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Equal Pay Movement
In the Era of 1800s and before, women's role was entirely different than the role they are playing in contemporary time. Women were living with no rights and handed fewer opportunities. Roles were developed based on stereotypes that developed difficulty for women to survive. Women were serving as a mother, sister, daughter, and a sexual object for men. Besides, there were restrictions for higher education and joining the labor force. In the 1870s, the first bill was presented to highlight the issue of gender pay discrimination in federal jobs in the United States. Grady bill was passed in 1981 that was presented to ensure equal pay for New York City teachers. Industrialization was one of the major elements that enable women to understand their role and to join the labor force. Besides, World War 2 increased the proportion of women in the workforce extensively as men were involved in the war, and the labor force required more labor. History indicates that in each Era, women had suffered from pay discrimination when, in fact, they were obtaining the same job titles as well as the same workload, but being paid less than men. The main purpose of the paper is to understand the consequences leading to the equal pay movement. It is crucial to learn because it tells the pattern of society that had been changed then the Era when women were not even allowed to leave home for work.
The industrial revolution was one of the crucial factors that brought changes in society. It forced men to allow women to join the workforce as demand for labor had increased that cannot be controlled by men labor only (Verick). The study included the history, efforts, problems, and struggle of the women to get their rights for work and then for equal pay. It is crucial to understand the level where women got the chance to acquire equal wages as men as gender discrimination as well as unequal distribution of pay, remain an issue of society.
Mobilizing Grievances
In the 1800s, society was controlled by men, while women were their just to fulfill men's demands. Men were dominant in the workforce and holding the financial issues of their families. Men had better jobs while women were not allowed even to get a basic education. Women were forced to stay at home and look after men’s children and parents. In addition, in various communities, women were considered as the pride of the family. They had to hide their wishes and desires for the sake of their families. Education and jobs were prohibited for them. Stereotypes, men dominance, and unlimited restrictions on women resulted in various psychological disorders among them (N.W. et al.).
As a major position at each work, organizations were under men so that women had limited salaries according to their designation, age, and gender. Gender inequality leads to a large income gap between men and women. Besides gender discrimination, there were some major reasons due to which women were unable to acquire higher wages. First was the limited education (Frye). Men were able to get higher education from early times while women were not even allowed to get an early education. Time changed and women get the opportunity to get an education, but their level was less than the men, which affected their wages. Men were more qualified, so they acquired higher wages while women pay was much lesser than men. The second reason for the pay difference was the amount of investment. Shareholders preferred to invest in training programs for men, while women got fewer investments which restricted their skills. This difference in training and skills leads to a pay gap between the genders.
After industrialization as well as World War II, the high proportion of women was involved in the labor force. However, there was an economic reason for low payment. Women had few professional to choose which increased the supply of female labor in specific fields. High supply leads to the low demand by the producers lead to low wage rate for the women. Women had had to accept low pay for the work as there was no other choice for them (Verick). Besides, discrimination based on gender remained the major factor for the pay gap between men and women. It means women had the same job, designation, and title as men but they were getting less pay compared to the men. Men reserved a higher position in the market so they had control over the women and on their salary distribution.
Contextual conditions
During the late 1800s role of women began to change with different movements. Women raise their voices to get the right to vote. They made various organizations that not only started the movement for voting rights but also spread awareness in women to get an education and other rights. Women's workforce was only 2.9 million prior to the 1880s which steadily increased from 1880 to 1910 and achieved 7.8 million. Women started to work in the industry as well as business (Stevenson). Churches also supported women and they fought for religious activism. During all their societal changes, Gender discrimination, unequal pay, harassment, and family restrictions remained some of the leading problems for women.
At the end of the 1800s role of women began to change due to various movements. Movement for equal pay linked to other movements that were developed to raise awareness for women’s rights. Women came forward to get the right to vote. They developed many organizations that worked for getting voting rights. These organizations, along with various activists, spread awareness in women to get higher education and basic rights. Afterward, a group of women changed the pattern of society. These women were educated and knew the importance of women in society. These women emerged after society showed lenient thinking for the women and allowed them to get higher education (Stevenson). However, restrictions were still there for choosing the profession. For example, various professions were considered as men's professionals like night jobs, engineers, scientists, and physicians. On the other hand, women had few options, and they were able to choose professions like arts, writing, and teachings. It highlights the dominance of men prior to the feminism movement.
These women came forward to fight for vote right and also for political and economic equality along with social reforms. However, feminists and various other activists achieved success in acquiring the acceptance of many women who join the movement. Later on, people faced the strange face of feminism. Clubs, jazz concerts were introduced where women used men like appearance to go outing with a male friend and enjoy concerts, dancing, and drinking. Women started traveling alone to different places for enjoyment at clubs where dancing and drinking were common. The time and mindset of women started to change when they started to understand their importance in society. Women began to think out of traditional mindset and stereotypes and argue for their basic rights like better education, clothing, healthcare, and freedom for work with equal pay (“Working Women”).
Dynamics
Researches argued that men enjoyed twenty percent of benefits in salary from 1973 to 1995. Women at that time were having the issue of limited skills and knowledge that increased their struggling to join the workforce; therefore, it was difficult for them to fight for equal pay. However, with time, women started to raise their voices for equal rights but also for equal pay. The equal pay act of 1963 was passed after a constant rise in the pay gap between men and women. The law was signed on the 10th of July 1963. H.R. 5056. It was presented by Republican congresswoman to empower women by highlighting the issue of gender discrimination in pay based on sexes (Explaining the Gender Wage Gap - Center for American Progress). After the bill was passed, the first adjustment was to regulate the pay for women. Pay distribution introduced based on gender was considered as discrimination and violation of the law. The next step taken was the coverage to professionals and various white-collar employees. The act not only ensured equal pay distribution but also worked on the cost of equal distribution of job opportunities. Before the act was passed, women had fewer opportunities and men were holding the major position which considered discrimination after the act was implemented (Miller and Vagins).
Participation
Many women made efforts to provide equal rights to the women of the United States. Among these women, Congresswoman Winifred C. Stanley had a special place. She started many activists’ moments to pave the road to equal rights for women (Frye). She was an activist for both women and civil rights. Being the head of the Women's Bureau, Esther Peterson, she worked with various determined women to provide equal rights to women. In the 20th century, discussions regarding women’s rights and equality were prominent among celebrities, activists, and lawmakers. At that time, women were suffering from employment discrimination. For that particular purpose, several equal pay laws were enacted in the U.S. The basic purpose of these laws was to reduce employment discrimination. Employers were strictly prohibited from discriminating against women and other people based on race, sex, and religion by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Explaining the Gender Wage Gap - Center for American Progress).
People showed a mixed reaction to the changes and various movements. Men were conscious after a rapid increase in women in the workforce which became the factor of the pay gap as men wanted to be dominant. In addition, the fear of men resulted in making the limitations for the women at the workplace (Stevenson). The Industrial Revolution was affected by the monetary need of women labor to some extent; therefore not only single but married women got the opportunity to determine their value and join the labor force. For the first time, women were seen outside the typical frame where they were treated as the guardian of household and sexual objects. A large proportion of the women were hired in the coal mineshafts. Besides, the Industrial Revolution produced autonomous wages, portability and a superior way of life. Manufacturing labor at the site in the early phase of the industrial revolution was long and difficult resulted in the existence of hardship (Verick). In addition, society did not easily accept this self-determination of women, including a particular group of women. Especially older women measured this change as an act of vulgarity and appropriate for the formation of society. This was a difficult time because not all women were agreed to the equality of sexes. The large population of women believed that it is against the traditional gender role and the political interference of women is improper. Therefore, these movements and struggles for equal rights were not only threatening for men but also for women. The thinking of such women was influenced by the traditional stereotypes by which they believe that economic and political activities are meant for men only (“Working Women”).
Various celebrities and athletes participated in the movement through the organizations and foundations they are associated with. Since 1948, the United States has utilized an approach of joint tax assessment, which charges a wedded couple as a unit based on the consolidated pay of husband and spouse. By making a spouse's expense rate reliant on her significant other's income, joint tax collection raises wives' assessment rates, by and large, and diminishes their work supply (“Working Women”).
Resources/Leadership
Esther Peterson, the head of the Women's Bureau, alongside Winifred C. Stanley, a congresswoman, and Rev. Addie Wyatt, who is a women's rights activist, together struggled to pave the road for equal pay and lead several determined women in the path. As the movement for equal pay gained ground, it obtained support from several quarters, including celebrities, activists, and lawmakers in just a few decades. Consequently, several forms of legislation were passed, aiming at reducing discrimination at work. The 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibited companies from discriminating against employees on the basis of religion, race, national origin, and sex. The 1972 Educational Amendment act further extended the scope of the Equal Pay Act (EPA) to now contain various administrative, and white-collar executive positions that were previously exempt from the original rules. The primary focus of the movement is to acquire equal pay for equal work.
Congress generally supported the EPA and facilitated legislation to enhance employment opportunities for both women and men and worked to reduce any potential impact on the salaries of all employees. Since the EPA was legislated as an amendment to the FLSA, it carries the same legislative position as do minimum wage laws. The EPA helped equalize pay between women and men for jobs of equal nature. However, it also created a price floor on the overall pays people to get for specific jobs. Thus, some critics such as Economist Thomas Sowell believe that the EPA created further unemployment by creating conditions that led to further discrimination against women in the labor market. Moreover, the EPA set price floors on wages for different jobs which raised concerns that it would lead to a further reduction in the overall number of jobs available for women. Even though these issues were noted in Congressional records, the EPA faced little opposition in getting approved. Furthermore, there was little indication that any of the affirmative defenses raised against the act helped limit or remedy the EPA's side effects. It ia therefore critical to note EPA, in its statutory language, does not require any intent requirements as per law. The EPA only established liability under its three main elements, regardless of what the employer intends. Nonetheless, Employers who engage in the act of wage discrimination on grounds of gender face strict liability under the EPA.
Counter-movement
On the floor of the House of Representatives, various Representatives presented their concerns regarding EPA. They believed that EPA should be implemented from the pay equality for women and it should be treated as the priority of the congress. Following the policies, strategies, and implementation of the EPA, Congress commenced two steps which broadened the scope of federal protection against wage discrimination on the basis of sex (N.W. et al.). Therefore, there was no such counter-movement against the equal pay movement. There was a social reaction from the men and a few women of the society. On the political platform, various politicians used the movement as a power card but the opposition did not try to come forward against it. The reason for positive responses by the social and political bodies was rapid economic growth which increased the labor force. As men were not enough to complete the demand for workforce; therefore, it became important to provide equal pay and reduce the issues of women at the workplace (Frye).
Consequences or outcomes
The influence of equal pay movement and struggle of women for equal rights was positive for the society as well as the economic growth of the nation. A vast proportion of the women's labor force got more favorable chances and became able to obtain better jobs and equal pay as men. In addition, gender discrimination and bias based on age, sex, and color became unlawful. With the implementation of EPA, women were allowed to case files against the employers, managers, or colleagues of the association if they experience any discrimination. After the implementation of the 1963 equal pay act, the major difference was observed in the division of designation and salary. The pay gap decreases, but it did not end (Miller and Vagins).
With equal pay movement, we can learn the outcome through the theories discussed throughout the semester along with the concept linked to the history of equal pay movement. Harper's text explains about the Changes in Populations, Families, and work. For instance, the equal pay movement changes the pattern of society and thinking of the people. The role of women also changed. Specifically, under the Baby Boomers, there is the knowledge about period effects that can be explained as sharing a common history, social trends, opportunities, and limitations. The effect of change in women's role and the emergence of the need for equal pay movement explain what women collectively went through during periods such as World War I, World War II, and during the industrial revolution.
Relative Deprivation Theory can be used to explain the action taken by women for social change. Opportunities, position, and prosperity were the element that was belonged to men, and throughout equal pay, movement women struggle to prove the society that they also have rights to enjoy all these opportunities and status in the society. In addition, conflict theory can be used as a framework of the movement due to rich employers were paying women less to increase their profit. After the Equal Pay Act of 1963 employers were restricted to pay women a fair salary equal to the men and according to the job type. When it came to having the same job title, but various created new job titles to show the acceptance of EPA but they offered less pay to the women on new titles as well. Resource Mobilization theory can also be used to understand the history of equal pay movement because of the other organizations recognizing and supporting the promotion for equal pay.
Furthermore, the equal pay movement enables economists and politicians to understand the various reasons for an unequal distribution. For instance, the reasons for the pay gap were also due to various social and some unknown economic factors. One of the significant financial advancements of the twentieth century was improvement in instructive and worked for women. Because of this advancement, countless American ladies achieved postsecondary degrees, entered the work power, and earned wages that have become over time (Explaining the Gender Wage Gap - Center for American Progress). According to one ongoing investigation, subsequent to modifying for elements like work power understanding, association status, race and ethnicity, and occupation, a great part of the sexual orientation compensation hole stays unexplained, proposing that work showcase separation assumes a significant job. Furthermore, right around 60 percent of women would get more or fewer chances that they were able to get pay equivalent to men with equal degrees of instruction and work hours (Miller and Vagins).
Conclusion
Women in America had to do so many struggles to reach the stage where they are today. They fought for their rights, freedom of choice, and opportunities for a better life. Society acquires various norms, rituals, and stereotypes that decide the roles of gender. Women were restricted to specific fields like teaching, nursing, and writing, while major fields like doctors and engineers were made for men. Harassment was the major issue as men were using women as sexual objects, so it a too long time for men to accept the presence of women as colleagues or partners at the workplace. The equal pay act of 1963 was passed after a constant increase in pay difference between men and women. The law was signed on the 10th of July 1963. H.R. 5056 was introduced by Republican congresswoman against discrimination and inequality in pay based on sex. The large women workforce got more favorable opportunities, and they became able to acquire equal jobs as well as salary.
Work Cited
Explaining the Gender Wage Gap - Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/reports/2014/05/19/90039/explaining-the-gender-wage-gap/. Accessed 6 Nov. 2019.
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Frye, Jocelyn. “Next Steps for Progress on Equal Pay.” Center for American Progress, https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/reports/2016/04/12/135267/next-steps-for-progress-on-equal-pay/. Accessed 30 Nov. 2019.
Miller, Kevin, and Deborah J. Vagins. The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap. Fall 2018 Edition. American Association of University Women, 2018. ERIC, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED596219.
N.W., 1615 L. St, et al. "The Narrowing, but Persistent, Gender Gap in Pay." Pew Research Center, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/03/22/gender-pay-gap-facts/. Accessed 6 Nov. 2019.
Stevenson, George. “The Forgotten Strike: Equality, Gender, and Class in the Trico Equal Pay Strike.” Labour History Review, vol. 81, no. 2, July 2016, pp. 141–68. online.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk (Atypon), doi:10.3828/lhr.2016.8.
Verick, Sher. “Female Labor Force Participation and Development.” IZA World of Labor, Dec. 2018. wol.iza.org, doi:10.15185/izawol.87.
“Working Women: Key Facts and Trends in Female Labor Force Participation.” Our World in Data, https://ourworldindata.org/female-labor-force-participation-key-facts. Accessed 6 Nov. 2019.
