":"Creative Spirits","abstract":"Aboriginal health standards in Australia let almost half of Aboriginal men and over a third of women die before they turn 45. At all ages, Aboriginal life expectancy is lower than for non-Aboriginal Australians.","URL":"https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/health/aboriginal-life-expectancy","language":"en-au","author":[{"family":"Korff","given":"Jens"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,2]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,28]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Korff, 2019).

Moreover, the Torres Strait Islanders and the Aboriginals are significantly disadvantaged by colonisation in respect to their socioeconomic circumstances. Cultural engagement has a correlation with the non-recidivism. Culture is an important parameter for indigenous people especially in colonization and it has a strong impact on the mental health and buffer distress provoked by discrimination and violation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1OAl1MLq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Shepherd, Delgado, Sherwood, & Paradies, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Shepherd, Delgado, Sherwood, & Paradies, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":92,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/8RFR5SPR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/8RFR5SPR"],"itemData":{"id":92,"type":"article-journal","title":"The impact of indigenous cultural identity and cultural engagement on violent offending","container-title":"BMC Public Health","volume":"18","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"Background\nPossessing a strong cultural identity has been shown to protect against mental health symptoms and buffer distress prompted by discrimination. However, no research to date has explored the protective influences of cultural identity and cultural engagement on violent offending. This paper investigates the relationships between cultural identity/engagement and violent recidivism for a cohort of Australian Indigenous people in custody.\n\nMethods\nA total of 122 adults from 11 prisons in the state of Victoria completed a semi-structured interview comprising cultural identification and cultural engagement material in custody. All official police charges for violent offences were obtained for participants who were released from custody into the community over a period of 2 years.\n\nResults\nNo meaningful relationship between cultural identity and violent recidivism was identified. However a significant association between cultural engagement and violent recidivism was obtained. Further analyses demonstrated that this relationship was significant only for participants with a strong Indigenous cultural identity. Participants with higher levels of cultural engagement took longer to violently re-offend although this association did not reach significance.\n\nConclusions\nFor Australian Indigenous people in custody, ‘cultural engagement’ was significantly associated with non-recidivism. The observed protective impact of cultural engagement is a novel finding in a correctional context. Whereas identity alone did not buffer recidivism directly, it may have had an indirect influence given its relationship with cultural engagement. The findings of the study emphasize the importance of culture for Indigenous people in custody and a greater need for correctional institutions to accommodate Indigenous cultural considerations.","URL":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5525355/","DOI":"10.1186/s12889-017-4603-2","ISSN":"1471-2458","note":"PMID: 28738789\nPMCID: PMC5525355","journalAbbreviation":"BMC Public Health","author":[{"family":"Shepherd","given":"Stephane M."},{"family":"Delgado","given":"Rosa Hazel"},{"family":"Sherwood","given":"Juanita"},{"family":"Paradies","given":"Yin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",7,24]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,28]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Shepherd, Delgado, Sherwood, & Paradies, 2017). Their risk of contracting environmental and behavioural diseases is substantially higher than that of their non-indigenous counterparts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lDqVie4D","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}2008 Year Book Australia No. 90}, 2008)","plainCitation":"(2008 Year Book Australia No. 90, 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/FL267CI9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/FL267CI9"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"book","title":"2008 Year Book Australia No. 90","publisher":"Aust. Bureau of Statistics","number-of-pages":"802","source":"Google Books","note":"Google-Books-ID: 1K7CzUsYhjkC","language":"en","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (2008 Year Book Australia No. 90, 2008). Notably, the death rate among the aboriginals is two times higher than that of the general population. The leading cause of deaths is cardiovascular diseases which accounted for more than one-quarter of the overall deaths reported in 2008 whereas cancer caused 14% of the total mortality as per records of ABS 2008. It is also worth considering that mental disorders and alcohol abuse are also rampant and are rapidly increasing suicide deaths among the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders. Colonization had social and economic impact and authority over indigenous people and it has been accumulating among generations. Policies and practices by the statesmen towards these populations have systematically destroyed the cultural values and pride of identification of indigenous people. These treatments have caused transmission of insecurities and trauma, poor social and economic conditions from generation to generation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9iPmbzaf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jackson Pulver et al., 2010)","plainCitation":"(Jackson Pulver et al., 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":107,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/QWG7U58J"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/QWG7U58J"],"itemData":{"id":107,"type":"article-journal","title":"Indigenous health-Australia, Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand, and the United States-laying claim to a future that embraces health for us all: world health report (2010) background paper, no 33","author":[{"family":"Jackson Pulver","given":"Lisa"},{"family":"Haswell","given":"Melissa"},{"family":"Ring","given":"Ian"},{"family":"Waldon","given":"John"},{"family":"Clark","given":"Wayne"},{"family":"Whetung","given":"Valorie"},{"family":"Kinnon","given":"Dianne"},{"family":"Graham","given":"Catherine"},{"family":"Chino","given":"Michelle"},{"family":"LaValley","given":"Jonathon"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jackson Pulver et al., 2010).

The Impacts of Protection-Segregation policy on Aboriginal/ Torres People's Health

It is essential to note from figure below that the population structure and by extension, the health of the indigenous people is notably different from than that of the non-indigenous population. This disparity is mainly as a result of the protection-segregation era, which introduced reforms that made certain townships become segregated native urban centres ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fSeCAGke","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Briscoe, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Briscoe, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":102,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4DJ28JH9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4DJ28JH9"],"itemData":{"id":102,"type":"book","title":"Counting, health and identity: A history of Aboriginal health and demography in Western Australia and Queensland, 1900-1940","publisher":"Aboriginal Studies Press","ISBN":"0-85575-524-5","author":[{"family":"Briscoe","given":"Gordon"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Briscoe, 2003). The median age of the natives is 21 years, whereas that of the non-natives is 37 years ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DDQb2avB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kotey, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Kotey, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":105,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/GNCPZ5A8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/GNCPZ5A8"],"itemData":{"id":105,"type":"article-journal","title":"Demographic and economic changes in remote Australia","container-title":"Australian Geographer","page":"183-201","volume":"46","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Kotey","given":"Bernice"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kotey, 2015). These demographics reveal that the indigenous people have high fertility rates and equally high death rates in comparison to the rest of the population. Furthermore, these demographics indicate that the protection-segregation era succeeded in transforming the native people's lives since its primary purpose was to improve the aboriginals' health standards ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EQIrQhtC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Briscoe, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Briscoe, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":102,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4DJ28JH9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/4DJ28JH9"],"itemData":{"id":102,"type":"book","title":"Counting, health and identity: A history of Aboriginal health and demography in Western Australia and Queensland, 1900-1940","publisher":"Aboriginal Studies Press","ISBN":"0-85575-524-5","author":[{"family":"Briscoe","given":"Gordon"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Briscoe, 2003). Therefore, this trend means that the demand for increased government-sponsored programs and services is required to serve the burgeoning youth population within this demographic. By the recent data collection and analysing, it has been reported that the population of Aboriginal and Torres Starit Islander people will comprise almost 3.9 per cent of the population by 2031 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Fzl9DyzA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Insights into vulnerabilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 50 and over,\\uc0\\u8221{} 2019)","plainCitation":"(“Insights into vulnerabilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 50 and over,” 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":95,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/RPQM3FFT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/RPQM3FFT"],"itemData":{"id":95,"type":"webpage","title":"Insights into vulnerabilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 50 and over","container-title":"Australian Institute of Health and Welfare","abstract":"This report presents information on the complex and varied needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people@aged 50 and over. It brings together data from a range of sources to identify...","URL":"https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-australians/vulnerabilities-aboriginal-torres-strait-50-full/contents/table-of-contents","language":"en-AU","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,28]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Insights into vulnerabilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 50 and over,” 2019).

The population structure of indigenous and non-indigenous people in Australia. Australia Demographic SIalinics Abs (2008).

How these policies affect Torres Strait Islanders and Health Professionals?

As indicated by Nom et al. (2014), these two policies significantly influence the relationships between the natives and health professionals in different levels since they create a wide gap between the health status of non-indigenous and native people. As a result, the natives feel discriminated against at the institutional, individual, as well as the community level and have unhealthy relationship with health specialists. Racism has become a key determinant for the health of these people and discrimination among indigenous and non-indigenous Australians is the main cause for unremitting gap in the social, economic and health outcomes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aRi3i0JI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Experiences of racism among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in the Australian state of Victoria: A cross-sectional population-based study | BMC Public Health | Full Text,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Experiences of racism among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in the Australian state of Victoria: A cross-sectional population-based study | BMC Public Health | Full Text,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":97,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/58JJZI37"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9Hfkg8Y0/items/58JJZI37"],"itemData":{"id":97,"type":"webpage","title":"Experiences of racism among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in the Australian state of Victoria: a cross-sectional population-based study | BMC Public Health | Full Text","URL":"https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-019-6614-7","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,28]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Experiences of racism among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in the Australian state of Victoria: A cross-sectional population-based study | BMC Public Health | Full Text,” n.d.). For this reason, researchers asserts that a strength-based approach is the most effective strategy for creating trustful and respectful relationships between the Aboriginals and the government health facilities. This technique entails an analysis of the critical problems, deficits in the system, and diseases afflicting this demography as the focus of the intervention strategy. Health professionals should then work backward to generate a tailor-made solution for the Aboriginals and Torres Straits Islanders to access quality medical services. Furthermore, strength-based care can be broken down into the community and personal level where the assertive involvement of individuals is encouraged to foster the building of respectable and trusting relationships at the grassroots level.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY 2008 Year Book Australia No. 90. (2008). Aust. Bureau of Statistics.

Adas, M., & Cagle, H. G. (2016). Age of Settlement and Colonisation. In The Ashgate Research Companion to Modern Imperial Histories (pp. 61–93). Routledge.

Briscoe, G. (2003). Counting, health and identity: A history of Aboriginal health and demography in Western Australia and Queensland, 1900-1940. Aboriginal Studies Press.

Calma, T., & Dick, D. (2007). Social determinants and the health of Indigenous peoples in Australia—A human rights based approach. International Symposium on the Social Determinants of Indigenous Health. Adelaide.

Clarkson, C., Jacobs, Z., Marwick, B., Fullagar, R., Wallis, L., Smith, M., … Carah, X. (2017). Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago. Nature, 547(7663), 306.

Experiences of racism among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in the Australian state of Victoria: A cross-sectional population-based study | BMC Public Health | Full Text. (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2019, from https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-019-6614-7

Insights into vulnerabilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 50 and over. (2019). Retrieved September 28, 2019, from Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-australians/vulnerabilities-aboriginal-torres-strait-50-full/contents/table-of-contents

Jackson Pulver, L., Haswell, M., Ring, I., Waldon, J., Clark, W., Whetung, V., … LaValley, J. (2010). Indigenous health-Australia, Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand, and the United States-laying claim to a future that embraces health for us all: World health report (2010) background paper, no 33.

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