Examination of Discrimination and Social Anxiety Prevalence in Minorities and Whites
Angela Bucci
City College of the City University of New York
ABSTRACT
Social anxiety usually develops at early age and is characterized by fear of social situations in which a person must interact with strangers or situations in which others may judge it. This fear creates excessive distress and interferes with academic, occupational, and social functioning. Discrimination means treating someone unfairly because they have or possess distinct characteristics. Minorities are generally treated differently because of their appearance, accent or characteristics. Many types of discrimination that minorities face are the main sources of anxiety.
The purpose of this study is to determine whether people of color are more likely to feel social anxiety as compare to whites and whether discrimination raises more social fears. White people and minorities from City College of New York were randomly selected to fill out the questionnaire. Results of these questionnaires helped us figure out whether the person is a victim of racial discrimination or social anxiety. Data collected from the college supported by our hypothesis and we would like to further our research on the subject by expanding our sample size and upgrading the procedure of data collection.
Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD), also known as social phobia, is very widespread in the United States, and has a lifetime prevalence of 12.1% ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vQkNPIOJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bryant et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Bryant et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":258,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/JMALP99G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/JMALP99G"],"itemData":{"id":258,"type":"article-journal","title":"Having Our Say: African American Women, Diversity, and Counseling","container-title":"Journal of Counseling & Development","page":"313-319","volume":"83","issue":"3","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","DOI":"10.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.tb00349.x","ISSN":"07489633","shortTitle":"Having Our Say","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Bryant","given":"Rhonda M."},{"family":"Coker","given":"Angela D."},{"family":"Durodoye","given":"Beth A."},{"family":"McCollum","given":"Vivian J."},{"family":"Pack-Brown","given":"Sherlon P."},{"family":"Constantine","given":"Madonna G."},{"family":"O'Bryant","given":"Beverly J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bryant et al., 2005). Prevalence means the percentage of people who have the disorder in a certain time frame (National Institutes of Health) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"haV6mg1Y","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}NIMH\\uc0\\u8239{}\\uc0\\u187{} What is Prevalence?,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“NIMH » What is Prevalence?,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":327,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/RKH3SELV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/RKH3SELV"],"itemData":{"id":327,"type":"webpage","title":"NIMH » What is Prevalence?","URL":"https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/what-is-prevalence.shtml","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,18]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“NIMH » What is Prevalence?,” n.d.). The symptoms of SAD include an intense fear of social interactions that end up interfering with people’s lives ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8SDbvAuy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014).
Although the prevalence rate of SAD in African Americans (4.6%) and Caribbean blacks (4.7%) is lower than non-Hispanic whites (7.1% ) within the time frame of 12 months, they experience the effects more strongly (Levine et al., 2014). Therefore, it is imperative to take a look at the reasoning why these populations experience SAD, and if discrimination plays a part of it.
Social anxiety typically develops at young age and is characterized by fear of social or performance situations in which a person has to interact with unknown persons, or situations in which they can be judged by others. Minorities make up more than a 1/3 of the US. Studies on the relationships and causes of depression, anxiety and other mental illness have produced mixed results in minority groups that requires attention. These studies has shown diverse effects of discriminatory experiences and stereotyping on people with a minority background.
Micro-aggression is an expressions of racism. These expressions come out in apparently damaging comments from people who may have good intentions. A White man or woman reflects a micro-aggression when approached by blacks or Latinos by holding their belonging/ purse. Similarly, an American born and raised in Asia in the United States is complimented for speaking "good English" is another example of micro-aggregation, this reflects the attitude that they are not true Americans.
Discrimination means treating a person unfairly because he or she owns or has certain qualities/ characteristics which are different from the majority. Minorities are usually treated differently only because of their appearances, accent or characteristics. Many kind of discrimination, minorities are faced with, results in the development of anxiety in them. There are certain hypothesized theories that try to explain why anxiety disorders are linked to discrimination, and these might explain why discrimination is specifically linked to SAD. A study conducted in 2010 sampled 36 African American males by conducting focus groups for everyone but two of the participants who had a one-on-one interview. The researchers were interested in how they felt psychologically on college campuses that are predominantly White. The participants reported having feelings of frustration, anxiety, and fear when they experienced racial microaggressions, which are actions that communicate hostility. Racial battle fatigue is a term that describes these feelings in response to racial microaggressions. Also, the African American males saw each interaction they had in a race and gender perspective, and all of them were not pleased to be heavily watched by the campus police ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6Krdvckd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Smith, Allen, & Danley, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Smith, Allen, & Danley, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":329,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/B7ZAKZ2C"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/B7ZAKZ2C"],"itemData":{"id":329,"type":"article-journal","title":"“Assume the Position . . . You Fit the Description”: Psychosocial Experiences and Racial Battle Fatigue Among African American Male College Students","container-title":"American Behavioral Scientist","page":"551-578","volume":"51","issue":"4","source":"SAGE Journals","abstract":"The present study examines the experiences of 36 Black male students, in focus group interviews, enrolled at Harvard University; Michigan State University; University of California, Berkeley; University of Illinois; and the University of Michigan. Two themes emerged: (a) anti-Black male stereotyping and marginality (or Black misandry), which caused (b) extreme hypersurveillance and control. Respondents experienced racial microaggressions in three domains: (a) campus—academic, (b) campus—social, and (c) campus—public spaces. Black males are stereotyped and placed under increased surveillance by community and local policing tactics on and off campus. Across these domains, Black males were defined as being “out of place” and “fitting the description” of illegitimate nonmembers of the campus community. Students reported psychological stress responses symptomatic of racial battle fatigue (e.g., frustration, shock, anger, disappointment, resentment, anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness, and fear). There was unanimous agreement in the subjective reports that the college environment was more hostile toward African American males than other groups.","DOI":"10.1177/0002764207307742","ISSN":"0002-7642","shortTitle":"“Assume the Position . . . You Fit the Description”","journalAbbreviation":"American Behavioral Scientist","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Smith","given":"William A."},{"family":"Allen","given":"Walter R."},{"family":"Danley","given":"Lynette L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",12,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Smith, Allen, & Danley, 2007). This demonstrates that SAD and discrimination based on one’s race may only affect African Americans ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"j5P9112y","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014).
Research has demonstrated a connection between discrimination and mental health issues, but more specifically anxiety disorders like Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) have been linked to discrimination ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"u38Mq225","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Soto, Dawson-Andoh, & BeLue, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Soto, Dawson-Andoh, & BeLue, 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":330,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/9H4ALDR5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/9H4ALDR5"],"itemData":{"id":330,"type":"article-journal","title":"The relationship between perceived discrimination and Generalized Anxiety Disorder among African Americans, Afro Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders","page":"258-265","volume":"25","issue":"2","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"The present study examined the relationship between frequency of race based and non-race based discrimination experiences and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) in a sample of 3570 African Americans, 1438 Afro Caribbeans, and 891 non-Hispanic Whites from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL). Because GAD and the experience of racial discrimination are both associated with symptoms of worry and tension, we expected race based discrimination to predict GAD prevalence for African Americans, but not other groups. We did not expect non-race based discrimination to predict GAD. Results showed that while more frequent experiences of non-race based discrimination predicted GAD for all groups, experiencing race based discrimination was associated with significantly higher odds of endorsing lifetime GAD for African Americans only. Results are interpreted in light of the different contexts that these three ethnic groups represent relative to their history within the United States as well as their present day circumstances.","DOI":"10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.011","ISSN":"0887-6185","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders","author":[{"family":"Soto","given":"José A."},{"family":"Dawson-Andoh","given":"Nana A."},{"family":"BeLue","given":"Rhonda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Soto, Dawson-Andoh, & BeLue, 2011). Discrimination are behaviors and actions that exclude groups of people based on things like gender, age, or sex ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"L0NGgRLJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014). The effects of perceived discrimination were highlighted in one study that found that African Americans who experienced perceived discrimination had very high levels of stress, and low levels of success in society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SNRQFieO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Broman, Mavaddat, & Hsu, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Broman, Mavaddat, & Hsu, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":318,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/CRFRZGYJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/CRFRZGYJ"],"itemData":{"id":318,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Experience and Consequences of Perceived Racial Discrimination: A Study of African Americans","container-title":"Journal of Black Psychology","page":"165-180","volume":"26","issue":"2","source":"SAGE Journals","abstract":"This exploratory study investigates the link between the experience of racial discrimination and personal outcomes in a sample of African Americans. Most research on discrimination and its consequences has focused on institutional discrimination. Little attention has been given to “isolate discrimination,” an individual act of discriminatory behavior by one dominant group person directed at a member of a subordinate group. In this exploratory study, with a sample of 312 Blacks, the authors examine the experience and consequences of discrimination among African Americans from Detroit, Michigan. Consistent with prior literature, the authors hypothesize that discrimination affects the sense of mastery and creates psychological distress. The authors find that experiencing discrimination leads to lower levels of mastery and higher levels of psychological distress. These results support the authors’hypotheses. The authors discuss several implications of these results.","DOI":"10.1177/0095798400026002003","ISSN":"0095-7984","shortTitle":"The Experience and Consequences of Perceived Racial Discrimination","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Black Psychology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Broman","given":"Clifford L."},{"family":"Mavaddat","given":"Roya"},{"family":"Hsu","given":"Shu-Yao"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",5,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Broman, Mavaddat, & Hsu, 2000). Perceived discrimination is when a person is judged based on their looks, and put into a category like race, age, or gender. An example of this is if an employer declines training to an African American based on their race ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cogJ372X","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014). This demonstrates that discrimination has the ability to affect ethnic minorities. Moreover, in a 2006 report, the American Psychological Association highlighted that people who experience discrimination are negatively affected, but people who did not experience discrimination had healthy mental states ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QmtHaQm4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jackson et al., 1996)","plainCitation":"(Jackson et al., 1996)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":322,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/5BGERKXY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/5BGERKXY"],"itemData":{"id":322,"type":"article-journal","title":"Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: a thirteen year national panel study.","container-title":"Ethnicity & disease","page":"132-147","volume":"6","issue":"1-2","source":"europepmc.org","abstract":"Abstract: This paper examined the relationships between the experiences and perceptions of racism and the physical and mental health status of African...","ISSN":"1049-510X","note":"PMID: 8882842","shortTitle":"Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans","journalAbbreviation":"Ethn Dis","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Jackson","given":"J. S."},{"family":"Brown","given":"T. N."},{"family":"Williams","given":"D. R."},{"family":"Torres","given":"M."},{"family":"Sellers","given":"S. L."},{"family":"Brown","given":"K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1996"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jackson et al., 1996). Other forms of discrimination like major discrimination, a form of discrimination that concerns major events that occur like a person being fired due to their race, and everyday discrimination, a form of discrimination that is treating someone with less respect like calling them a racially offensive term, have been linked to having detrimental effects on African Americans.
Many research studies have not examined the link between discrimination and certain anxiety disorders. Yet, studies have determined that racial discrimination is predominantly targeted against African Americans ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ekpdq2d5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":319,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/E8T5YR5P"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/E8T5YR5P"],"itemData":{"id":319,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination distress during adolescence","container-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence","page":"679-695","volume":"29","issue":"6","source":"APA PsycNET","abstract":"Examined the extent to which adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds experience distress in response to perceived instances of racial discrimination. In addition, the relationship of discrimination-based distress to parental messages about race relationships and self-esteem was explored. The Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index along with measures of caregiver racial bias preparation and self-esteem was administered to 177 13–19 yr olds of different ethnic and racial backgrounds. Youth from all ethnic backgrounds reported distress associated with instances of perceived racial prejudice encountered in educational contexts. Instances of institutional discrimination in stores and by police were higher for older youth and particularly for African American and Hispanic teenagers. Encounters with peer discrimination were reported most frequently by Asian youth. Reports of racial bias preparation were associated with distress in response to institutional and educational discrimination and self-esteem scores were negatively correlated with distress caused by educational and peer discrimination. The importance of research on discrimination distress to understanding adolescent development in multiethnic ecologies is discussed here. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","DOI":"10.1023/A:1026455906512","ISSN":"1573-6601(Electronic),0047-2891(Print)","author":[{"family":"Fisher","given":"Celia B."},{"family":"Wallace","given":"Scyatta A."},{"family":"Fenton","given":"Rose E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ecoY8dRO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":333,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/3VIIXDJU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/3VIIXDJU"],"itemData":{"id":333,"type":"article-journal","title":"African American College Students’ Experiences With Everyday Racism: Characteristics of and Responses to These Incidents","container-title":"Journal of Black Psychology","page":"38-67","volume":"29","issue":"1","source":"SAGE Journals","abstract":"African American college students reported their experiences with everyday forms of racism at a predominantly European American university using a daily diary format. Their reported incidents represented verbal expressions of prejudice, bad service, staring or glaring, and difficulties in interpersonal exchanges (e.g., rudeness or awkward and nervous behavior). Both women’s and men’s experiences with interpersonal forms of prejudice were common, often occurred with friends and in intimate situations, and had significant emotional impact on them in terms of decreasing their comfort and increasing their feelings of threat during the interaction. Moreover, anger was the most frequently reported emotional reaction to these events. Participants were not passive targets, however, with many responding either directly or indirectly to the incidents. Findings from this study converged upon patterns of results found in in-depth interviews and surveys while also adding information to a growing body of literature on everyday experiences with racism.","DOI":"10.1177/0095798402239228","ISSN":"0095-7984","shortTitle":"African American College Students’ Experiences With Everyday Racism","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Black Psychology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Swim","given":"Janet K."},{"family":"Hyers","given":"Lauri L."},{"family":"Cohen","given":"Laurie L."},{"family":"Fitzgerald","given":"Davita C."},{"family":"Bylsma","given":"Wayne H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",2,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003). This could explain why they experience SAD since people who have SAD have constant fear of judgement. One study examined GAD and perceived discrimination with African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jsyt9DYR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Soto et al., 2011)","plainCitation":"(Soto et al., 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":330,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/9H4ALDR5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/9H4ALDR5"],"itemData":{"id":330,"type":"article-journal","title":"The relationship between perceived discrimination and Generalized Anxiety Disorder among African Americans, Afro Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders","page":"258-265","volume":"25","issue":"2","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"The present study examined the relationship between frequency of race based and non-race based discrimination experiences and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) in a sample of 3570 African Americans, 1438 Afro Caribbeans, and 891 non-Hispanic Whites from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL). Because GAD and the experience of racial discrimination are both associated with symptoms of worry and tension, we expected race based discrimination to predict GAD prevalence for African Americans, but not other groups. We did not expect non-race based discrimination to predict GAD. Results showed that while more frequent experiences of non-race based discrimination predicted GAD for all groups, experiencing race based discrimination was associated with significantly higher odds of endorsing lifetime GAD for African Americans only. Results are interpreted in light of the different contexts that these three ethnic groups represent relative to their history within the United States as well as their present day circumstances.","DOI":"10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.011","ISSN":"0887-6185","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders","author":[{"family":"Soto","given":"José A."},{"family":"Dawson-Andoh","given":"Nana A."},{"family":"BeLue","given":"Rhonda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Soto et al., 2011). They discovered that the three groups were likely to have GAD due to experiencing discrimination that was not race related. However, race based discrimination was significantly associated with GAD in African Americans only. Also, another study that is the only study to have examined the relationship between non-race based discrimination and social anxiety, found that non-Hispanic whites, Hispanic, and African Americans who experienced unfair treatment were significantly likely to experience SAD ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rPvyMLkB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014). Also, they concluded that African Americans and Caribbean blacks were likely to associate unfair treatment to racial prejudice. Therefore, racial discrimination and SAD could only be linked together for African Americans and Caribbean blacks. This link makes sense since SAD is characterized by feeling that others are judging you (Hope et al. 1990). Also, everyday discrimination, and not major discrimination was significantly linked to SAD ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"egEPN315","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014).
The purpose of our study is to figure out if social anxiety is more prevalent in people of color than Whites, and if discrimination plays a role if you have more social anxiety. Past research determined that SAD in African Americans (4.6%) and Caribbean blacks (4.7%) is lower than non-Hispanic whites (7.1% ), but African Americans and Caribbean blacks experience the effects more strongly ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"e4B7QPhB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Levine et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/uHsb2Xzj/items/6BCHV7GJ"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Discrimination and Social Anxiety Disorder Among African-Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites","container-title":"The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease","page":"224","volume":"202","issue":"3","source":"journals.lww.com","abstract":"The present study investigated the relationship between discrimination and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a sample of African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites using the National Survey of American Life, the most comprehensive study of psychopathology among American blacks to date (N = 6082). Previous work has highlighted a strong association between discrimination and mental health symptoms (Keith, Lincoln, Taylor, and Jackson [Sex Roles 62:48–59, 2010]; Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams [J Health Soc Behav 40:208–230, 1999]; Soto, Dawson-Andoh, and BeLue [J Anxiety Disord 25:258–265, 2011]). However, few studies have examined the effects of particular types of discrimination on specific anxiety disorders or among different black subgroups. In this study, logistic regression analyses indicated that everyday but not major experiences of discrimination are associated with SAD for African-Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. This study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating that specific types of discrimination may be uniquely associated with SAD for different ethnic/racial groups.","DOI":"10.1097/NMD.0000000000000099","ISSN":"0022-3018","language":"en-US","author":[{"family":"Levine","given":"Debra Siegel"},{"family":"Himle","given":"Joseph A."},{"family":"Abelson","given":"Jamie M."},{"family":"Matusko","given":"Niki"},{"family":"Dhawan","given":"Nikhil"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Robert Joseph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Levine et al., 2014). So, our research tried to examine if we would find different results, and observe a higher prevalence in minorities. We hypothesized that people of color will experience more social anxiety, and that discrimination is a factor in why they have more social anxiety.
Reference
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