Adolecent Psy, Week 4



4th Assignment

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

4th Assignment

Introduction

Personality refers to behaviors, thoughts, and feelings which are adopted at an early stage and developed in the course of different experiences throughout the lifespan. Various theories have been proposed to explain the behavioral and psychological development of individual personality, however, the well-known theories are Freud and Erikson Theory of personality development.

Discussion

Freud's theory of development has inspired Erikson's theory, but they both vary in many ways. Firstly, Freud's theory is centered on the initial stages of personality development, precisely between birth and adolescence period. He believed that personality is developed during this period and the child is dependent on the success and failure incurred during these years. He referred to this phenomenon as fixation, where the child gets stuck and cannot move to the next stage of psychological development. However, Erikson believed that the personality develops throughout the life of an individual and at each stage individual develops new traits that may be positive or negative such as trust and mistrust CITATION Sch12 \l 1033 (Schoklitsch & Baumann, 2012).

Secondly, Freud expresses that the preschool stage is based on genetical growth in children, where they focus on the recognition of same-sex parents and discover their identity. While Erikson's believes that identity develops throughout individuals live where children build up a sense of rationale to take initiative and perform tasks.

Furthermore, Freud theory has emphasized on psychosexual characteristics of children. he states that during adolescent, children develop romantic relationships and those who succeeded to build such relations, develop a well-adjusted personality. In contrast, Erikson theory is referred to as psychosocial development, where personality develops through social interactions with different CITATION Hoa051 \l 1033 (Hoare, 2005). Children's identify a sense of purpose in society and began to control the environment.

Conclusion

The personality theories are highly focused on role identification in the society, where children construct a judgment of their identification and sense of belongingness. They work hard to accomplish their tasks. Social relationships play a crucial role in personality growth, however, a positive and responsive environment tends to develop rational identities. I agree with the author's explanation of identity development in which children are highly motivated by appreciation and positive feedback in support of their performance.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Hoare, C. H. (2005). Erikson's General and Adult Developmental Revisions of Freudian Thought: “Outward, Forward, Upward”. Journal of Adult Development, 19-31.

Schoklitsch, A., & Baumann, U. (2012). Generativity and aging: A promising future research topic? Journal of Aging Studies, Volume 26, Issue 3, Pages 262-272.

Adolecent Psychology Assigmnet 1

Adolescent Psychology Assignment 1

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Adolescent Psychology Assignment 1

The development of cognition, when defined by three theories of nativist, empiricist, and interactionist, explores different ways of cognition development. The nativist theory believes in the inborn or innate growth of thinking process. According to this theory, it is the innate ability of a brain to think and form cognitions (Moshman, 2004). This happens due to a brain organ known for the linguistic mechanism; this helps in converting the symbols and sounds into a meaningful substance whereas the empiricist theory believes that the critical factor in cognitive development is the environment. The surroundings are the ultimate reason for shaping the thinking processes.

The light shed by interactionist theory on cognitive development is that social-cultural interactions determine the development of thinking processes. It agrees to the innateness of cognition development, but it also believes that by communicating with others the cognitions are appropriately developed. It describes the developmental procedure of cognitions through examples like, when human being develops thinking according to the situation and circumstances in which they have to act (Moshman, 2004).

Piaget explained the theory of cognitive development as a continuous process which happens due to the maturation of biological factors and environmental interaction. He disregarded the idea that intelligence is a trait which cannot grow or enhance. Also, he focused entirely on the cognitive development of a human. Whereas, Kohlberg also focused on cognitive development, but the difference between these two theories is that, Kohlberg extended this theory towards moral development.

Kohlberg postulated that cognitive development also enhances the development of moral thoughts. Although Piaget didn’t focus on this side of the theory, he got restricted to the innateness of development of intelligence (Moshman, 2004). Also, the second main difference is that Piaget devised four stages which ranged till adolescence. However, Kohlberg extended it throughout the lifespan of a person.

References

Moshman, D. (2004). Adolescent rationality and development: Cognition, morality, identity. Psychology Press.

Adolecent Psychology, Week 5

Adolescent psychology, week 5

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Adolescent Psychology, week 5

How the author of your textbook defines “Ethnic Identity” and “Sexual Identity 142, 159

According to the author the formation of ethnic identity takes place as the influence of the mainstream dominant culture. Culture of its origin can be different from the mainstream cultural values. The presence of cultural prejudice and structural barriers influence the minority groups and help them develop an ethnic identity and the ethnic identity increases with time. A high level of ethical identity achievement is connected to higher levels of self-esteem. In majority cases, the formation of ethical identity is influenced by discrimination against the person's group and increases with a sense of oppression.

Sexual identity is the discovery of the individual’s instinctive sexual orientation; this identity is the self-formative process. It is constrained and can't be determined by sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is not responsible for determining the sexual identity in the pubertal stage. Teenagers construct their sexual identities easily in supportive environments

Briefly describe the difference between intuitionism, subjectivism, and Trans subjectivism

Intuitionism is the epistemology that presents the view that moral righteousness and wrongness are based on the moral intuitions and it helps in determining the truthfulness. It is neither based on logic not on the previous knowledge but relies only on the intuition. But subjectivism considers that moral judgments are never right and wrong but they are based on the individual’s point of view, this position is part of the general subjectivism epistemology that questions the possibility and existence of truth (Krettenauer, 2004). Person’s moral judgments are the reflection of his own beliefs and point of views. On the other hand, transsubjectivism presents an opinion that moral judgments are justifiable but fallible, this position can be associated with general rationalist opinion regarding the judgments of falsity and truth (Moshman, 2004).

References

Krettenauer, T. (2004). Metaethical cognition and epistemic reasoning development in adolescence. International Journal Of Behavioral Development, 28(5), 461-470. doi: 10.1080/01650250444000180

Moshman, D. (2004). Adolescent Rationality and Development (2nd ed.). New York.

Adolecentv Psychology, Week 6

Adolescent Psychology, week 6

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Adolescent Psychology, week 6

Answer 1:

Different studies show the link between adolescent development with the genetic influence, environmental factors, and personal projections. In my opinion, all three factors play an important role in developing the adolescent’s personality. In the initial stage of adolescent genetic influences play an important role, but the more teenager grows the environmental factors start to play their role.

In the early and mid-twenties individuals start to pay attention to the societal norms and start to form their decisions according to the societal and environmental influences. And these influences start to form their behavioral patterns. Similarly, their influences along with the individual’s construction form their reactions and actions. This combination of environmental influence and personal construction can override or change the genetic behavior patterns or change them ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KCxtbFCh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hopwood et al., 2011)","plainCitation":"(Hopwood et al., 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1768,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/7URX5PZK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/7URX5PZK"],"itemData":{"id":1768,"type":"article-journal","title":"Genetic and environmental influences on personality trait stability and growth during the transition to adulthood: A three wave longitudinal study","container-title":"Journal of personality and social psychology","page":"545-556","volume":"100","issue":"3","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"During the transition to adulthood individuals typically settle into adult roles in love and work. This transition also involves significant changes in personality traits that are generally in the direction of greater maturity and increased stability. Competing hypotheses have been offered to account for these personality changes: the intrinsic maturation hypothesis suggests that change trajectories are endogenous, whereas the life-course hypothesis suggests that these changes occur because of transactions with the social environment. This study investigated the patterns and origins of personality trait changes from ages 17 to 29 using 3 waves of Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire data provided by twins. Results suggest that a) trait changes were more profound in the first relative to the second half of the transition to adulthood; b) traits tend to become more stable during the second half of this transition, with all the traits yielding retest correlations between .74 and .78; c) negative affectivity declined over time and constraint increased over time; minimal change was observed on agentic or communal aspects of positive affectivity; and d) both genetic and non-shared environmental factors accounted for personality changes. Overall, these genetically-informed results support a life-course perspective on personality development during the transition to adulthood.","DOI":"10.1037/a0022409","ISSN":"0022-3514","note":"PMID: 21244174\nPMCID: PMC3058678","shortTitle":"Genetic and environmental influences on personality trait stability and growth during the transition to adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"J Pers Soc Psychol","author":[{"family":"Hopwood","given":"Christopher J."},{"family":"Donnellan","given":"M. Brent"},{"family":"Blonigen","given":"Daniel M."},{"family":"Krueger","given":"Robert F."},{"family":"McGue","given":"Matt"},{"family":"Iacono","given":"William G."},{"family":"Burt","given":"S. Alexandra"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hopwood et al., 2011).

Answer 2:

Advanced psychological adolescent development involves cognitive, emotional and social development in the individuals. Secondary schools can help students in their advanced development by providing them all the necessary resources to the students ranging from secondary education resources to the resources required for the extracurricular activities.

Studies prove that engaging the extracurricular activities improves their academic performance and provide students the opportunity to interact and explore the interests and perspectives in a broader sense. They learn skills like goal settings, time management, prioritization, analytical skills, public speaking, communication, and problem-solving skills, that helps them grow as healthy individuals ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"l5EaDpiM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}SPSSI Journals,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“SPSSI Journals,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1771,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/L3RH5PFS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/L3RH5PFS"],"itemData":{"id":1771,"type":"webpage","title":"SPSSI Journals","URL":"https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0022-4537.2003.00095.x","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“SPSSI Journals,” n.d.). Schools giving opportunities to students to improve and develop their cognitive, emotional and social skills, proves to be a great way in adolescent psychological development. The more they will come across the adult situations that involve, thinking, developing analysis and solutions, the more their minds will develop to cope with the situations. All schools should growth provide platforms to their students to help them develop into healthy skillful individuals.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Hopwood, C. J., Donnellan, M. B., Blonigen, D. M., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., & Burt, S. A. (2011). Genetic and environmental influences on personality trait stability and growth during the transition to adulthood: A three wave longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 545–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022409

SPSSI Journals. (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2019, from https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0022-4537.2003.00095.x

Adolescence

[Name of Student]

[Name of Professor]

[Name of Class]

[Day Month Year]

Adolescence

Introduction

Adolescents are predominantly insensitive to influence from their neighborhoods, schools, peer groups their families and social environment. In America, adolescents (between ages 10 and 19) comprise of 13 percent of the total population ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"umxVJEnj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(US Census Bureau)","plainCitation":"(US Census Bureau)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":158,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4cj2SgiL/items/S4ALRBHS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4cj2SgiL/items/S4ALRBHS"],"itemData":{"id":158,"type":"webpage","title":"Current Population Survey (CPS), CPS Table Creator","abstract":"US Census Bureau information on the subject of Current Population Survey (CPS). Data section.","URL":"https://www.census.gov/cps/data/cpstablecreator.html","language":"EN-US","author":[{"family":"US Census Bureau","given":"Demographic Internet Staff"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,24]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (US Census Bureau). This is because adolescents are in developmental transition. During these developmental stages, their behavioral patterns are being established that help in determining their contemporary health status. Since adolescents spend most of their time at home than school, therefore, it becomes their parents' responsibility to improve the health status of adolescents in America.

Discussion

Adolescents are normally healthy times of life, some vital social and health concerns establish start during these stages. There is less likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors if adolescents are bonded with a caring adult and have good communication. Parents involve and supervise the activities of their adolescents have been encouraging a safe environment along with discovering new opportunities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sr1EYLfS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Moore et al.)","plainCitation":"(Moore et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":160,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4cj2SgiL/items/SPGNRU58"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4cj2SgiL/items/SPGNRU58"],"itemData":{"id":160,"type":"book","title":"Exploring the Links Between Family Strengths and Adolescents Outcomes. Research Brief, Publication #2009-20","publisher":"Child Trends","source":"ERIC","abstract":"When families make the news, it is often for negative reasons such as violence or abuse. Negative perceptions of low-income families tend to be especially strong. However, families are critical to the positive development of children and youth, as well as to problems that may affect that development. Thus, it is important to examine not just the deficits, but also the assets and strengths that families of all income levels bring to raising children. This Research Brief reports on the results of new Child Trends analyses of data from the 2005 Every Child Every Promise Study conducted by America's Promise Alliance. Findings indicate that family strengths are associated with significantly better outcomes for adolescents in both lower-income families and higher-income families. Specifically, the findings are that adolescents from families that have these strengths are more likely to perform well in school, to avoid risky behaviors, and to demonstrate positive social behaviors than are adolescents from families that lack these strengths. Although particular focus was on lower-income families--those making less than $50,000 a year--similar results were found for families making $50,000 a year or more. In sum, outcomes for adolescents are significantly better when they live in families with the strengths identified in this brief. This finding holds for adolescents in lower-income families, not just affluent families. In addition, the finding holds for all three adolescent outcomes and for all four measures of family strengths, though role modeling as measured here is the weakest of the four. (Contains 4 figures and 1 table.)","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Moore","given":"Kristin Anderson"},{"family":"Whitney","given":"Camille"},{"family":"Kinukawa","given":"Akemi"},{"family":"Scarupa","given":"Harriet J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",4]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,24]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Moore et al.). Adolescents, when they live in families, have significantly better outcomes and their lives are shaped by parents from birth to adulthood. A close adolescent and parent relationship, positive parent role and shared family activities, good parenting skills have a well-documented impact on adolescent health. Parents can have a positive change in these areas for adolescents, while social policies help in taking such steps. Adolescents who have lower access to health care services or who live in poverty are more likely to have health issues.

Conclusion

In this brief, perceived parental support, healthy open communication and close relationships are exclusively important for adolescents because they experience various emotional and physical changes. While confidentiality needs to be ensured and address their needs. Successful parenting is predominantly obvious in situations that include limited adversity, a positive parenting environment, and supportive social networks.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Moore, Kristin Anderson, et al. Exploring the Links Between Family Strengths and Adolescents Outcomes. Research Brief, Publication #2009-20. Child Trends, 2009.

US Census Bureau, Demographic Internet Staff. Current Population Survey (CPS), CPS Table Creator. https://www.census.gov/cps/data/cpstablecreator.html. Accessed 24 May 2019.

Adolescense Development

[Writer]

[Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Adolescence Development

Introduction

Sigmund Freud theory of psychosexual development and psychosocial theory presented by Eric Ericson are the two most well-known development theories. While Ericson was influenced by ideas of the Freud but Ericson's theory is different from Freud's theory in several ways. Like Freud theory, it is believed by the Ericson that development of personalities took place in stages that are predetermined. While on the other hand, Freud theory focuses more on sexual urges, it was Ericson who believed that social experience has an impact on life and personality is forged due to social interaction.

Discussion

In the first stage of Freud that spans from the age of 0-1 years, whom Freud called as the oral stage where child's main pleasure source is through the mouth thru eating, sucking, and tasting. If a child stuck in this age then a child is orally fixated according to Freud. Ericson on another hand termed this age as trust vs mistrust stage where the child either trusts their caregivers or mistrusts them. The care that is provided by the caregivers determines this stage output.

In the second stage that spans from 1-3 years of age, both Freud and Ericson think that this age develops children independency sense. Freud termed this phase the Anal stage where a child finds its autonomy by controlling their bowel and bladder movement. Children who failed this stage fixated anally. While Ericson called this stage as autonomy vs. doubt age. Children in this stage develop autonomy by controlling activities which includes toilet training, eating and talking.

In the third stage of development, which is from 3-6 years of age, Freud theory focuses more on the libido role while Ericson theory focuses more on the interaction between children and their parents. From the year 7-11, which is the fourth stage of development, Freud believed that it is a transitional age from childhood to the adolescence while Ericson believes that this age is a continuation of the previous stage for autonomy-seeking behavior.

Again we can see the similarity between the Freud and Ericson stage of Adolescent in which both believe that sense of identity is forged in this stage. In the adulthood stage, Freud believed that this age is more dependent on the foundation set by childhood development while Ericson believes that development continues in the old age.

Adolescent

Adolescent Interview and Paper

Alan George

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Adolescent Interview and Paper

Introduction

Adolescence is a very sensitive age which includes a lot of learning along with a bundle of enjoyment ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TfmePZ6d","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rice & Dolgin, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Rice & Dolgin, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":521,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/D8MAEJAW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/D8MAEJAW"],"itemData":{"id":521,"type":"book","abstract":"The book is as comprehensive as possible within the confines of one text. The adolescent is discussed within the context of contemporary society. Material includes both theory and life experiences of adolescents and discusses physical, intellectual, emotional, psychosexual, social, familial, educational, and vocational aspects of adolescent development and behavior. It also reviews psychosocial problems of adolescents. This text is divided into eight parts. Three major chapters are included in Part One: Adolescents in Social Context, Adolescents in Theoretical Context, and Adolescent Diversity. Part Two has two chapters of great interest to students: Sexual Maturation and Physical Growth, which discusses the biochemical and biological aspects of puberty, and Health Behaviors and Attitudes, which addresses topics such as physical attractiveness, weight, nutrition, and exercise. The two chapters in Part Three are Traditional Approaches to Cognitive Growth: Piaget and Elkind and New Approaches to Cognitive Development: Information Processing, Decision Making, and Assessment Issues. In Part Four, the all-important topics of Self-Concept, Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender are discussed in Chapter 8, and Sexual Values and Behavior are covered in Chapter 9. In Part Five, the subject of Adolescents and Their Families is found in Chapter 10, and Chapter 11 looks at Divorced, Parent-Absent, and Blended Families. Coverage of social development in Part Six includes three chapters: The Changing Nature of Friendship and Romance; Adolescent Society, Culture, and Subculture; and The Development of Moral Values. In Part Seven, Chapter 15, Education and School, covers developments in secondary education. Work and Vocation, the second chapter in this part, discusses the many issues involved in vocational choice. Adolescent Alienation, as expressed through running away, suicide, and juvenile delinquency, is discussed in Part Eight along with Substance Abuse, Addiction, and Dependency. The text concludes with a brief Epilogue describing the life tasks of young adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","collection-title":"The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed","event-place":"Auckland, New Zealand","ISBN":"978-0-205-40783-5","number-of-pages":"xvii, 558","publisher":"Pearson Education New Zealand","publisher-place":"Auckland, New Zealand","source":"APA PsycNET","title":"The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed","title-short":"The adolescent","author":[{"family":"Rice","given":"F. Philip"},{"family":"Dolgin","given":"Kim Gale"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rice & Dolgin, 2005). It is a transitional phase of a person’s life that includes physical and psychological development. Usually, the period from 12 to 18 years is considered as the adolescent period ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"z8woNcax","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rice & Dolgin, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Rice & Dolgin, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":521,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/D8MAEJAW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/D8MAEJAW"],"itemData":{"id":521,"type":"book","abstract":"The book is as comprehensive as possible within the confines of one text. The adolescent is discussed within the context of contemporary society. Material includes both theory and life experiences of adolescents and discusses physical, intellectual, emotional, psychosexual, social, familial, educational, and vocational aspects of adolescent development and behavior. It also reviews psychosocial problems of adolescents. This text is divided into eight parts. Three major chapters are included in Part One: Adolescents in Social Context, Adolescents in Theoretical Context, and Adolescent Diversity. Part Two has two chapters of great interest to students: Sexual Maturation and Physical Growth, which discusses the biochemical and biological aspects of puberty, and Health Behaviors and Attitudes, which addresses topics such as physical attractiveness, weight, nutrition, and exercise. The two chapters in Part Three are Traditional Approaches to Cognitive Growth: Piaget and Elkind and New Approaches to Cognitive Development: Information Processing, Decision Making, and Assessment Issues. In Part Four, the all-important topics of Self-Concept, Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender are discussed in Chapter 8, and Sexual Values and Behavior are covered in Chapter 9. In Part Five, the subject of Adolescents and Their Families is found in Chapter 10, and Chapter 11 looks at Divorced, Parent-Absent, and Blended Families. Coverage of social development in Part Six includes three chapters: The Changing Nature of Friendship and Romance; Adolescent Society, Culture, and Subculture; and The Development of Moral Values. In Part Seven, Chapter 15, Education and School, covers developments in secondary education. Work and Vocation, the second chapter in this part, discusses the many issues involved in vocational choice. Adolescent Alienation, as expressed through running away, suicide, and juvenile delinquency, is discussed in Part Eight along with Substance Abuse, Addiction, and Dependency. The text concludes with a brief Epilogue describing the life tasks of young adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","collection-title":"The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed","event-place":"Auckland, New Zealand","ISBN":"978-0-205-40783-5","number-of-pages":"xvii, 558","publisher":"Pearson Education New Zealand","publisher-place":"Auckland, New Zealand","source":"APA PsycNET","title":"The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed","title-short":"The adolescent","author":[{"family":"Rice","given":"F. Philip"},{"family":"Dolgin","given":"Kim Gale"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rice & Dolgin, 2005). This period holds great meaning and importance in the life of an individual, as he learns the most valuable lessons of his life in this phase. The friendships made in this period go a long way and the lessons learned in this phase of life are always remembered by the person.

Although adolescence is a colorful and happy phase of life for most teenagers, some of them don't enjoy it as much as they should. For some, this colorful and joyous period turns into a dark, gloomy and depressing phase and leaves horrible memories in their mind which can never be forgotten. Several problems can be faced by a young adult when they enter the phase of adolescence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jrp2FrIX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Knight, Nordhus, & Satre, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Knight, Nordhus, & Satre, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":523,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/VZAZ7LK5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/VZAZ7LK5"],"itemData":{"id":523,"type":"chapter","abstract":"Psychotherapy with older adults and psychotherapy integration are two important clinical movements of recent years. In this chapter, we discuss psychotherapy with older adults in an integrative framework. We first review the evidence for the effectiveness of psychological interventions with a range of problems faced by older clients, including chronic illness and disability, depression, anxiety, alcohol problems, and sleep disorders. In the following sections, we discuss integrative trends in psychotherapy with older adults using the common factors theme, the metatheoretical framework, and the prescriptive eclecticism integrative approach. In the final section, we begin to explore the potential for theoretical integration in psychotherapy with older adults, using the integrative model developed at the older adult clinical program associated with the University of Bergen (Norway). The Bergen Model, which we illustrate with a case example, emphasizes identification and modification of cyclical maladaptive patterns in interpersonal relationships. Our intertwined themes in the chapter are that the integrative approaches are useful in thinking about psychotherapy with older adults and that working with older clients may provide particular impetus to thinking in integrative terms.","container-title":"Handbook of Psychology","ISBN":"978-0-471-26438-5","language":"en","note":"DOI: 10.1002/0471264385.wei0819","page":"453-468","publisher":"American Cancer Society","source":"Wiley Online Library","title":"Psychotherapy with Older Adults","URL":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0471264385.wei0819","author":[{"family":"Knight","given":"Bob G."},{"family":"Nordhus","given":"Inger Hilde"},{"family":"Satre","given":"Derek D."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,13]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Knight, Nordhus, & Satre, 2003). As already discussed, they undergo several physical and psychological changes with do not only affect their body but their brain as well. This makes some of the young adults very angry and aggressive and some of them, sensitive and depressed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4odSAENa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rice & Dolgin, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Rice & Dolgin, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":521,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/D8MAEJAW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/D8MAEJAW"],"itemData":{"id":521,"type":"book","abstract":"The book is as comprehensive as possible within the confines of one text. The adolescent is discussed within the context of contemporary society. Material includes both theory and life experiences of adolescents and discusses physical, intellectual, emotional, psychosexual, social, familial, educational, and vocational aspects of adolescent development and behavior. It also reviews psychosocial problems of adolescents. This text is divided into eight parts. Three major chapters are included in Part One: Adolescents in Social Context, Adolescents in Theoretical Context, and Adolescent Diversity. Part Two has two chapters of great interest to students: Sexual Maturation and Physical Growth, which discusses the biochemical and biological aspects of puberty, and Health Behaviors and Attitudes, which addresses topics such as physical attractiveness, weight, nutrition, and exercise. The two chapters in Part Three are Traditional Approaches to Cognitive Growth: Piaget and Elkind and New Approaches to Cognitive Development: Information Processing, Decision Making, and Assessment Issues. In Part Four, the all-important topics of Self-Concept, Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender are discussed in Chapter 8, and Sexual Values and Behavior are covered in Chapter 9. In Part Five, the subject of Adolescents and Their Families is found in Chapter 10, and Chapter 11 looks at Divorced, Parent-Absent, and Blended Families. Coverage of social development in Part Six includes three chapters: The Changing Nature of Friendship and Romance; Adolescent Society, Culture, and Subculture; and The Development of Moral Values. In Part Seven, Chapter 15, Education and School, covers developments in secondary education. Work and Vocation, the second chapter in this part, discusses the many issues involved in vocational choice. Adolescent Alienation, as expressed through running away, suicide, and juvenile delinquency, is discussed in Part Eight along with Substance Abuse, Addiction, and Dependency. The text concludes with a brief Epilogue describing the life tasks of young adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","collection-title":"The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed","event-place":"Auckland, New Zealand","ISBN":"978-0-205-40783-5","number-of-pages":"xvii, 558","publisher":"Pearson Education New Zealand","publisher-place":"Auckland, New Zealand","source":"APA PsycNET","title":"The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed","title-short":"The adolescent","author":[{"family":"Rice","given":"F. Philip"},{"family":"Dolgin","given":"Kim Gale"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rice & Dolgin, 2005).

One of the major issues currently faced by teenagers is peer pressure and bullying ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qqXSou3T","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clasen & Brown, 1985)","plainCitation":"(Clasen & Brown, 1985)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":520,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/QDZH3ZCA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/QDZH3ZCA"],"itemData":{"id":520,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"A sample of 689 adolescents (grades 7–12) from two Midwestern communities who had been identified by peers as members of one of three major peer groups responded to a self-report survey measuring perceptions of peer pressure in five areas of behavior: involvement with peers, school involvement, family involvement, conformity to peer norms, and misconduct. Perceived pressures toward peer involvement were particularly strong, whereas peer pressures concerning misconduct were relatively ambivalent. Perceived pressures toward misconduct increased across grade levels and pressures to conform to peer norms diminished; grade differences in perceived peer pressures concerning family involvement were community specific. Compared to druggie-toughs, jock-populars perceived stronger peer pressures toward school and family involvement, and less pressure toward (stronger pressure against) misconduct; patterns of perceived pressure among loners were more variable across communities. Results elaborated the process of peer influence in adolescent socialization and identity development.","container-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence","DOI":"10.1007/BF02139520","ISSN":"1573-6601","issue":"6","journalAbbreviation":"J Youth Adolescence","language":"en","page":"451-468","source":"Springer Link","title":"The multidimensionality of peer pressure in adolescence","volume":"14","author":[{"family":"Clasen","given":"Donna Rae"},{"family":"Brown","given":"B. Bradford"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1985",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Clasen & Brown, 1985). Peer pressure is a concept according to which the individual works under the influence of his or her friends or the social group. On the other hand, bullying is referred to as the use of force, coercion, abuse or threat to dominate or intimidate someone aggressively ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wF8FKYsy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clasen & Brown, 1985)","plainCitation":"(Clasen & Brown, 1985)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":520,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/QDZH3ZCA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/QDZH3ZCA"],"itemData":{"id":520,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"A sample of 689 adolescents (grades 7–12) from two Midwestern communities who had been identified by peers as members of one of three major peer groups responded to a self-report survey measuring perceptions of peer pressure in five areas of behavior: involvement with peers, school involvement, family involvement, conformity to peer norms, and misconduct. Perceived pressures toward peer involvement were particularly strong, whereas peer pressures concerning misconduct were relatively ambivalent. Perceived pressures toward misconduct increased across grade levels and pressures to conform to peer norms diminished; grade differences in perceived peer pressures concerning family involvement were community specific. Compared to druggie-toughs, jock-populars perceived stronger peer pressures toward school and family involvement, and less pressure toward (stronger pressure against) misconduct; patterns of perceived pressure among loners were more variable across communities. Results elaborated the process of peer influence in adolescent socialization and identity development.","container-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence","DOI":"10.1007/BF02139520","ISSN":"1573-6601","issue":"6","journalAbbreviation":"J Youth Adolescence","language":"en","page":"451-468","source":"Springer Link","title":"The multidimensionality of peer pressure in adolescence","volume":"14","author":[{"family":"Clasen","given":"Donna Rae"},{"family":"Brown","given":"B. Bradford"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1985",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Clasen & Brown, 1985). The act of bullying is carried out by individuals who consider themselves more powerful than the rest of the people of the society and are victims of a superiority complex (Smith, & Thompson, 2017). Bullying behavior is usually repetitive and it becomes a habit of the person who does it.

Many adolescents or young people fall prey to the evil of peer pressure and bullying every year. According to the data collected and published by National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] in 2018, almost 5 million students become a victim of bullying every year and most of the times; the issue starts in middle school. The students of 6th grade complained the most about being bullied (Modecki, Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, & Runions, 2014). As per the figures presented by CDC, 2018, the youth who are bullied in their adolescent years are more likely to have stress, anxiety, depression, sleeping difficulties, lower academic performance, and higher dropout rates ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zJpbsXVt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(CDC, 2019)","plainCitation":"(CDC, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":525,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DLB7PYBE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DLB7PYBE"],"itemData":{"id":525,"type":"webpage","abstract":"Data and Statistics information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.","container-title":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","language":"en-us","title":"CDC Data & Statistics","URL":"https://www.cdc.gov/datastatistics/index.html","author":[{"family":"CDC","given":""}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,13]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (CDC, 2019).

I recently came across a troubled youth who had faced a lot of difficulties and issues due to both these evils. She had seen a dark phase of her life and had faced peer pressure and bullying issues recently. I came to know that she had also attempted suicide. The teenager, chosen for this interview, was a young girl from high school. Her name is Anne (name has been changed to keep the identity of the interviewee hidden) and she is identified as an African-American. She was born and raised in the United States of America but according to her, no one accepts her as an American citizen. Anne has faced severe bullying issues in the recent past and is still in psychotherapy as a result of this issue. The details of this interview have been mentioned as under.

I started off the interview with some light and simple questions, like introduction and daily activities. Then I came towards the main topic; I first chose to ask about peer pressure. I started the discussion with the question that what did the interviewee (Anne) feel about peer pressure. She told me that according to her, peer pressure is such a force that makes you do something very awkward and unsafe which you would never think of doing otherwise. Upon asking that how does she thinks peer pressure works, she told that it involves a more popular or famous person of the group set up a trend and the less popular ones following it, most of the time blindly (Bursztyn, & Jensen, 2015). One of the most prominent examples in this respect, which was quoted by her was the issue of drinking and using drugs. At the end of this section, I asked Anne whether she still came under the pressure of her peers, like friends, colleagues, and even acquaintances. She laughed and told me that she had grown out of it. She further added that she no longer cares what people think or do and she does what needs to be done.

Coming towards the topic of bullying, there were several questions I wanted to ask the interviewee but this is a painful topic. I did not want to hurt her or make her go through all that pain through which she had previously gone through. I started by asking what she thought bullying was and how she was bullied. She told me her bullying story in a very confident yet painful manner. Anne told me that being an African-American, she had to face issues at many places but the worst she had was in high school, where she always had to hear rude comments about her skin color or appearance. Anne told me that there was a group of seniors in school who used to tease her by calling her different names and comparing her to different objects and even animals. This was extremely insulting and derogatory.

Upon asking about how she used to cope with this issue, she told me that at first she used to be extremely sensitive about it and used to cry. She used to cry for hours and one day, when she reached her limit, she tried to take her life. Fortunately, she was discovered in time and her life was saved. From that time onwards, her sessions with the psychologists started, which, according to her, also helped a lot in drawing her towards life and thinking positive.

Conclusion

In the end, it can be concluded with a clear observation that peer pressure and bullying are serious issues that need to be addressed on a priority basis. No doubt Anne was a strong girl and she got over her issues pretty quickly, but not everyone is strong and brave like her to speak against the evil doings going against them. Hence, there should be proper policies, rules, and regulations that define how this crime can be stopped. Moreover, there should be proper training sessions in high schools and coaching classes that teach how to identify whether a fellow is going through some serious issues like bullying, mental stress, depression, anxiety and stress, and immediately report it. This would help save the lives of many innocent young people and prevent them from falling into the dark pits of depression.

Appendices

The questions that were asked during this interview session are listed below:

1. So Anne, Tell me something about yourself.

2. What are your daily activities?

3. What do you think about peer pressure?

4. How do you think peer pressure works?

5. Can you clarify the concept of peer pressure with the help of an example?

6. Do you still face the issue of peer pressure?

7. What are your thoughts about bullying?

8. Can you share your own story or experience of bullying with me?

9. How did you handle the comments and remarks of the bullies?

10. How has psychotherapy helped you with coping with the stress and tension of bullying?

11. What would you suggest to a teenager who is going through the same phase?

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY CDC. (2019, December 9). CDC Data & Statistics. Retrieved December 13, 2019, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website: https://www.cdc.gov/datastatistics/index.html

Clasen, D. R., & Brown, B. B. (1985). The multidimensionality of peer pressure in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14(6), 451–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02139520

Knight, B. G., Nordhus, I. H., & Satre, D. D. (2003). Psychotherapy with Older Adults. In Handbook of Psychology (pp. 453–468). https://doi.org/10.1002/0471264385.wei0819

Rice, F. P., & Dolgin, K. G. (2005). The adolescent: Development, relationships and culture, 11th ed. Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.

Bursztyn, L., & Jensen, R. (2015). How does peer pressure affect educational investments?. The quarterly journal of economics, 130(3), 1329-1367.

Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., & Runions, K. C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 602-611.

Smith, P. K., & Thompson, D. (2017). Practical approaches to bullying. Routledge.

Adolescent Interview And Paper

Adolescent Interview and Paper

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Adolescent Interview and Paper

Introduction

Adolescence is a very sensitive age which includes a lot of learning along with a bundle of enjoyment. It is a transitional phase of a person’s life that includes physical and psychological development. Usually, the period from 12 to 18 years is considered as the adolescent period. This period holds great meaning and importance in the life of an individual, as he learns the most valuable lessons of his life in this phase. The friendships made in this period goes a long way and the lessons learned in this phase of life are always remembered by the person.

Although adolescence is a colorful and happy phase of life for most teenagers, some of them don’t enjoy it as much as they should. For some, this colorful and joyous period turns into a dark, gloomy and depressing phase and leaves horrible memories in their mind which can never be forgotten. There are a number of problems that can be faced by a young adult when they enter the phase of adolescence. As already discussed, they undergo a number of physical and psychological changes with do not only affect their body but their brain as well. This makes some of the young adults very angry and aggressive and some of them sensitive and depressed.

One of the major issues that are being faced by teenagers in the current times is peer pressure and bullying. Peer pressure is a concept in which an individual works under the influence of his or friends or the group they are a member of. On the other hand, bullying is referred to as the use of force, coercion, abuse or threat to dominate or intimidate someone aggressively. The act of bullying is carried out by such individuals who consider themselves more powerful than the rest of the people of the society and are victims of a superiority complex. (Smith, & Thompson, 2017). Bullying behavior is usually repetitive in nature and it becomes a habit of the person who does it.

Many adolescent or young people fall prey to the evil of peer pressure and bullying every year. According to the data collected and published by National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] in 2018, almost 5 million students become a victim of bullying every year and most of the times; the issue starts in middle school. The students of 6th grade complained the most of being bullied (Modecki, Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, & Runions, 2014). As per the figures presented by CDC, 2018, the youth who are bullied in their adolescent years are more likely to have stress, anxiety, depression, sleeping difficulties, lower academic performance and higher dropout rates.

I recently came across such a troubled youth who had faced a lot of difficulties and issues due to both these evils. She had seen a dark phase of her life and had faced peer pressure and bullying issues in the recent past. I came to know that she had also tried to commit suicide but this attempt had not been successful. The teenager, chosen for this interview, was a young girl from high school. Her name is Anne (name has been changed to keep the identity of the interviewee hidden) and she is an African-American. She was born and bred in the United States of America but according to her, no one accepts her as an American citizen. Anne has faced severe bullying issues in the recent past and is still taking psychotherapy sessions in order to recover from the mental damage done due to this issue. The details of this interview have been mentioned as under.

I started off the interview with some light and simple questions, like introduction and daily activities. Then I came towards the main topic; I first chose to ask about peer pressure. I started the discussion with the question that what did the interviewee (Anne) feel about peer pressure. She told me that according to her, peer pressure is such a force that makes you do something very awkward and dangerous, which you would never think of doing otherwise. Upon asking hat how dos she thinks peer pressure works, she told that it involves a more popular or famous person of the group set up a trend and the less popular ones following it, most of the times blindly (Bursztyn, & Jensen, 2015). One of the most prominent examples in this respect, which was quoted by her was the issue of drinking and using drugs. At the end of this section, I asked Anne whether she still came under the pressure of her peers, like friends, colleagues, and even acquaintances. She laughed and told me that she had grown out of it. She further added that she no longer cares what people think or do and she does what needs to be done.

Coming towards the topic of bullying, there were a number of questions I wanted to ask the interviewee but this is a painful topic. I did not want to hurt her or make her go through all that pain through which she had previously already gone through. I started off by asking what she thought bullying was and how she was bullied. She told me her bullying story in a very confident yet painful manner. Anne told me that being an African-American, she had to face issues at many places but the worst she had it was in high school, where she always had to hear rude comments about her skin color or appearance. Anne told me that there was a group of seniors in school who used to tease her by calling her different names and comparing her to different objects and even animals. This was extremely insulting and derogatory.

Upon asking about how she used to cope with this issue, she told me that at first she used to be extremely sensitive about it and used to cry.She used to cry for hours and one day, when she reached her limit, she tried to take her life. Fortunately, she was discovered in time and her life was saved. From that time onwards, her sessions with the psychologists started, which, according to her, also helped a lot in drawing her towards life and thinking positive.

Conclusion

In the end, it can be concluded with a clear observation that peer pressure and bullying are serious issues that need to be addressed on a priority basis. No doubt Anne was a strong girl and she got over her issues pretty quickly, but not everyone is strong and brave like her to speak against the evil doings going against them. Hence, there should be proper policies, rules and regulations that define how this crime can be stopped. Moreover, there should be proper training sessions in high schools and coaching classes that teach how to identify whether a fellow is going through some serious issues like bullying, mental stress, depression, anxiety and stress, and immediately report it. This would help save the lives of many innocent young people and prevent them from falling into the dark pits of depression.

References

Bursztyn, L., & Jensen, R. (2015). How does peer pressure affect educational investments?. The quarterly journal of economics, 130(3), 1329-1367.

Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., & Runions, K. C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 602-611.

Smith, P. K., & Thompson, D. (2017). Practical approaches to bullying. Routledge.

Adolescent Interview Questions Assignment

Student’s Name:

University Affiliations:

Professor’s Name:

Course Title:

Four Domains Interview Questions

The interview questions illustrated below have been thoroughly researched and are to be asked to adolescents between the ages of 14 to 18 years.

Physical Domain

In what ways do you observe that there is a physical development amongst your peers?

After having a walk with your friends or classmates, are there any of them who complain of having any difficulty after having long walks?

Cognitive Domain

How do you distinguish the type of peers that you have the same intellectual capabilities?

How fast are your peers when it comes to solving day to day problems? Do they have to consult their parents or friends before solving any problem?

Emotional Domain

Can you identify when any of your peers are scared, nervous, happy, sad, angry or lonely? What are the features they show when they are either scared, nervous, happy, sad, angry or lonely?

What are the strategies used by your friends when they feel disappointed in class for having not reached their targets?

Social Domain

Do any of your friends get bullied or teased by students in upper classes? What do they do when they get into situations that they are bullied or teased?

What kind of things do you and your peers carry out during your socialization time? Do those activities improve your relationship as friends?

Adolescentyes

Adolescentes

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Adolescentes

What is metacognition? Is the process important to education? How can it be enhanced?

Metacognition

Metacognition is mainly a process of thinking. This process of thinking (metacognition) refers to higher-order thinking which involves strong and active control over the cognitive processes that are engaged in the learning. The activities of the metacognitive include mainly 1) Planning, which means that what should be the process of approaching a given learning task or how to approach a given learning task 2) Monitoring, which involves our comprehension of the task or concern and 3) Evaluating which is associated to ensure the progress towards the completion of the task given.

The process of metacognition is highly important and required for education. The process is important to education almost at every level because it enables the students as well as allow them to get engaged in high order thinking. This engagement in high-level thinking is important in education because it makes a student an effective and good manager of his or her academic task(s). They are made good managers of their tasks because the process helps them to involve three main activities (mentioned above). This means that students become aware of how to plan their academic tasks, why and how to monitor the comprehension of their tasks, and how to manage and then evaluate the progress towards completing the task at hand or assigned (Reber, & Greifeneder, 2017).

In terms of enhancing metacognition, there are several and strategies that one can use but some credible out of them are below.

Teaching students how their brains are wired for the learning ad growth

Assign the students with the practices to understand the reasons behind why they do not understand concepts.

Make sure the provision of opportunities for the purpose to have a reflection on their coursework so that the metacognition may be improved accordingly.

Ensure that do the students keep different learning materials such as journal studies and cases etc. to enhance their knowledge and understanding (Reber, & Greifeneder, 2017).

The metacognition can be enhanced through the process of using a “wrapper” to enhance and improve the monitoring and evaluation capabilities of the students.

Describe the variety of ways developmentalists measure self-esteem and explain how the strategies might be used to conduct research on self-esteem.

It cannot be stated by someone that there is only one or single that the developmentalists can use for the purpose of measuring self-esteem. But a number or a variety of ways are there through which the developmentalists are made able to measure self-esteem. Hence the main four ways that developmentalists use to measure self-esteem are;

Behavioral trace record

Direct observations

Self-reports

Projective techniques

In detail, the way is known as behavioral trace mainly attempts to base the judgments on concrete behaviors such as teachers’ responses, feedbacks or comments and grades thereby reducing the observer bias and validity. Direct observation is the second way that is widely used with young children who are not enough efficient to communicate in an effective way through the verbal level but it has the possibility that feelings and values of the observer may bias the outcomes. Despite another way is self-reports. Self-reports are easily scored and more practical. This strategy or way is used to elicit sympathy from the observer so that the desired results are obtained in a fine way. The last and an operative way listed as fourth in the list is the projective techniques. This way or strategy is used to conduct research on self-esteem in a way that reveals an unconscious process in the children as well as in the adults (Ganghua, & Qingchun, 2016). This strategy is easy in general but the scoring process of it that the developmentalists uses it is difficult while it cannot be as objective and valid as the others.

F. Can we reduce adolescent pregnancy? What strategies seem to be effective?

Several strategies and tactics exist which are used for reducing the pregnancy in the adolescent. So based on this statement it is stated that we can reduce adolescence pregnancy. Despite this, these strategies and ways include both clinical practices and processes as well as include credible ways that we can use to reduce adolescence pregnancy (Holness, 2015). So it could also be stated that we can reduce adolescence pregnancy in an effective way.

Effective Strategy for Reducing Adolescence Pregnancy

There are many strategies exists and can be used to prevent and reduce adolescence pregnancy, but some of the credible ones and highly useful are as follows.

At a very basic level, adolescence pregnancy can be reduced by educating the adolescences about sexual health instructions. This can be done in order to develop and make better and healthy choices about their physical and sexual relationships with each other (Holness, 2015). Additionally, different counseling sessions about this concern could also be found helpful.

Educating teen Boys instead of focusing on girls only is a strategy which could be used to prevent and reduce the adolescence pregnancy. This strategy can be found as an effective one because the problem of adolescence pregnancy is not about the girls only while the involvement of boys and their education is also important.

Community involvement is also a strong and effective strategy that could be used to prevent and reduce adolescence pregnancy. With this strategy, it is crucial to ensure that there are effective school and community based programs where adolescence attend sex ed classes so that they can be provided with the details about the problem and how to reduce it in the community (Holness, 2015).

References

Reber, R., & Greifeneder, R. (2017). Processing fluency in education: How metacognitive feelings shape learning, belief formation, and affect. Educational Psychologist, 52(2), 84-103.

Holness, N. (2015). A global perspective on adolescent pregnancy. International journal of nursing practice, 21(5), 677-681.

Ganghua, F. & Qingchun, Y. (2016). Developmental Self-Esteem Trajectories among Taiwanese Adolescents: Effects of Family and School Context. Taiwanese Journal of Sociology, 60, 55-98.

Advantages Of Technology

Student name

Submitted to

Assignment

Date

Advantages of Technology

Today technology has become a major human need. Even technology has been used in all aspects of human life, such as in the fields of medicine, communication, military, transportation and education. From these various fields, the application of technology in the field of education is still very limited. In fact, the application of this technology is more widely used in the entertainment sector. This utilization will actually cause many problems such as abuse and health hazards. However, if implemented in the education sector, technology can help and accelerate educational goals.

The use of technology in the classroom is one of those issues that it divides. In fact, very often it is a common opinion that too much technology limits creativity and at the same time offers shortcuts for boys (or teachers). Information technology, especially the internet, provides a variety of learning resources that can be accessed by students anytime and anywhere. They can get all the references they need for free. The more they learn from different sources, the more students are smarter. At the same time, it is undeniable that we are aware of the many possibilities offered by technological tools and the importance that these innovations will have in the lives of all young people and in their future. (Selwyn 17)

Students have always found ways to avoid assignments, and digital technologies will make it even easier - from copying and using someone else's work to buying a finished essay or presentation on the Internet. The teacher can always structure tasks and tests in such a way as to minimize risks. For example, if a control measure is made open, i.e. given the opportunity to use technology to search for factual information and shift the focus to solving the problem of using it, the teacher will not only be able to check students' understanding of the material studied, but also skills in working with information. A number of software products allows you to select individual tasks for each student, which involuntarily directs his attention to work.

Concludingly, based on the discussion above, it can be concluded that this technology is very useful in the world of education, especially for teachers, students and schools. Therefore, education practitioners must use technology in the field of education.

Work cited

Selwyn, Neil. Education and technology: Key issues and debates. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.

Aggression

Aggression

Your Name

Aggression

TAQ 1 (100)

Briefly describe the effect of a named hormone on aggression levels

Testosterone is a male sex hormone that contributes to increased aggression in humans and animals. Testosterone is also related to triggering of fight impulses resulting in increased aggression levels (D Olweus 1980). In case of a threat, the person will fight back depending upon the testosterone level. Low level of serotonin also contributes to aggression, violent suicide, and impulsive behavior (EH Cook Jr 1995).

Draw a flow chart to illustrate the neural mechanisms and brain areas involved in the aggressive response

There is a link between the frontal cortex and brain damage which results in increased aggression. An individual who has a high level of aggression has a low level of frontal cortex activity.

TAQ 2

Part 1: Contribution of genetic predisposition and Frustration-aggression theories on aggression (800)

Introduction

Aggression and violent behavior can depend on several social, cultural, biological factors. Aggressive and impulsive behaviors in an individual are greatly affected by genetic predisposition and evolutionary theories. A person who has been lived in a violent environment at an early age tends to show aggressive behavior later in his life. In addition to genetic predisposition, frustration also plays a role in his aggressive nature. The theory of frustration-aggression suggests that failure may result in aggressive behavior. In this essay, genetic predisposition and frustration will be linked to David’s aggression.

Discussion

According to the theories of frustration-aggression, an individual shows aggression when he fails to achieve his goal. When a person is not allowed to show his emotions or reaction, frustration is building up in his mind. Whenever the same person has a chance to show his reaction, he will show aggression due to increased frustration (Berkowitz 1989). For example; if a pressured vessel is filled up with water and then heated, the pressure will build up inside the vessel. As it is known that water boiled to the gaseous state upon heating at the 100 degree Celsius. In Gaseous state, the particles of water move more freely as compared to that in the liquid state. Being locked in a pressure vessel the water boils quicker and will reach a point when no water molecule can convert in a gaseous state. At this point, water needs more room to change its state. If the temperature of the vessel is further increased, the vessel can explode. This explosion of the vessel can be very dangerous and can harm a person standing near a vessel. Frustration in a human being shows similar nature as that of pressure in the vessel. When frustration reaches a dangerous level, a person may start bursting in violet behavior (Goldstein 1974).

In the case of David, he had no power or ability to show his reaction while living in the home with his parents. Continuous beating of mom by the father raises the frustration of David which later results in the aggressive nature of David. With continuous practice of watching abusive relation of his parents while keeping his emotion locked up inside, David's ability to withhold his aggression weakens with time. As a result of looked emotion, David develops an aggressive nature. It is normal human nature that he does not stand up against the stronger individual. Moreover, the father is physically stronger than David and there is no chance that he can stand up against the dad. David no longer fears his dad at a caring home which results in showing aggressive nature. Moreover, David tends to show empathy to other children who had been a victim of bullies. This reflects David's support toward the victims which he failed in the case of his mother.

Aggression can be defined as a behavior that brings harm or pain to someone. According to heritability studies an individual’s behaviors are greatly affected by the genetics. Predisposition is a characteristic that affects an individual because of the condition of the environment he/she has raised in. The negative environment may block genetic predisposition (AF Patenaude 2002). Moreover, Twin studies theory can be very helpful for understanding the effect of the genetic predisposition on aggression. If two identical twins are separated on birth and are raised in a different environment, they both will show different behavior at later age. If one kid is raised in a violent and aggressive environment, like the case of David, he will most probably show toxic and behavior towards others. Similarly, if a kid is raised in a healthy environment, he will show more soft behavior toward others. Twin studies explain that a negative environment, especially in early age, greatly effects the development of a person’s nature and his emotional state. When a person is showing aggressive behavior, the dysfunction of his neural circuits which are responsible for his emotions can be observed. Excessive reactivity in those neural circuits increases the chance of aggressive behaviors.

David has been watching an abusive relationship between his parents, his father has always shown aggressive behavior towards his mother. Upon separation of David from his parents, he is showing violent behavior towards many in a children's care facility. Aggressive behavior that David had learned from the relationship of his parents is reflected in his behavior towards others. From his father, he had learned that aggression is an answer to any disagreement. This is an example of the effect of a negative environment on the genetic disposition of a person. David is a victim of psychological and emotional damage. David had seen his mother being beaten up by his dad, and he had no power to take action against it. Now that David can show his reaction in a care facility he shows for aggression as a response to any situation that he thinks is negative. Whenever it is observed by David that a child is being bullied by someone, he always steps up against the bully and shows empathy to the victim. David sees the victim as helpless he and his mom were when they were living with their dad. Due to his genetic predisposition, David always shows kindness to the victim.

Conclusion

In this essay, David’s aggression is linked with two theories; genetic predisposition and frustration-aggression. David has been in a violent environment since his early childhood and he has witnessed an abusive relationship between his parents. According to genetic predisposition theory, David's aggression has been a result of his growth in a negative environment. Also, according to the frustration-aggression theory, David has been keeping his emotions locked inside for a long period. Upon his freedom form the negative environment his oppressed emotion results in to aggressive. Genetic predisposition offers a complete explanation of David's process of aggression. David's aggression is a result of a negative environment in which he has been raised.

Part 2: Strategy to overcome aggression (300)

Sr. No.

Theory of aggression

Name and a brief description of a strategy

Application to the case study

1.

Genetic predisposition aggression

Cognitive therapy

It focuses on present communication, behavior, and present thinking of the patient (AT 1979).

David's cognitive skills will be improved using cognitive therapy. The relation between his behavior thoughts and emotion will be recognized and then strategy to overcome his behavior will be devised.

2.

Frustration- aggression theory

Behavior therapy

It helps change the unhealthy behavior of an individual (MR Goldfried 1994)

Through training and acceptance of David behavior, a new set of skills will be developed to overcome his aggression

Learning theory

Person-centered therapy

A person is an expert of himself/herself (CR 2001)

The healthy bond between David and the therapist will result in gaining David's confidence. Once the confidence is gained, the therapist will encourage David to evaluate himself

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY AF Patenaude, A. G. F. C., 2002. Genetic testing and psychology: new roles, new responsibilities.. American Psychologist.

Beck, A., 1979. Cognitive therapy of depression, s.l.: s.n.

Berkowitz, L., 1989. Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation.. Psychological bulletin.

D Olweus, Å. M. D. S., 1980. Testosterone, aggression, physical, and personality dimensions in normal adolescent males.. Psychosomatic.

EH Cook Jr, M. S. T. E. A. U., 1995. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and whole-blood serotonin levels: effects of comorbidity. Psychiatry.

Goldstein, M., 1974. Brain research and violent behavior: A summary and evaluation of the status of biomedical research on brain and aggressive violent behavior. Archives of neurology.

MR Goldfried, G. D., 1994. Clinical behavior therapy, Exp. s.l.:s.n.

Rogers, C., 2001. Client-centered/person-centered approach to therapy. Voprosy Psikhologii.

ALA Chapter 1 - Operational Definitions

Operational Definition

Name

Institution

Operational Definition

Introduction

This paper is aimed at exploring the significance of operational definition in research methodology. Operational definition is defined as the formalized description used for defining the independent and dependent variables in the most measurable manner. It is much more than merely manipulating the variables in words rather it quantifies the variables for example individual score on Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) will be termed as the operational definition of depression that will be used to measure the prevalence and severity level of depression in desired population (Hunt et. al., 2013). This paper will utilize four different scenarios for identifying the dependent and independent variables, elucidating their prospective operational definitions and potential difficulties encountered while defining them. Moreover, a report from New York Times will be undertaken thorough discussion indicating the significance of operation definition in criminal justice system.

Scenario 1

A clinical psychologist would like to know whether a history of early childhood abuse is related to later vulnerability to depression, substance abuse, and addiction.

Independent Variable: In this scenario, early childhood abuse acts as an independent variable because it directly affects the direction and magnitude of other dependent variables. Early childhood abuse will be measured through objective questionnaires including 10 items designed in such a way that they deliberately measure all types of abusive behaviors including physical violence, negligence, inequality, verbal aggression, domestic violence, sexual abuse, bullying and child labor in dichotomous format (yes/no) hence obtained scores greater than cutting score will be termed as the “operational definition” of childhood abuse. Seemingly, this definition of child abuse is quite simple but in actual it may carry potential threats to reliability and validity of the test results. For example, a mere unintentional “bad touch” might be considered as sexual abuse by some subjects whereas on the other hand, one subject who suffered child rape can surely respond with “yes” to relevant item. Problem will arise when both the subjects will mark “yes” with varying intensity and nature of sexual abuse but their mental health deterioration will demonstrate substantial disparity. Moreover, there is an equal opportunity that one individual suffered parental negligence for some time at intermittent intervals whereas the other one encountered it on the regular basis; both will mark the response “yes” but their intensity will follow holistically distinctive patterns which in turn will correlate with the mental deterioration accordingly.

Dependent Variable: dependent variable for this study will be the vulnerability to depression, substance abuse and addiction. The prevalence and severity level of depression will be measured through Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) such as 0-13 indicates minimal, 14-19 mild, 20-28 moderate whereas 29-63 indicates severe depression. On the other hand, Drug Use Disorder (DUD) questionnaire (a 14 item scale) scores will indicate the prevalence and severity of drug addiction. Hence, scores of prospective instruments will comprise the operational definitions of depression and drug addiction.

Scenario 2

A cognitive psychologist would like to find out whether more extensive education might protect individuals from dementia and related disorders later in life.

Independent Variable: this will be the longitudinal experimental study. More intensive education will be the independent variable that will be manipulated by researchers to study the effects on dependent variables. Here, more intensive education can be manipulated as the weekly educational sessions of subjects who are at the risk of developing dementia in later life. Subjects will undergo weekly educational series including its risk factors and psychotherapeutic and pharmacological management interventions. This definition of “intensive education” is quite easy to develop however it will take appropriate and consistent efforts to be administered in long run.

Dependent Variable: dementia and other neurological disorders are dependent variables here. Dementia Rating Scale will be used to determine the prevalence of its symptoms along with the neurological assessments. Hence, the operational definition of dementia will be “the scores of subjects on dementia Rating Scale (DRS)” whereas the operational definition of other disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease will be measured through their prospective psychometric instruments. The difficulty level here is quite low because Rating Scales will be having items concerning all the associated symptoms of dementia with their frequency.

Scenario 3

An educational psychologist is studying the effectiveness of a special program for teen parents. The program provides education and support related to parenting skills and career goals. He wants to know whether participants’ school performance and psychological health will improve.

Independent Variable: special educational program is an independent variable here because its effects will be seen on the school performance and psychological health of teen parents. Special education program will include weekly sessions of teen parents through appropriate audio-visual aids and instructional methodology. They will be educated regarding effective parenting skills and their own career goals. The operational definition of this independent variable is quite straightforward and less painstaking because it revolves around administering the desired program.

Dependent Variables: dependent variables of this study include psychological wellbeing and school performance of the teen parents after they undergo specialized educational program. Psychological wellbeing will be measured through Ryff’s Scale of Psychological Wellbeing whereas their school performance will be measured in terms of their grades in the most recent exam. Developing these operational definitions is quite easy for the researchers because standardized instruments are available to measure abstract phenomenon—the psychological wellbeing whereas their performance can be measured in terms of their GPA, percentage or grade in the previous exam. It will have strong reliability however the effects of extraneous variables such as intelligence, resilience, coping skills and genetic predispositions of acquiring illness might threaten the validity of results.

Scenario 4

A social psychologist is interested in the relationship between religiosity and marital satisfaction.

Independent Variable: Religiosity is the factor that will be seen to have substantial effects on the marital satisfaction hence it will be termed as an independent variable. Needless to say, religious beliefs vary religion to religion where religious orientation is also highly individual specific in nature. There is no universally accepted measuring instrument for religiosity and hence self-developed methods are used to measure this factor. The operational definition, in this case, will be the self-evaluation of subjects; either they consider themselves religious or not. Question will be asked regarding low, moderate and high religiosity of theirs. Hence, determination of operational definition for religiosity will offer less laborious efforts but will act as a potential threat to generalizibility because definition of this concept has imminent cultural variations.

Dependent Variable: marital satisfaction is indeed the dependent variable of this study. In this study, it will operationally be defined as the minimal instances of conflict between married couples which generates the sense of contentment and commitment in a long run. It will be measured through Marital Satisfaction Questionnaires having items regarding parenting, leisure actions, sexual life, conflict management techniques, financial administration, egalitarian role and relationship with family and friends. Hence it is less difficult to determine the operational definition of Marital Satisfaction because of available relevant literature.

Psychology in the News

In the news article, For the Worst of Us, the Diagnosis May Be 'Evil' written by Carey B., two various operational definitions of the word evil were used; 20 item personality test having pathological lying, glibness, grandiose, self-worth, superficial charm, emotional vacuity, and proneness to boredom related items whereas the other operational definition included the hierarchy of evil behaviors obtained from 500 case studies. Hence, based on the nature of study and research objectives, two different definitions of evil were presented by researchers.

Evil is an abstract term, highly subjective and culture specific in nature. In some cultures, evil is said to be a general trait including an intention to harm others deliberately whereas in some cultures, a man who does wrong for the sake of good cannot be said evil. Hence, this term offers substantial difficulty in providing a universally accepted definition of evil across the cultures. As this article demonstrates that psychologists presented various views about evil behavior; some attributed it as a personality trait that one acquires in a predisposed manner whereas others term it as an expression of sedation, passive aggression and displacement of frustration (Carey, 2005). The former ones believe that evil is strongly interlinked to the unconscious motives of humans that they are primarily unaware of and that lie in their childhood experiences hence accusing the ones who commit something evil and punishing the ones who possess uncontrollable urges must be reconsidered. Hence, the conceptualization of evil itself acts as an apple of discord between psychologists of multiple disciplines.

As mentioned earlier, defining the terms operationally offers many challenges such as universality, validity, reliability and generalizibility concerns (McLeod, 2013). For example, two researchers intend to explore the relationship between aggression and hunger. One researcher defines aggression as “the number of punches that subjects strike on a punching box” whereas the other one defines aggression as the scores of subjects on psychometric tests. The former one finds out that there was found a negative correlation between hunger and aggression even it was expected that both are positively correlated. On the other hand, the self report inventories explored the positive correlation between aggression and hunger hence operational definitions make a great difference.

References

Carey, B. (2005). For the Worst of Us, the Diagnosis May Be 'Evil'. The New York Times. Retrieved from HYPERLINK "https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/08/health/psychology/for-the-worst-of-us-the-diagnosis-may-be-evil.html" https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/08/health/psychology/for-the-worst-of-us-the-diagnosis-may-be-evil.html

Hunt, M., Auriemma, J., Cashaw, A. C. (2013). Self-report bias and underreporting of depression on the BDI-II. Journal of Personality Assessment. 80, 26–30. doi:  HYPERLINK "https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_10" \t "_blank" 10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_10 

McLeod, S. (2013). What is validity. SimplyPsychology. Retrieved from HYPERLINK "https://www.simplypsychology.org/validity.html" https://www.simplypsychology.org/validity.html

McLeod, S. (2013). What is reliability. SimplyPsychology. Retrieved from HYPERLINK "https://www.simplypsychology.org/reliability.html" https://www.simplypsychology.org/reliability.html

ALA Chapter 2 - Misconceptions About The Brain

ALA Chapter 2 - Misconceptions about the Brain

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

ALA Chapter 2 - Misconceptions about the Brain

Introduction

Brain games or more appropriately known as brain-training games are the games or the activities that stimulate the thinking and analytical process of the mind and enable a person to exert certain mental effort to play the game. Brain games have been a center of attention for not only the game developers but also for the psychologists, social scientists and most importantly neurologists. The professionals in the field of neurology and psychology have been trying to create a link between various brain training games and the development of cognitive abilities.

There have been a number of studies and pieces of research that prove the existence of a positive relationship between various brain-training games and cognitive abilities. Where there are scientists who are praising the brain games and working day and night to bring more and more innovation in these types of games, there are experts who oppose the idea of such games. And consider them a total waste of precious time and money. In short, it can be seen that the scientists, experts, and professionals have a divided opinion on the fact that brain training games enhance the learning capability and cognitive abilities of a person (Nijholt, Bos, D. P. O. & Reuderink, 2009). The opponents of the notion that brain games make an individual smart put forward multiple kinds of questions based on logic and reasoning and demand the answer back in the same style. Some of these quest5ions have been discussed below and the answer to them has been tried to be provided based on intelligent reasoning and valid logic.

Discussion

It is a commonly known fact that brain games and brain training games are an important source of improvement of various cognitive abilities. These games have been used for a long time to enhance the cognitive and analytical abilities of human beings. The interesting fact about these games is that these games are not only used to judge and enhance the various problem-solving abilities in the human beings have also been tried on a number of animals to check their intelligence level. Monkeys and chimpanzees are at the top among these animals.

The various kinds of tests run on different kinds of animals especially monkeys, chimpanzees, elephants, and fish have proven that these games do not only enhance the learning capability in the humans but also improve the problem-solving skills in the animals.

Talking about the examples of some specific games that have been ranked at the top in improving the thinking capabilities in the humans and improving their decision making power, then it can be said that there is no specific number or examples of any such game (Bos, (D. P. O., Reuderink, van de Laar, Gürkök, Mühl, Poel, Heylen, 2010). a number of games contribute in this respect and test the analytical and critical thinking power of the brain. Some of the notable games among them in this respect are puzzle games, arcade games, crosswords, linking the words, and finding the words. Finding differences between two different images or pictures is also very effective in improving the judgmental and the analytical skills of the players

Brain training games have been found to enhance the memory and the cognitive skills if the players' bur up to a certain level. There have been multiple experiments in which it was observed that whether playing such games has any effect on the brain and abilities of the newborn child in pregnant mothers. The results of these experiments revealed that the children born the mothers who were involved actively in playing the brain-training games were much sharper and smarter as compared to the kids born to the mothers who did not play brain games.

Moreover, another concern is raised by the opponents of brain training games that these games do not help in slowing down the cognitive process of the brain. The aging process will take as it is and there will be no difference in the players and non-players of the game, at the end. Hence, the experts opposing the idea of brain-training games argue that there is no use of such games if the end result is ultimately the same. This assumption is quite wrong at many fronts as these games have also been proven to slow down the aging process of the brain and boost up t6hinking capabilities in older people (Imbeault, Bouchard, & Bouzouane, 2011). These studies were conducted by the Canadian psychology professors, Silvie Belleville, Isabelle Peretz, and Gregory West, working at Montreal University, on the people of ages between 55 and 75 years old. The results of these experiments showed amazing performance and the people involved in the gaming depicted amazing performance. In fact, the results of these studies showed a reversal of the brain aging symptoms and the grey matter in the hippocampus of these players increased considerably, which improved their cognitive capabilities. Hippocampus is the part of the brain that contains and releases grey matter, which is associated with cognitive abilities and memory. When the thinking process is nil or the brain is not being utilized much in the older age, the grey matter in hippocampus atrophies and eventually finishes, which leads to the reduced or no decision making power and lower cognitive abilities in older people.

Similarly, the opposing experts of brain training games present the argument that just like having no effect in the cognitive abilities, these games also play a very minor or no role in reducing the risk of Alzheimer’s in the old age people. This concern or reservation has also been shunned and nullified by the experts working in the area of brain games development proving their point with the help of various kinds of studies that assist in proving that playing brain games help in ultimately diminishing the various symptoms and effects of Alzheimer’s in the people above the age of 50. The idea of brain-training games is based upon the notion of reducing the risk of cognitive impairment by giving different sorts of challenges to the brain. This helps the brain in staying active and up to date with reference to the challenges of the modern world (Anderson, & Grossberg, 2014). The brain training games include various puzzles, crosswords, Sudoku, finding the words, various word games, and even chess. The world of these games is not only limited to physical games but also they can be played on the computer. Various kinds of experiments were conducted on using multiple gaming consoles like Super Mario ^, Xbox and PS4 so that no lagging or hindrances could be faced.

Conclusion

Hence, it can be concluded that brain games or brain-training games are the best sources for increasing the mental capabilities of a person. They not only enhance the cognitive abilities of a person but also help them in proper decision making and better judgmental processes. Brain-training games gave also been proved to bring an improvement in the thinking capabilities of the person. The problem-solving skills of an individual have been successfully proven to increase after playing brain-training games. In addition to this, it has also been proven that brain training games slow down the aging process of the brain, especially in older people. Experiments have shown that these game are also very effective in reducing the symptoms of Dementia and Alzheimer’s.

References

Anderson, K., & Grossberg, G. T. (2014). Brain games to slow cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(8), 536-537.

Bos, D. P. O., Reuderink, B., van de Laar, B., Gürkök, H., Mühl, C., Poel, M., ... & Heylen, D. (2010). Brain-computer interfacing and games. In Brain-Computer Interfaces (pp. 149-178). Springer, London.

Imbeault, F., Bouchard, B., & Bouzouane, A. (2011, November). Serious games in cognitive training for Alzheimer's patients. In 2011 IEEE 1st International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health (SeGAH) (pp. 1-8). IEEE.

Nijholt, A., Bos, D. P. O., & Reuderink, B. (2009). Turning shortcomings into challenges: Brain–computer interfaces for games. Entertainment Computing, 1(2), 85-94.

ALA Chapter 7 - Animal Cognition And Language 提交作业

ALA Chapter 7 - Animal Cognition and Language

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

ALA Chapter 7 - Animal Cognition and Language

Introduction

Our Planet Earth has been inhabited by a number of species. Some of these species live on the land, whereas other species live in water. All these living being or species have been blessed with something extraordinary; some of them have tentacles on their body to protect themselves, whereas some of them are blessed with a gift of extraordinary speed to run and kill their prey. One of the common element that can be seen in almost all the animals is the ability to speak or produce a sound.

Humans have been blessed with an extraordinary capability to think. Humans can see and analyze the situation according to their capability and have the ability to react according to their own perception of the situation. One of another thing with which the human beings are blessed is the ability to speak. They react by speaking according to the situation and the sensitivity of the issue. Moreover, they are also blessed with the ability to control the tone of their voice in order to make it soft or hard.

The initiation of language was also done on the basis of this ability. Humans started forming words out of voices in order to sound more clear and logical. Before that, the use of voice and sound was only done to alarm or inform about the emergency situations or stress over some point. The exact origin of the human languages is still unknown, but experts and scientists after various careful analysis and studies have come to the conclusion that most probably, human linguistics started developing approximately 100000 years back. Anthropologists and scientist have also come upon the opinion that the origin of human linguistics was the continent of Africa.

As most of the animals can also produce voices and exhibit reactive behavior, many scientists are of the opinion that animals, like humans, can also think and thus use language as a reaction to show emotions or explain their thinking. Many scholars, experts, and scientists present their views that animals have also developed different forms of languages and use these languages to express their thoughts, emotions, feelings, and views on different phenomenon. Only humans are unable to understand these languages because of the difference in sound formation and the form of communication that is being adopted. Moreover, since this “specific language” or form of communication is adopted by the animals for the species of their own kind, and it is completely understandable to only the animals who belong to their own particular species, which is why humans are not able to comprehend and understand it, but those animals completely do.

Experts are divided on this point; there are various schools of thoughts that have been presented and advocated by them in order to prove their point, but the whole debate that whether animals can think or not and do they use properly formulated language to communicate with each other, and even with humans, can be summed up into two broader perspectives. Two popular views that have been adopted by the experts in this respect are

Side #1: Animals are capable of thinking and using language in ways that are similar to those of humans.

Side #2: Animals do not think or use language as humans do, and are not capable of doing so.

Discussion

Experts, scientists, and scholars have put a considerable amount of work on both sides of the debate. They have come up with different pieces of evidence and proofs their point of view. These pieces of evidence are backed up by validated data collected through repetitive experimentation. These experiments have constantly provided results in favor of the hypothesis that was proposed by the researcher which is why both sides of the debate hold equal value in the books of science and research.

Side #1: Animals are capable of thinking and using language in ways that are similar to those of humans.

Many researchers and scientist have the opinion that animals can think and feel in the same way as humans. They can also express their feelings, their joy, their pain, and their emotions in the same manner as humans do. The only difference likes in the way that is adopted by the animals. Animals try to convey their messages to humans as well but due to the language barriers, it becomes almost impossible for humans to comprehend this message. The only way that humans understand the feelings and condition of animals is through their gestures and constant voices. For example, dogs wiggle their tail when they see their owner or favorite person; it is an expression of joy. Cats play in the feet of the person they like; it also shows an expression of happiness and exhibits that the cat likes the person.

In some cases, the tone of the voice made by the animal also makes it clear to the humans that through which condition the animal is going on. For example, cats purr when they are around their favorite person (Jamieson, 2009). Various animals cry when they are in pain, which exhibits their physical condition. One of the perfect studies that sum up all these notions in a comprehensive study is the book by Robert W. Lurz. The book carries the title “The Philosophy of Animals Minds” and presents the ideas in a very logical and elaborate way that animals do think, just like humans.

Side #2: Animals do not think or use language as humans do, and are not capable of doing so.

Another approach that is adopted by the anthropologists, researchers, scientists, and even veterinary doctors is that animals cannot think or use languages, neither animals can think on their own, nor they are able to do so. Moreover, the formation and use of language is a trait that is only limited to humans, it cannot be utilized and demonstrated by the animals, because they have not been bestowed with the capability to do so.

The explanation behind this school of thought, presented by these experts that the brains of animals are not developed in the way human brains are developed. The human brain is a much complex structure that is capable of processing multiple functions at a time and it can resolve a number of complicated issues in a similar time frame. It also forms the basis of the argument that why cannot animals communicate in a language. The brains of the animals are not developed enough to process and form the words. They can surely make the sounds but cannot form proper words because of the complexities involved in the formation and processing of languages.

Lesley j. Rogers presents this concept very intelligently in his publication “Minds of their Own; Thinking and awareness in animals”. The author also argues that if it is said that animals have their own thinking and they can think like humans, then they should have the same moral and ethical responsibilities just like humans (Rogers, 2018).

Personal Opinion

After a thorough analysis of the arguments presented at both the side of debates, I personally think that that the experts who say that animals have thought of their own are at a much logical side. I have not come upon this conclusion just by reading these two books, or by listening to some arguments, but my judgments are backed up some serious reasoning and logics. I have gone through a lot of literature, readings, videos, and experiments that prove that animals can think and make decisions just like humans. It is an obvious fact that they cannot complete the complex processes and work on higher level of complicated tasks just like humans, but they can undergo a little level of complicated tasks.

This has been proven by a number of researches and experiments carried on by many scientists on different animals. These animals mostly include mammals like chimpanzees, monkeys, elephants, dolphins, and whales. A number of experiments have proved that these animals have emotions and feelings and can express their pain. In addition to this, these animals have also been found to feel the pain of other animals, whether they belong to their own species or not. Elephants have been found to feel the pain and cry when their baby dies. Wolves have been found to adopt the cubs of other wolves and even other species if their parents have died at the time of birth.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it can be seen that scientist and experts have put a great deal of effort in proving their points that whether animals can think or not and if they can think, what level of thinking is demonstrated by them. Multiple experiments have been conducted and a number of books research articles and publications have been published by the advocates of both sides of the debate but still there has not been any final conclusion for this. In my personal opinion, I think that animals can think, feel and express their pain, obviously not like humans, but they do.

References

Jamieson, D. (2009). What do animals think? The philosophy of animal minds, 15-34.

Rogers, L. J. (2018). Minds of their own: Thinking and awareness in animals. Routledge.

Altering Consciousness

Altering Consciousness [Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Altering Consciousness

There are various drugs that are currently in practice which are used to alter the consciousness of an individual. Lysergic acid diethylamide is a psychedelic drug that is used to induce an altered condition of consciousness. The interest in this specific group of drug is growing from the past few years due to the extraordinary clinical applications and also their altered neural conditions. In this research paper by using various neuroimaging methods it has been described thata direct link is present between the cartico-striato-thalamo-cortical regions and the LSD drugs along with the specific role of serotonin 2A receptor. These drugs have shown a change in the state of consciousness by inducing mood swings, alterations in thoughts and also a sense of self. Therefore it is effective to study the state of consciousness by using these drugs.

The CSTC model presents the idea that the thalamus of the brain plays an important role in the overall regulation of information to the cortex region thus it is critically involved in the regulation of consciousness. The results of this study suggest that the drug lysergic acid changes the connectivity within the specific pathway in humans and also in other animal models which suggest that the breakdown of information which process within these networks and loops is essential for the psychedelic state that is also called as altering consciousness. The LSD also improves the connectivity from the thalamus to the lower cortex in such a way that involves the activation of the serotonin 2A receptors. These results are helpful in understanding the mode of action of the drug LSD and also its effect on the consciousness of the individual. It is important in the formation of other therapeutics and also our understanding of the efficiency of the various drugs that are used during surgeries to change the consciousness of the individuals ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a16srnfr9df","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Preller et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Preller et al., 2019)"},"citationItems":[{"id":764,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/MC6A7DZ8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/2RJg7y7G/items/MC6A7DZ8"],"itemData":{"id":764,"type":"article-journal","title":"Effective connectivity changes in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness in humans","container-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America","page":"2743-2748","volume":"116","issue":"7","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a psychedelic drug that reliably induces an altered state of consciousness. Interest in psychedelic compounds is growing due to their remarkable potential for understanding altered neural states and potential clinical applications. However, there are major knowledge gaps regarding LSD’s neuropharmacology. Using cutting-edge neuroimaging methods we investigated directed connectivity between cortico–striato–thalamo-cortical (CSTC) regions after administration of LSD together with the specific role of the serotonin 2A receptor. Our results provide evidence that LSD alters directed connectivity within CSTC pathways in humans, suggesting that a disintegration of information processing within these loops is underlying the psychedelic state. These results inform the neurobiology of altered states of consciousness with critical implications for rational development of novel treatments., Psychedelics exert unique effects on human consciousness. The thalamic filter model suggests that core effects of psychedelics may result from gating deficits, based on a disintegration of information processing within cortico–striato–thalamo-cortical (CSTC) feedback loops. To test this hypothesis, we characterized changes in directed (effective) connectivity between selected CTSC regions after acute administration of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and after pretreatment with Ketanserin (a selective serotonin 2A receptor antagonist) plus LSD in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study in 25 healthy participants. We used spectral dynamic causal modeling (DCM) for resting-state fMRI data. Fully connected DCM models were specified for each treatment condition to investigate the connectivity between the following areas: thalamus, ventral striatum, posterior cingulate cortex, and temporal cortex. Our results confirm major predictions proposed in the CSTC model and provide evidence that LSD alters effective connectivity within CSTC pathways that have been implicated in the gating of sensory and sensorimotor information to the cortex. In particular, LSD increased effective connectivity from the thalamus to the posterior cingulate cortex in a way that depended on serotonin 2A receptor activation, and decreased effective connectivity from the ventral striatum to the thalamus independently of serotonin 2A receptor activation. Together, these results advance our mechanistic understanding of the action of psychedelics in health and disease. This is important for the development of new pharmacological therapeutics and also increases our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the potential clinical efficacy of psychedelics.","DOI":"10.1073/pnas.1815129116","ISSN":"0027-8424","note":"PMID: 30692255\nPMCID: PMC6377471","journalAbbreviation":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A","author":[{"family":"Preller","given":"Katrin H."},{"family":"Razi","given":"Adeel"},{"family":"Zeidman","given":"Peter"},{"family":"Stämpfli","given":"Philipp"},{"family":"Friston","given":"Karl J."},{"family":"Vollenweider","given":"Franz X."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",2,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Preller et al., 2019).

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Preller, K. H., Razi, A., Zeidman, P., Stämpfli, P., Friston, K. J., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2019). Effective connectivity changes in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(7), 2743–2748. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1815129116

Amelia Life Book

Amelia’s Life book

Submitted by

Affiliation

Date

Early childhood stage 2 - 3 years of life

At this age it is important to support the child's activities, to promote independence. If parents do not allow the child to do it for themselves, do not give choices, rebuke, constantly instruct, self-doubt, shame. is characterized by the physiological task of controlling the toddler over the body brackets. Also, at this stage, the toddler learns to grasp objects and leave them according to the parents' and the environment's requirements. The main psychological task is to achieve autonomy, and this is achieved when the parents provide the toddler with rigid requirements, but at the same time support his aspirations to do things alone and do not impair his trust. When parents expect the child for independence in places where he is not ready for them, or alternatively when they do not let him cope with any task on his own, feelings of shame and doubt will arise in him. Such a child may grow up to be a rigid and compulsive adult and may even lose the confidence gained in the previous developmental stage. When the right balance between a great deal of autonomy and a little shame and doubt is reached, the toddler will attain the degree of willpower and can advance to the next level.

Erikson believed that in Western culture, too early, he wants to achieve cleanliness, order - it is a shame if a child does not ask for a pot, is not clean, tidy. He thought that only around the age of 1.5 does the child understand the meaning of the pot. Praise is very important in raising a child. On the other hand, if a child is screamed, beaten, painfully punished, aggression develops during this period, which later becomes a character trait.

Play age (4. -5. year of life Locomotive stage)

At this age, children want to know everything, their curiosity seems to be intrusive. Everybody wants to establish, understand, do the same as adults. Realizes his senses through play. If the child is constantly criticized, rebuked, a feeling of guilt develops. What's the shame? It is a feeling of discomfort in front of other people. Feeling guilty is a feeling of discomfort in front of you. This phase occurs from usually 3-5 years. Erickson did not disagree with Freud about the centrality of the sexual identity question at this time, which was mainly reflected in the Oedipal conflict, but added equally important goals, such as the development of movement control and the enhancement of linguistic ability. The main psychological task during this period is to achieve an initiative - the child becomes active and active, takes responsibility for things like interactions with other children or care for small siblings, and gains environmental approval. At the same time, the child realizes that he is competing for his mother's attention with his father. This realization raises hostility toward the father and may lead to feelings of guilt. The successful solution, as in the classic adipyl model, lies in identifying with the father and internalization of the prohibitions and standards he places. In this case, the child builds a positive sexual identity and achieves a sense of purpose - the ability to set goals and move toward fulfillment, without guilt or punishment.

The maturation phase (School age, 6-11 years)

At this age, the formation of Superego, the formation of guilt, ends. Superego is equals to Turning external claims into internal claims. Ability to create something useful and commonly inferiority found. Capabilities and interests are developing. The child instinctively seeks out a realm that matches his ability, switching from one area to another. Parents should therefore be offered opportunities to choose from a variety of fields: music, arts, sports, languages ​​and so on. The child will choose the most suitable activity. Mr. Erikson emphasized that the school compensates for what was missing in the family.

This phase occurs between the ages of 6-11, corresponding to the elementary school age in the Western world. At this point, the child goes out into the world and is exposed to the elements of society and culture outside the family. The demands of the child are also increasing: it is necessary for high learning ability, for success in school and for responsibility. Manufacturing develops through the child's understanding that labor leads to output. If the child experiences failures in obtaining a productive identity, it may develop inferiority, and the child's feeling that it does not meet the challenges that life poses for him. The virtue of successfully resolving the crisis is a basic sense of ability, affecting his productive and professional identity in the future as well.

Early Adolescence - Teenagers 12 to 18 Years (25)

Identity is a person's individual self . Finding Identity - a child becomes an adult. A very difficult period of life. If development has taken place in the earlier stages of life with the formation of positive neoplasms, the identity crisis will be without major complications. One has to find the answer to two questions: who I want to be (profession) and who I want to be - moral self-determination. e virtue: loyalty.

This phase occurs at ages 12-18 (in American society, where there is no recruiting obligation, may continue until age 19-20) and it combines all the needs and roles worked in the previous four stages. During these years, the adolescent asks himself the classic question "Who am I?" And he does not oblige to a definite answer. It is a period of moratorium, a time frame for the adolescent to explore different identities and roles, with the goal of leaving him with a relatively cohesive personal, sexual, professional and social identity. Unlike classical psychoanalysts, who argued that the main conflicts at this time occur between ego and id, Ericsson argued that conflict is between different functions within the ego. Identity Formation includes 3 important components:

A sense of uniformity and consistency in the adolescent's identity.

A sense of consistency and consistency in the way others see it.

Correlation between personal perception of personality and social perception.

“Success in this task leads to self-determination of identity and personality. If the experience is negative or the environmental conditions do not allow for proper experience, the result will be role confusion and the adolescent's inability to choose a clear and consistent identity over time”( Munley,1995).Another result could be choosing a negative identity, such as delinquent identity. The virtue achieved is loyalty, which is consistently characterized by self-identity and identification with the family and society in which the adolescent grows.

The identity diffusion period can last for months and even years. The way out of identity diffusion: to grow up and become an adult, but sometimes unfavorable variants - get involved in socially disadvantaged groups, but sometimes you may not see any other way out than suicide. Formation of Negative Identity: When a teenager cannot assert himself to the good, asserts himself to the bad, turns his attention to what the public condemns (fooling, lame, blatantly behaving and dressing, etc.) Often parents and teachers promote negative identities formation.

Youth stage 19 - 25 years

ability to build close relationships (love) and feeling of loneliness

This stage usually occurs between the ages of 19-25, when the person finishes the maturation process and enters adulthood. E. Erikson wrote that many young people live with childhood scars in the soul: basic distrust, constant feeling of shame and doubt, guilt, inferiority, identity diffusion.

People develop close relationships during this period of life, provided they have had positive experiences in previous periods. If negative neoplasms predominate, a feeling of loneliness appears. This is observed when a powerful Superego is formed - complexes of inferiority, self-limiting, timid, insecure, timid. Feeling of inner loneliness. loyalty. This phase occurs at ages 12-18 (in American society, where there is no recruiting obligation, may continue until age 19-20) and it combines all the needs and roles worked in the previous four stages (Rosenthal,Gurney & Moore, 1991). From. During these years, the adolescent asks himself the classic question "Who am I?" And he does not oblige to a definite answer. It is a period of moratorium, a time frame for the adolescent to explore different identities and roles, with the goal of leaving him with a relatively cohesive personal, sexual, professional and social identity. Unlike classical psychoanalysts, who argued that the main conflicts at this time occur between ego and id, Ericsson argued that conflict is between different functions within the ego. Identity Formation includes 3 important components:

A sense of uniformity and consistency in the adolescent's identity.

A sense of consistency and consistency in the way others see it.

Correlation between personal perception of personality and social perception.

Another result could be choosing a negative identity, such as delinquent identity. The virtue achieved is loyalty, which is consistently characterized by self-identity and identification with the family and society in which the adolescent grows.

Early adulthood

Personality Maturity + creative productivity

At this stage, which occurs between the ages of 25-50, the main attention is directed to the care and concern of children and the investment of resources to ensure security for future generations. During this time, the person has to give up and give of himself to take care of his children and their success brings him satisfaction. The positive result is fertility and good self-fulfillment, while a negative solution will lead to stagnation and a sense of disinterest in the next generation and life in general. Stagnation at this stage is sometimes referred to as a mid-life crisis. When the crisis is resolved positively, the utmost concern is that one's ability to take responsibility not only for himself, but also for his environment in general.

The period when people work, form families, bring up children, and achieve life goals. This period is characterized by a mid-life crisis (45 + 5 years). One understands that life is not infinite; If a person develops a positive self-esteem, ability to form relationships with other people, the mid-life crisis can go almost as seamlessly. In severe cases, depression, apathy, fluctuating self-esteem, doubts in relationships with loved ones, the search for a new relationship, self-criticism, negatively affect previous life. The way out of mid-life crisis: searching for a new path (new family, new education, profession, passion), worse - stagnation when life seems to stop in the midst of a mid-life crisis. One stops being interested in the new one, in life in the past, believes, I know everything, no one will tell me anything.

Maturity / aging stage /Personality Integration Stage ( 50 – 60+ years )

Peace of mind - a sense of personality as a whole, inner harmony, harmony with oneself. This phase takes place from the age of 50 to the end of life, in which the human editor summarizes the achievements and failures in his life. When one looks positively at one's development and achievements, one manages to integrate between the good and the bad he has achieved in his life and feels that he has a satisfying and meaningful life, the result will be a sense of ego uniformity. A negative result of such a summary will lead to a feeling of missing out and despair due to the inability to correct. Acquired virtue, accompanied by death and a sense of satisfaction from the passing of life. Despair, hopelessness, if unhappy with himself or with others, sees everything in gloomy colors. Blame others, believe life failed.

References

Munley, P. H. (1995). Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and vocational

behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22(4), 314.

Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1991). From trust on intimacy: A new

inventory for examining Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10(6), 525-537.

An Individual Essay Comparing And Contrasting Two Different Theories In Counselling Of Choice

Title page

Counselling theories

Behavioural theory and cognitive theory are common theories of counselling. Behaviourism emphasizes the study of behaviour and factors leading to those behaviours. Behaviourism and cognitivism reflect the permanent changes occurring in the mind of the individual that can be voluntary or involuntary. Experiences lead to a permanent change in individuals making some behaviours part of their personalities while eliminating some behaviours. The cognitive approach explains leaning taking place within individuals. Psychologists associate learning with modification of knowledge, skills, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours. Behaviourists like Skinner and Pavlov believes that environments lead to an exhibition of certain behaviours. The behavioural theory assumes the outcome of learning influencing behaviours. Some cases eliminate the free will of individuals while the environment becomes the reason for those behaviours. Pavlov emphasized more on the past sequence of learning and its relation to the formation of behaviours. Skinner associates personal experiences with the behaviours of individuals. Cognitive theory is more relates to the inner functioning of mind and inner activities. Cognitivism conveys the idea that what people learn remains in their memory becoming part of their knowledge. Language, environment, and events play a significant role in building certain attitudes and become part of human learning.

B.F. Skinner is more famous for his theories related to human behaviours and their psychology. Theory of behaviourism presented by B.F Skinner builds a relationship between actions and incentives. The psychologist identifies reward and punishment as the two most effective incentives capable of controlling the behaviour of individuals. He presents a real-life scenario considering the relationship between parents and children. The reward from parents will encourage the child to continue certain actions. The theory suggests that the child takes pleasure when the parents reward him, so he continues his behaviour. Similarly, he explains that if parents punish a child for certain actions, it will discourage him to repeat the same actions. Punishment becomes the feeling of dissatisfaction and pain thus encouraging him to give up his behaviour. Skinner promoted the idea that the behaviour of individuals depends on their personal and past experiences. He rejects the role of mental events in explaining human behaviour. Operant conditioning is another aspect explained by Skinner in 1938 and becoming visible in the situation where the child is living with the parents. His operant conditioning explains the real-life situation when the parents are concerned to teach a child the difference between right and wrong. Operant conditioning explains humans behaviour according to responses of neutral operant, reinforces, and punishers CITATION Rac15 \l 1033 (Davis, Campbell, Hildon, Hobbs, & Michie, 2015).

Theory of behaviourism involves channelling that allow clients to eliminate negative behaviours and promote positive behaviours. He defines punishment as reinforcement that parents adapt to control their children. Punishment reinforces the child to give up on particular kind of actions or behaviours. Punishment leads to unpleasant experiences motivating child not to repeat it. He imprints the experience in his mind the actions that lead to punishments. The common example is when a parent spanks a child for damaging the painting he will store the event in his memory. The punishment becomes part of the child's personal experience thus remaining him not to repeat it in future. Punishment is also a negative reinforcement that decreases the probability of its occurrence again in future. Skinner also identifies punishment as response cost that eliminates negative or unwanted behaviours in children CITATION EAV17 \l 1033 (Vargas, 2017). Response cost explains that the punishment does not add but removes the action. Another example of negative reinforcement is replacing the playtime with a timeout that will against lead to an unpleasant experience. The negative outcome of the event will influence the child to avoid the same negative actions again.

Cognitive theory is one of the widely recognized theories adopted for treating clients who are undergoing psychological issues. The theory stresses on building problem-solving attitude among clients. It was developed by a psychotherapist Aaron Beck in the 1960s. his central idea of creating the counselling theory was to help clients in changing their thoughts and overcoming negative feelings. The central idea is to replace negative thought patterns with positive ones and making an individual a better person. This theory stresses on problem-solving and the therapist stresses on the current situation of the person for identifying problems CITATION Sup06 \l 1033 (Choudhury, Blakemore, & Charman1, 2006). This is a practical tool used by psychologists for assisting clients in dealing with anxiety, stress, personality disorder and an eating disorder. cognitive theory is used by therapists for explaining that human behaviours can be understood by thought processes. The basic idea is to help clients in identifying their maladaptive thought patterns and adopting ways for transforming them into constructive ones CITATION Joh16 \l 1033 (Malone, Liu, Vaillant, & Dorene M. Rentz, 2016).

The primary assumption of cognitive theory is that behaviours and emotions and the product of thoughts. Information processing is a description used for comparing brain functions and determining the problems. Cognitive behaviour theory presents many tools that are adapted for removing unwanted thought patterns. It is defined as, "cognitive processes, in the form of meanings, judgments, appraisals, and assumptions associated with specific life events, are the primary determinants of one’s feelings and actions in response to life events and thus either facilitate or hinder the process of adaptation” CITATION Sho11 \l 1033 (Ringel & Brandell, 2011). The therapist who relies on this theory believes that the problematic thoughts of an individual are the result of preconceived assumptions. In counselling, the goals are to help him in understanding those assumptions and getting rid of them. The focus of the theory is on modifying the behaviour of individuals emotions. This allows patients to control the aspects around them by helping them in managing thoughts. This allows them to interpret the things of the surroundings in a positive manner.

The therapist who adopts cognitive behaviour theory suggests on transforming automatic negative thoughts. This is due to the fact that negative thoughts exacerbate and causes emotional difficulties for the clients that are visible in the form of depression, worthlessness and anxiety. These patterns of thinking are also expected to have adverse impacts on the moods of individuals. The counsellor stresses bringing the client to a point where he encounters his negative thoughts and decides to accept or reject them CITATION Lau01 \l 1033 (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). when people become aware of their negative thoughts they dampen their moods and starts behaving oddly. The technique thus stresses on helping the client in creating possibilities for replacing negative thoughts with the positive ones.

Behavioural and cognitive theory are two commonly utilized theories for counselling. Both theories stress on transforming the behaviours of clients who are undergoing mental complications. However, the theories suggest different methods for attaining similar results. The emphasize in behavioural theory is on changing the behaviour by adopting the principle of reinforcement. It is based on the assumption that reinforcement encourages or discourage an individual to adopt or reject certain behaviours. On contrary cognitive theory stresses on moulding the thinking patterns of the client. It relies on the idea that negative thought promotes negative emotions and behaviours. The central idea is to replace negative thought patterns with the positive ones and contributing to the overall wellbeing.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Choudhury, S., Blakemore, S.-J., & Charman1, T. (2006). Social cognitive development during adolescence. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci,1(3), 65–174.

Davis, R., Campbell, R., Hildon, Z., Hobbs, L., & Michie, S. (2015). Theories of behaviour and behaviour change across the social and behavioural sciences: a scoping review. Health Psychol Rev, 9 (3), 323–344.

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., & Dorene M. Rentz, a. R. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian Psychosocial Development: Setting the Stage for Cognitive and Emotional Health in Late Life. Dev Psychol, 52(3), 496–508.

Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT. Annu. Rev. Psychol, 52 , 83–110.

Ringel, S., & Brandell, J. (2011). Trauma: Contemporary Directions in Theory, Practice, and Research. Sage Books.

Vargas, E. A. (2017). B. F. Skinner's theory of behavior. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 18 (1).

Analysis Of Data

Assignment 2: Analysis of data – Part 2

Name:

Student ID:

Swinburne Online

Assignment 2: Analysis of data – Part 2

Question 1 – Independent samples t-test

Hypothesis:

Researches hypothesise that Australian public service employees, who have less than five years tenure into heir job, are more engaged with their supervisor than Australian public service employees who have five years or more tenure.

The SPSS output shows that the total sample of the study was 4338 employees, out of which 1343 employees had experience of fewer than 5 years, and 2995 employees had experience of 5 years and more. The statistics showed p=0.5, which means the hypothesis is significant to prove that Australian public service employees, who have less than five years tenure into their job, are more engaged with their supervisor than Australian public service employees who have five years or more tenure. This means the fresh employees need to learn more about their working and thus they remain in touch with their supervisors. On the contrary, experienced ones are confident about their working and thus do not find it necessary to remain in touch with their supervisors.

Question 2 – Independent samples t-test

Hypothesis: Researchers hypothesise that there is a difference in overage in the extent to which male and female public service sector employees are engaged with their job.

The SPSS output showed that total 2223 females and 1995 males are working at the company. However, the questionnaire response showed the significance of p=0.12, and significance (2-tailed) of 0.002, from which it can be revealed that there is no strong significance of the hypothesis. Thus, the findings proved that there is no difference in overage in the extent to which male and female public service sector employees are engaged with their job. This means the gender does not matter, instead it is the intention of the employee which influence the employee’s engagement with their job.

Question 3 – Paired samples t-test

Hypothesis: An employee relations counsellor hypothesis that Australian public service employees are more engaged with the team of colleagues that regularly work with than with their supervisor.

The SPSS output results showed the sample size of 4338 employees, which are either comfortable with their supervisors or with the team engagement to perform several professional tasks. However, the statistical findings showed no significance between the variables, which means that the hypothesis could not be proved as true. This simply means, that there is no significance in the hypothesis that Australian public service employees are more engaged with the team of colleagues that regularly work with than with their supervisor.

These findings help to conclude that overall it is the teamwork which matters, and for that both; the team engagement and supervisor's engagement, is essential. Only in this way, the employees will be able to perform their work with high efficiency.

Question 4 (a) – What is the population we can draw conclusions about in this study?

Data: The Indigo Insurance Company is a large company based in Melbourne. Several years ago, an email survey of all their employees found that employees were required to respond to an average of 50 work related emails per week with a standard deviation of 1.5 emails per week. However, an employee advocacy group believes the average number of work­related emails Indigo Insurance Company employees are now required to respond to is more than 50 emails per week. To investigate this further, the employee advocacy group took a random sample of 20 staff employed by Indigo Insurance Company during the second week of March 2018 and asked these employees to record the number of work­related emails to which they were required to respond.

The data shows that Indigo Insurance Company is a large company which needs to respond to an average of 50 work-related emails per week. However, when research was conducted to investigate either the Company employees are required to respond to more emails or not? For this purpose, the study selected 20 staff employees as a sample population.

Question 4 (b) – What does the highlighted section of the distribution in Figure 1 represent?

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 distribution of the sample mean number of emails answered per week for samples of size 20, taken from a population where the mean is 50 emails per week and the standard deviation is 1.5 emails per week (2018) courtesy of Swinburne University of Technology

The normal distribution figure shows the probability (50<=p<=50.4) which means that the company is required to respond to 50 or more emails per week. This means that the company must re-schedule the working of employees, where they need to work on more emails per week.

Question 4 (c) – The random sample of 20 employees of Indigo Insurance Company taken by the employee advocacy group turned out to have a mean of 50.8 work­related emails to respond to in that week. Does this sample look like it belongs to the sampling distribution displayed in Figure 1? Justify your answer.

Figure 1 shows the mean of 50 emails per week, where the probability was adjusted between 49 and 51. However, the employees responded to the survey, according to which the higher probability was found to be between 50 and 50.4. This means that company employees had to respond to 50 or more emails per week. As mentioned in the question that the random sample of 20 employees of Indigo Insurance Company taken by the employee advocacy group turned out to have a mean of 50.8 work­related emails to respond to in that week. Thus, this sampling distribution does not belong to the sampling distribution displayed in Figure 1.

Question 4 (d) – Given the sample was randomly selected and that the number of work­related emails each employee was required to respond to was recorded accurately, what conclusion can we reach from part (c)?

The figure clearly showed that most of the employees, out of selected 20 employees responded in the favour to increase the responding to more than 50 emails per week. When a random sample will be used in the survey, where the mean is 50.8 emails per week, the findings will be accurate and helpful inaccurate conclusion. From such selection of random sample size and mean, it can be easily concluded that company must re-schedule the working of employees, where they need to work on more emails per week.

Analysis Of Psychopathology In A Piece Of Literary

Analysis of Psychopathology in a Piece of Literary

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Abstract

An essential part of the post-modern era science and pseudo-science deeply connected. Psychopathology is viewed as a more considerable amount of a dynamic, socially built hypothesis that can be examined and treated in various ways. It is the investigation of psychological instability and unusual practices in people.The storyteller portrays how a college instructed detainee named Ivan Gromov made himself distraught with suspicion and was admitted to the haven. This paper will analyze the exploration of psychopathology in Chekov's piece of literature 'Ward No. 6' and how psychopathologies are portrayed in this story.

Analysis of Psychopathology in a Piece of Literary

Introduction

For a significant part of the post-modern era, science and pseudo-science were thickly trapped. Yet, this undeniably taught society was anxious to isolate fiction from truth. The field of psychological well-being was entering into the field of scientific research when in 1798 King George III went through mental illness, and the doctors for mental diseases were treating him. Psychopathology is the investigation of psychological instability and unusual practices in people. However, the testing of emotional well-being issues wasn't limited to doctors. The assignment was taken up with enthusiasm by artists and journalists too. Prior writing mirrors an expanding readiness to investigate the psychological express, an ability that finished, in the mid twentieth century, with the introduction of brain research as a field of study and science. Likewise, the story written by a Russian novelist, Anton Chekov 'Ward No.6’ is a literary piece which depicts different patients in a mental asylum with psychopathologies. This paper will analyze theexploration of psychopathology in Chekov’s piece of literature 'Ward No. 6'and how psychopathologies are portrayed in this story.

Description of Psychopathology

In its most straightforward clarification, it has been depicted as "a deviation from mental typicality." As with such a significant number of regions of brain science, professionals don't, for the most part, concede to a definition, at any rate not experimentally. Psychopathology is viewed as a higher amount of a dynamic, socially built hypothesis that can be examined and treated in various ways. The twentieth century brought treatment methods that appeared to be further developed than shelters (Fisher, 2017). In the new era after one millennium, the writers are progressively fine with good and equivocalness. Hence, the exemplary or present-day literary writing both teaches the delineation of psychological instabilities in the books, short stories, or fiction in for the most part. The tale 'Ward no. 6' opens with a depiction of a crazy person haven, ward no — six, in a commonplace emergency clinic. The department has five desolate prisoners—including the "idiot" Jew Moiseika—and is administered by a coarse doorman named Nikita.

The mental health clinic or ward is controlled by Dr. Andrei Yefimich Rabin, an "abnormal man" who turned into a specialist for the sake of his father’s brutality. Rabin starts his vocation as a profoundly energetic doctor who cares for his patients with the best of consideration. As it is depicted in the novel that he is before long baffled by the "futility" of his errand, fails to visit the wards, and winds up unconcerned with his patient’s well-being (Bacopoulos-Viau, &Fauvel, 2016). Rabin facilitates his still, small voice with the idea that each man is destined to pass on and infers that "enduring leads man to flawlessness." Ragin has not endured, he says, and consequently is in no situation to elucidate the hypotheses of Marcus Aurelius. Enduring, says Ivan Dmitrich, will quickly disperse any learned feelings about determinism(Fisher, 2017).

Description of Three Scenes

Chekhov's centripetal prologue to Ward No. 6 just intensifies in detail as the character enters the clinic, as the storyteller gives power to the character through the debilitated smell of the structure, the loads of trash coating the structures inside. The structure's dividers are messy, its roof is dirty, the windows are deformed by iron bars, and the dark, wooden floor is loaded with fragments. Finally, in the wake of strolling past this nauseating scene, Chekhov's storyteller presents the maniacs of the ward (Williams, 2016).

Contrasted with the terrible setting, the five crazy people are shockingly ordinary, one of which is depicted as "high society," while the rest are "craftsman." Each ward part's dysfunctional behavior is one of a kind: the Jew Moiseika is portrayed as an innocuous dolt, Ivan Dmitritch Gromov experiences a madness of mistreatment, etc. Except for Nikita, the severe doorman, every individual from the story is depicted in really wretched conditions. Chekhov's depiction of the relevant and causal accounts of degenerative emotional well-being outlines the merciful view that, unjustifiably, the dull and smothering town was what drove individuals into the ward; that is, the Russian individuals will undoubtedly finish up in the cyclical department (Chekhov, 2002).

Reviewing Chekhov's previous comparing of the clinic to a jail, Ivan's perception that "the never-ending knowledge of the basic individual's trains that beggary and jail are ills none can be protected from," recommends a minute where Chekhov's ethical prosecutions emerge in the story. Ivan sees how a "legal oversight" could be at the core of a portion of the nation's most exceedingly awful sufferings, and infers that "individuals who have an official, proficient connection to other men's sufferings throughout time, through propensity, develop so hard that they can't, regardless of whether they wish it, take any however a formal frame of mind to their customers"(Chekhov, 2002).

As Chekhov's depictions proceed, in any case, the "insensitivity" that Ivan portrayed apparently ends up. For example, Andrey loses his status as a thoughtful character through the empty conveyance of his critical acknowledgment that he is just a pinion in the unavoidable social machine: "I serve in a malignant organization and get payment from individuals whom I am misleading. I am not legit, yet at that point, I of myself am nothing, I am just piece of an unavoidable social abhorrence." Andrey's proposal that the disasters of the ward were "unavoidable," that the very presence of the organization was "malicious," as their vacant wards attractively caught their future patients – these perceptions address the current foundations that Chekhov was scrutinizing in his short story. Additionally, every one of them undermines the disposition that the specialist was "a prophet who must be accepted with no analysis regardless of whether he had emptied liquid lead into their mouths." Another trenchant evaluate in Ward No. 6 is shown through Chekhov's investigation of the unemotional way of thinking, as contended by Andrey (Williams, 2016).

During a trade among Andrey and Ivan, Chekhov's situation on the subject of how to appropriately address the issue of human enduring is lit up. By this point in the story, the peruser has a valid justification for examining Andrey's aphoristic recommendation that "the astute man, or the reflecting, attentive man, is recognized unequivocally by his scorn for anguish; he is constantly mollified and amazed at nothing." Here, Andrey is parroting Marcus Aurelius, the incredible aloof savant. It is indeed conceivable that Chekhov was thoughtful with the Stoics' existential task, as he exhibits a profound comprehension of their goals, however, the enthusiasm with which his character, Ivan, discredits Andrey proposes a contradicting translation: “To torment I react with tears and objections, to evil with pretenses, to rottenness with despising. To my psyche, that is exactly what is called life.” The reason that the specialist can talk with such bland in regards to human affliction, Ivan contends, is that Andrey was just hypothetically familiar with the real world. Similarly, the specialist is just hypothetically familiar with misery, henceforth his unemotional view. Chekhov's very own disposition towards human anguish, shrouded inside this contention, begins to come to fruition through the squabbling of the ward individuals.

Characterization

The legend, or rather screw-up, of Anton Chekhov's short story "Ward No 6" is Dr. Andrey Yefimitch Ragin (Chekhov, 2016). He is placed responsible for a commonplace emergency clinic where the stench and congestion would make even the most unsanitary NHS medical clinic appear a sanctuary of celebrity. He starts work with enthusiasm and energy yet continuously progresses toward becoming worn out by the "dullness and clear futility" of the work. His life changes when he concedes Ivan Dmitritch Gromov, a keen young fellow with neurotic hallucinations, to the nearly overlooked ward 6, which is housed in a little cabin in the medical clinic yard. It comprises of one stay with five rationally confused detainees under the supervision of a corrections officer, Nikita, who beats them consistently.

Dr. Ragin quits setting off to the medical clinic every day except starts visiting ward 6. Here he has lively discourses with Gromov in which the safeguards an adaptation of aloofness, as indicated by which the outer world, which works up our feelings, is unimportant, and what is excellent dwells inside us: "One must make progress toward the cognizance of life, and in that is genuine satisfaction," says Ragin. An unimportant exertion of will can reject torment. Be that as it may, Gromov isn't awed. "Have you any thought of anguish?" he inquires. "Were you at any point whipped in your youth?" Ragin concedes that he wasn't (Chekhov, 2016).

Ragin is allocated a partner, Dr. Khobotov, who wants Ragin's post and begins to conspire against him. A panel of neighborhood specialists is assembled, interviews Ragin, and finishes up, on virtually no proof, that he is frantic and proposes that he go on vacation. When he returns, he secures that Khobotov has taken his position. Ragin has no reserve funds and is presently practically dejected. Tricked and relinquished by the world he despised, he intrigues in his admission to ward 6. The apathetic detachment to external conditions that he once pushed now neglects to give him any relief. Gromov's amusing appeal is to take it insightfully. Shocked by his detainment, Ragin attempts to leave however is stuck somewhere around the jailer. He falls oblivious on to his bed and passes on the following day of a stroke(Chekhov, 2002).

Lenin is said to have guaranteed that it was perusing Chekhov's story that transformed him into a progressive. Assuming genuine, this is an unusual case of how a work of fiction can change the universe of realities. The committal of the disappointed, languid, however splendidly rational Ragin to a mental ward frightfully anticipates the Soviet routine with regards to diagnosing pundits of the method as "rationally sick" and detaining them in spiritual foundations.

Positive and Negative messages

As one of Chekhov's more drawn out and more politicized stories, Ward No. six was distributed to general praise in 1892 (Bacopoulos-Viau, &Fauvel, 2016). It investigates the contention among the real world and theory—in particular, how individuals intellectualize reality to legitimize their very own inaction. These two clashing thoughts are exemplified in the insane person Gromov and the passionless Dr. Rabin. A hardcore pragmatist, Gromov pronounces that Rabin's noninterference is just "lethargy, fakirism, and stupefaction." This is an unforgiving, however judgment. Accurately, we see that the specialist withdraws into the solace of "justification" to alleviate his very own inner voice. Dr. Rabin is the hero of Ward No. 6. Albeit at first a minding and mindful doctor, Rabin becomes detached and lethargic to his patients. He reasons that enduring fills an essential need and contends, "Why are upset individuals kicking the bucket if demise is the typical and genuine end of everybody?" The specialist along these lines legitimizes his inaction through "defense"(Bacopoulos-Viau, &Fauvel, 2016). However, Rabin develops interested by the idea of abuse as he starts addressing the crazy person Gromov. Even though he can't help contradicting Gromov's way of thinking, Rabin gives up that the canny young fellow has been imprisoned.

Rabin realizes that the medical clinic is a "shameless foundation … biased to the soundness of the townspeople," yet he feels no empathy for its patients or detainees. As the comments to Gromov, there is "only inert possibility" in his being a specialist and in Gromov being a haven quiet. Rabin hence legitimizes his lack of interest to others' predicament by recommending that everything is liable to risk (Chekhov, 2002). This precept is both unconvincing and merciless, and the creator appears to hate Rabin's way of thinking. We perceive how Rabin, an admitted apathetic, is compelled to go up against torment and forlornness. At last, spurred on by Gromov, the specialist winds up denouncing the silly truth of affliction and dismissing his past way of thinking. The story's incomparable discrepancy is that this change happens inside a haven that the hero had held to be passable because some coincidence accommodated it.

In any case, ward no. Six is more than a setting for Rabin's ethical transformation, and it is likewise a microcosm of Russian culture. The doorman Nikita screens his detainees like a jail superintendent; Moiseika speaks to the entrepreneur attitude with his interest in gathering cash; and Gromov exemplifies society's dissident component, railing against shamefulness. This distrustful crazy person denounces existing conditions: Gromov is an extreme who sets out to challenge what David Margarshack terms Rabin's "non-protection from shrewdness." To all the more likely comprehend Chekhov's thoughtful portrayal of Gromov and his judgment of Ragin, one should take note of that the creator visited the famous Sakhalin jail in 1890(Chekhov, 2016).

Chekhov was significantly influenced by his encounters at the jail, where he reviewed the detainees and saw direct the hatred of jail life. It in this manner does not shock see the creator testing society's dehumanization of hoodlums and crazy people in Ward No. 6. Specifically, he addresses the maltreatment submitted by authorities whose expert is maintained by the state. Be that as it may, Chekhov does not utilize his story to compel an individual or political way of thinking onto his peruses. At last, we are left to make up our very own personalities on the issue of state control and institutional evil. Ward No. six is a work that raises significant questions in regards to the connections among residents and state, and between individuals in places of intensity and those whom they cripple (Fisher, 2017).

Conclusion

The story written by a Russian novelist, Anton Chekov 'Ward No.6' is a literary piece which depicts different patients in a mental asylum with psychopathologies. This paper analyzed the exploration of psychopathology in Chekov's piece of literature 'Ward No. 6' and how psychopathologies are portrayed in this story.The storyteller describes how a college instructed detainee named Ivan Gromov made him distraught with suspicion and was admitted to the haven. Ragin. Chekhov presents the specialist in idealistic terms. Andrey is depicted as decrepit yet insightful, with an ethically ready still, small voice: "Andrey Yefimitch arrived at the resolution that [the ward] was an unethical establishment and incredibly biased to the strength of the townspeople." Thus far in the story, Chekhov has given the peruser motivation to concur with Andrey's ethical worry towards the ward's institutional viability.

References

Bacopoulos-Viau, A., &Fauvel, A., (2016). The Patient's Turn Roy Porter and Psychiatry's Tales, Thirty Years on. Medical history, 60(1), 1-18.

Chekhov, A., (2002). Ward No. 6. The Horse-Stealers and Other Stories, 29-109.

Chekhov, A., (2016). Great Stories by Chekhov. Courier Dover Publications.

Fisher, C., (2017). Doctor-Writers: Anton Chekhov's Medical Stories. In New Directions in Literature and Medicine Studies (pp. 377-396). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

Williams, K., (2016). The Vocabulary of Depression: Using Literature to Understand a Clinical Disease. McNair Scholars Journal, 20(1), 18.