Elite Theory

Author’s name

Instructor Name

Art 101

19 November 2018

Research Essay: American Political process

The American political process in this day and age has turned out to be more complex that stated in the documents of our constitution. People have been trying to manipulate the system to fulfil their own vested interests which, in most cases, revolve around the accumulation of wealth and the sustenance of their own personal gain. This article will discuss, in detail, the different theories that attempt to explain the American political process. We will explain how the elite theory is the best amongst many, which attempt to solve the problem of explaining the reality of what we call as the American political process.

The Elite Theory

In the field of political science and sociology, elite theory refers to the state that seeks to explain and describe the different concepts and centers of power and their relationship with one another. In essence, the elite theory attempts to explain the power dynamics in the contemporary world. The gist of the theory revolves around a small minority of people holding the maximum power within a state or union of states. That minority goes by the name of elite. The theory explains how this small group of people dictates the policy making of the state and making them the most influential. Elite theory is the exact polar opposite of pluralism. Pluralism is another theory which attempts to explain the situation of a political sphere just as elite theory does, but it posits the idea that all individuals, in one way or another hold some degree of power to change the political and social situation of their country. Elite theory basically argues that democracy is nothing but a cover to fool the masses (Higley). The “elite” are supposed to control proceedings of the country by settling in advanced positions within the government and also by spending their resources to buy the loyalty of certain important individuals. In the context of the American political system, the elite theory can be applied to suggest that the elite consists of economists and businessmen which basically have a monopoly on resources of the country. A very good example of this belief can be seen in the Forbes magazine article that was published in the last month of 2009 in which it was categorically declared that that the whole world was basically being controlled by 67 powerful men. They have the bulk of resources accumulated which are then used to make decisions concerning states and people as a whole. The basic postulations of this theory include the idea that power is concentrated and that the elites work with their resources towards a common goal. In essence, one can say that they are unified. The theory also suggests that when a group of people are excluded from the mainstream or the elite of a certain nation, counter-elites develop which, then pose threats to the already developed mainstream. When analyzing elite theory in the american context, one can safely say that the questions of gun-laws are generally being dictated and answered by the businessmen who own the majority of such business (Pakulski) .The kind of disasters that occur on a daily basis in the American society such as mass shooting in churches, concerts and schools can provide a very strong counter-argument to these people. But, since most of the power is vested in the elite and the minds of people can be manipulated using the media houses, these elite spend resources on media to get the right kind of news coverage. This news coverage in turn protects the interests of these businessmen and thus no mass movement emerges.

Works Cited:

Higley, John. "Elite theory and elites." Handbook of politics. Springer, New York, NY, 2010. 161-176.

Pakulski, Jan. "The Development of elite theory." The Palgrave handbook of political elites. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2018. 9-16.

English 1302

Jephte

Instructor Name

Political Science

8 November 2019

The future of STAAR in Texas

As the state of Texas enforced a new testing system in their schools called STAAR, there has been a mass expression of disapproval. The parents especially think that the education in the said is revolving around the scores of standardized testing. This is started a spiral of negative effects on the entire system as well. For one, the state requires has increased the required testing hours to twenty per year. Many schools have benchmark tests of their own, which would certainly increase the burden in both the teacher and the student as STAAR tests are mandatory under the state law whereas these benchmark tests are optional. Another observable problem is that the state controls the entire testing procedure, which is both tiresome as well as expensive. These changes can easily be handled by slightly tweaking the local curriculum. Furthermore, it is not at all logical that a single test could decide the fate of the students against his entire year of study. In case of failure, the student is required to attend a special tutoring class that further adds to the burden of the struggling student. Also, one must note that the consistent lower scores in the test indicate that school learning is not in alignment with the test CITATION Sus19 \l 1033 (Susan Szabo). This means that either the school curriculum is not up to the mark or the test is not an accurate depiction of the child's academic capabilities. The scales are mostly tipped against the test mechanism as the complicated guidelines and procedures severely undermine the autonomy of the school districts as a whole. In the end the one that suffers the most in the whole process is the child, as the gaps in the system makes it difficult for the child to succeed and in the end, we end up blaming either the child, his parents or his teachers for the failures of the education system CITATION Wil12 \l 1033 (William L. Johnson).

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Susan Szabo, Becky Barton Sinclair. "Readability of the STAAR Test is Still Misaligned." Texas A&M University (2019). nationalforum.com.

William L. Johnson, Annabel M. Johnson, Jared Johnson. "Predicting Student Success on the Texas Chemistry STAAR Test: A Logistic Regression Analysis." Government Report. 2012. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED534647.

Enssiantialism And Race

Name

Professor name

Subject

Date

Essentialism and race

Anti-racist activists, writers and speakers incorporate essentialist notion of race into their message which is based on the ideology that race does not exist on a physical or biological level. They claim that race is not the result of physical or biological makeup but it is the product of white supremacy. They associate racism with the theory of prejudice, which portray whites as dominant and superior. The argument claims that racial essentialism results in creation of distinct identities classified as dominant white and subordinated blacks, Latinos. The philosophy of essentialism entails the tendency of understanding social categories that results in the creation of fixed, uniform characteristics in inferior race. It is claimed the essentialist beliefs are linked to adverse outcomes that leads to the legitimization of the social hierarchies.

These activists promote negative assumptions and stereotypes about people of color and ethnic minorities in United States even as they argued against unequal treatment. This is because anti-racist activist over emphasize on the prevalence of race that encourage minorities such as blacks to fixate their minds on existing information and conventional mindsets. It represses creative thinking and critical approach among minority population who believe that they are victims of race and discrimination. Research reveals that, “an essentialist mindset would lead to a reluctance to consider alternative perspectives, resulting in a generalized closed-mindedness” CITATION Car133 \l 1033 (Tadmor). The argument claims that anti-racist activists don’t play a positive role because they evoke negative feelings which leads to closed-mindedness. Racial beliefs are deeply rooted in their minds that restrict their abilities and creative thinking.

Racial essentialism always contribute to the creation of negative and oppressive reality. The advocates of racial essentialism consider it as a product of cultural and social characteristics and disengage them from biological or physical perspectives. They emphasize on blaming white supremacists for developing such notions and criticize their role in establishment of unequal society. The role of whites remained devastating because they attempted to control other races by considering them as inferior and by assigning secondary statuses. Oppressed communities are more likely to experience negative impacts because they develop an attitude of linking their deprivation with racism. This to a larger extent free them of self responsibility towards their low socio-economic positions. Research reveals that “people are more or less passive carriers of their culture, whereby their attitudes, beliefs and achievements are supposed to reflect typical cultural patterns” CITATION Nur17 \l 1033 (Yalcinkaya, Estrada-Villalta and Adams). This reflects that people are convinced to behave in the same way as they learn from culture. people of color reflect typical cultural patterns such as by exhibiting closed-mindedness towards racism. They are inclined to believe that white race is supreme because they have learned from their culture. They also develop the attitude of blaming whites for their miserable lives because their ancestors did the same. According to the philosophy of racial essentialism it is a non-realistic idea that promote negative feelings.

Anti-racist activists create a distinct reality by claiming that race is the only reason for low socio-economic status of non-whites. This provokes negative feelings and discourages these populations from changing their destiny. The argument claims that such beliefs undermine critical approach and efforts to work hard. Tadmor states, “essentialist viewpoint were less creative, solving significantly fewer of the word problems” CITATION Car133 \l 1033 (Tadmor). This also indicates that people of color are less likely to take challenges due to the fact that they have accepted race as the single reason behind their deprivations. They are not willing to work hard for improving their standards of living and continue to live in the existing state. Instead of encouraging deprived population to work hard they are motivated to criticize race and stand for their rights. Such attitudes eliminate the possibilities of changing their future and improving their lives.

Prominent black writers like W.E.B Du Bois took an essentialist approach for examining the racial realities in America. He was an anti-racist activist and through his writings he attempted to prove that race is not the result of any physical or biological differences by it is a social construct. He argued that social construct has worked throughout American history for promoting social inequality for the minority populations. There is no genetic reason behind race which indicates that it is a self-created philosophy which only worked to oppress blacks CITATION Ann951 \l 1033 (Stubblefield). Du Bois in “The Souls of Black Folks” attempted to explain that all races are equal. Du Bois claimed, “the ideal of fostering and developing the traits and talents of the Negro, not in opposition to or contempt of other races, but rather in large conformity to the greater ideals of the American Republic, in order that some day on American soil two world-races may give each to each those characteristics both so sadly lack” CITATION Zat12 \l 1033 (Zatavu). The text depicts the essentialist beliefs of the author because he has focused on proving that blacks were full of talents so they can be entitled as inferior race. The purpose of his writings was to show special side of black people, which makes them essentially capable and productive. His conception of racial identity was to treat all races equally and give them same opportunities of education. Through his racial essentialism ideology he also emphasized on promoting brotherhood. Compared to non-essentialists, anti-racist writers reject the prevalence of any physical difference between blacks and whites.

Fixed cultural patterns are promoted by racial essentialism that also shape psychological characteristics of people. The feelings created by this philosophy separate them from other racial groups. Cultural and biological form of racial essentialism relies on the idea that fixed and uniform essence that influence people of different races. Anti-racist beliefs on essentialism also convince white population to think about their superiority that often encourage them to treat blacks indifferently. Kendi states that, “Mather obsessed over maintaining the social hierarchies by convincing the lowly that God and nature had put them there, whether it applied to women, children, enslaved Africans, or poor people” CITATION Ibr16 \l 1033 (Kendi). Essentialism have focused on highlighting the history where blacks were enslaved not because of physical appearance but because of social construct. This make blacks realize the injustice suffered by their ancestors. This is a dominant reason for criticizing the essentialist beliefs of anti-racist activities. Argument also claims that such ideology instead of removing racial attitudes such ideology provoke whites and non-whites to establish firm beliefs CITATION Ann951 \l 1033 (Stubblefield).

The central argument claims that anti-racist activists such as authors and sociologists adopt racial essentialist approach that promotes negative beliefs among people of color. This is because the idea of essentialism is based on the philosophy that racism is a social construct created for discriminating minority populations such as blacks and Latinos. These beliefs have played adverse role in the lives of blacks and other inferior races who believe that their low socio-economic statuses are due to racism. They have developed attitudes of blaming whites for their inferiority. The argument also states that essentialism emphasize on proving that racism is still existent in the society which undermine their efforts to change their reality and improve standards of living.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Yalcinkaya, Nur Soylu, Sara Estrada-Villalta and Glenn Adams. "The (Biological or Cultural) Essence of Essentialism: Implications for Policy Support among Dominant and Subordinated Groups ." Front Psychol. 8 (2017).

Kendi, Ibram X. Stamped from the beginning. Nation Books, 2016.

Stubblefield, Anna. "Racial Identity and Non-Essentialism About Race ." Social Theory and Practice 21.3 (1995): 341-368.

Tadmor, Carmit T. "Racial Essentialism Reduces Creative Thinking By Making People More Closed-Minded." Association for Psychological Science (2013).

Zatavu. Human Brotherhood, Race, Essentialism, and W. E. B. Du Bois. 2012. 11 12 2019 <http://zatavu.blogspot.com/2012/11/human-brotherhood-race-essentialism-and.html?m=1>.

Equilibrium Movie

Equilibrium

This futuristic movie is set in the year 2072. It revolves around the journey of a cleric from a cold-blooded enforcer to a freedom fighter. The plot of the story has beautifully incorporated the elements of human nature, the system of government, Liberalism and Realism. 

The main theme of the movie is corruption. The prime characters of the movie, i.e., Father and DuPont, impose on everyone the notion that they are the supreme leaders, who must end their feelings because violence, murder and war, all arise from the feelings. DuPont himself had been feeling and sought to control the civilization being created by Father. Primarily, he maintained a specific taste in power, and would do anything to maintain it.

The movie exhibits a strange spectrum of feelings where the human civilization has been taken over by a regime that is force feeding the humans with Prozium II with the purpose of stopping them from feeling anything at all. Ironically, Father informed everyone that the war had come to an end because of consuming Prozium II, which ended the feelings in the humans. In reality, he killed everyone who failed to fall in line with his desire. Primarily, the regime believed that feeling is the prime reason behind violence and the destruction of humanity. Primarily, John’s feelings become the cause of justice within humanity too.

John’s feelings gave rise to the uprising against the Father’s imposed regime, which questioned the manner in which the humanity and civilization were being treated. Despite being one of the highest-ranking clerics in regime, John became an essential part of the uprising. Primarily, he began to have feelings again and started to realize the beauty of life that had no longer been visible to the remaining civilization. This realization led him to the decision to put an end to the imposed regime of Father and DuPont.

Essay

Running Head: RESEARCH ESSAY

Assignment 3B Research Essay

Essay Topic: Pauline Hanson’s One Nation: Ideology, Core Beliefs & Challenges

By

Tut Nienkel

Swinburne University

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation: Ideology, Core Beliefs & Challenges

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party like other far rights groups in the Western World, has experienced a sharp rise which is linked to the deep resentment and hostility among the masses and working-class populations, with the Australian political institutions. The party was founded in 1997 and played a key role in shifting the political spectrum towards the right, and owing to this ability, manages to stay important in Australian political despite dwindling support. The paper will examine the ideology, core beliefs and support base of Pauline Hanson’s One Nation, and outline the challenges it faces in becoming a viable player in future Australian politics. It will be argued that despite its ability to make a strong impact, Hanson's One Nation party is in a critical situation as it continues to lose relevance in mainstream Australian politics despite having considerable support base from working-class native-born Australians, a sizeable segment of the population, whom her view still resonate with. The mainstream Australian voter, however, does not commonly share racist views with regards to immigrants and ethnic minorities as does One Nation.

Pauline Hanson became the first woman to win an independent seat in Australia’s House of Representatives in 1996. She initially represented the Liberal party for the federal seat of Oxley, Queensland, but was disendorsed by the party only 16 days after the elections owing to some of her politically incorrect remarks with regards to the Aboriginal community in a speech where she asked for abolishing special federal assistance for Aboriginals. The speech made her the subject of television and newspaper headlines across Australia, in which she further claimed that Australia risks being swamped by Asians and criticised political correctness CITATION Lea00 \l 1033 (Leach, et al., 2000). Although she also spoke about foreign debt, compulsory national service for dropouts, unemployment and family law, but the highlights of her speech was her call to abolish multi-culturalism and for any special privileges to the Aboriginal community. Australian were shocked, yet many extended open support to her opinions CITATION Lea00 \l 1033 (Leach, et al., 2000). Her positions on contentious issues, her personality and advocacy polarised public opinion and ultimately formed the basis of the One Nation Party, a party that would challenge mainstream political correctness CITATION Ahl08 \l 1033 (Ahluwalia & McCarthy, 2008).

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party chose its name to illustrate its belief in national unity opposing a perceived division caused by pro-immigrant and pro-indigenous policies at the expense of Australia’s white majority CITATION Lea00 \l 1033 (Leach, et al., 2000). Inclined towards the older White-European view of Australian history, she formed the party on the idea that Australian must be one nation under one flag to remain strong and united as opposed to splitting Australia into multiple-groups that have different rights and privileges. Hanson blamed white guilt and a self-loathing and cynical attitude of those on the political left that was being fostered among Australians which has led to thatCITATION Han18 \l 1033 (Hanson, 2018). Therefore ‘One Nation’ signifies national unity as opposed to divisions in the name of immigrant and indigenous rights. A core belief that exists within the party is that other political parties are focused too much on political correctness, and is not in touch with mainstream Australia CITATION Jac98 \l 1033 (Jackman, 1998). It was clear that ‘One Nation’ was running for office on a protectionist and populist platform, promising to abolish discriminatory and divisive policies, drastically reducing immigration, and battle the reverse racism that mainstream Australians apparently face as a result of parties that promoted political correctness CITATION Ahl08 \l 1033 (Ahluwalia & McCarthy, 2008). Using nationalist rhetoric, she expressed her identification with hard-working, honest and ordinary people, admitting that she was not a seasoned or polished politician, and often talked about self-reliance, discipline and the importance of small business. It gave the impression of a politically naïve, yet sincere, politician who wanted change CITATION Sau05 \l 1033 (Saunders, 2005).

Although the cultural argument was frequently brought up to condemn multiculturalism, terming it as a risk to the identity, culture, and values of Australia, there was an economic element to the call as well. Ahluwalia and McCarthy (2008) suggest that the issues of difference and identity that lie at the heart of the multiculturalism debate, in fact, are perceived threats to existing power relationships within Australian society, that risks a loss of privilege for some groups. This is what may be the driving force behind Pauline Hanson's One Nation. Moreover, the party's denouncement of globalisation and economic rationalism reflected the dissatisfaction of the working-classes with neo-liberal economic policies that major Australian political parties had embraced CITATION Lea00 \l 1033 (Leach, et al., 2000). Economic protectionist policies of the party advocated the revival of Australian manufacturing, import tariffs and more support for the rural sector and small businesses CITATION One18 \l 1033 (One Nation, 2018). Additionally, the party opposes foreign ownership and cites the economic burden from immigration to justify its strong opposition to it, arguing that that the current Australian way of life is not sustainable if an undue pressure on Australia’s hospitals, education, housing prices, roads, transport, and welfare system remains high because of rising immigrant numbers CITATION One18 \l 1033 (One Nation, 2018).

In terms of electoral performance, One Nation Party (ONP) reached its peak support in the 1998 state elections of Queensland, wherein it won 23% of the vote. However, at the 1998 federal election, Hanson lost to a Liberal Candidate. As the years passed, the party began to see a decline from the massive initial success it had seen. In 2001, it won 8.7% of the primary vote in Queensland’s state election, winning three seats here as well as three seats in Western Australia. Hanson's party vote fell to 5.5% in the 2001 federal elections, and she could also not win a Senate seat. In the 2003 state elections in NSW, she once again failed to win a seat CITATION Lea00 \l 1033 (Leach, et al., 2000). However, despite the dismal performance, later on, the party's appeal to certain sections of Australian society continues today. A 2016 survey of the party's support revealed that nearly 98% of the party’s voters were native-born Australians. Moreover, the party had support from an older voter base, but recent survey results showed that one-third of their supporters were under 44. Similarly, the party began to draw more female supporters in recent polls CITATION Dav171 \l 1033 (Marr, 2017). Furthermore, in its 20 years since inception, a significant majority of its voters are from the working-class. Most of them are middling prosperous and not on welfare. At the same time, Hanson did not attract the religious vote, and survey results showed that more than half of the support base were non-church going Christians. Furthermore, contrary to its image as a bush party, One Nation has a significantly strong city presence. However, a significant finding from Marr (2017) is that ONP voters are pessimistic about their personal financial and economic prospects, as well as highly pessimistic about the state of Australia’s economy, with nearly 73% rating the economy to be a lot worse than it was CITATION Dav171 \l 1033 (Marr, 2017). A predictable trend was the voter's strong opposition to immigration within which 80% of voters wanted significant cuts. Hence, the unified causes for all ONP voters are a general dissatisfaction with the political class, the government and the economy and strong sentiments against immigration CITATION Sti98 \l 1033 (Stimson & Davis, 1998). It is difficult to believe that a party that demonstrates such hostility towards immigration is not motivated by racial forces.

Political correctness is defined in Australia in context of the cultural and political norms that arise from their sensitivity to sexism and racism. Analysing the One Nation party's arguments and rhetoric, it can be observed that aims at creating the ‘other' whom Australians need to defend against CITATION Ahl08 \l 1033 (Ahluwalia & McCarthy, 2008). The racial component of Australian political ideology often resurfaces in debates over immigration and Aboriginal rights CITATION Gha14 \l 1033 (Hage, 2014). Pauline Hanson and her party’s appeal to mainstream Australians to support her claims and views can be understood in light of the perceived divide between political elites and mainstream Australia, especially on matters of race. According to Hage (2014), the racism espoused by Pauline Hanson's One-Nation party is numerical racism. It seems to be based off numbers, comparing the native white population to other ethnic minorities, yet however, it borrows a lot from existential racism, that is based off disgust and hostility towards ethnic minorities, which concurrently is also on the rise. Hanson's racism has inherited a lot of these features and is thus un-Australian in nature given the less-overt nature of racism in Australia compared to other countries. Jackman (1998) also challenges the ONP’s supposed representation of the mainstream by demonstrating that on many issues Australian voters and elite remain largely in agreement, and therefore playing the race card in electoral politics may not be wise for Hanson.

Despite its relatively meagre electoral performance, Hanson’s ONP, since inception, has attracted huge media coverage. The press has described and critiqued the party in multiple ways, which in a way affirms that the Hanson’s ONP, has managed to leave a major impact on Australian politics, especially in the late 1990s. At the federal and state level, its primary effect has been to threaten the support base of the National Party (NP) by splitting the conservative vote, which in turn exerted great pressure on the NP. Moreover, an analysis of Hanson’s party’s support base revealed that a number of voters are dissatisfied and discontent with major political parties. Many policies adopted by other governments were noted by Hanson to be the same as what she advocated earlier, presumably to win back voters that defected to ONP. Furthermore, she managed to successfully challenge the notions of political correctness, the impact of which can be measured by the adoption of many of her policies by other parties CITATION One18 \l 1033 (One Nation, 2018). Its spectacular demise, as well as rise, earned it considerable space in local and international media CITATION Lea00 \l 1033 (Leach, et al., 2000). Furthermore, the party’s broader campaign against radical Islam, in which they advocated that Islam cannot be termed as a religion, was meant to exclude Muslims from Australian life, society, and politics. Consequently, its impact can be seen in the rise of similar thought patterns and policies adopted by far-right groups in Europe and America CITATION Phi171 \l 1033 (Dorling, 2017). Although her analysis of the role of national and state governments, globalization as well as the economy seemed simplistic and naïve, Saunders (2005) finds it fascinating how an inarticulate, less educated, and gaudily attired woman could attract such attention, appeal, and devotion, when her only asset seems to be an unshakeable self-belief that she represents mainstream Australians in ways that other politicians cannot.

Since the ONP’s peak in 1998, the party has seen a number of external and internal challenges. A prominent candidate, Oldfield, was expelled by Hanson for trying to usurp power and trying to gain control of the party, signifying troubling internal divisions within. The party was also subject to a campaign in which Tony Abbot asked for crowdfunding to finance civil court cases against Hanson’s party. Furthermore, a challenge for the party is to modify its outlook since racial politics have never been mainstream in Australia. It has also made controversial statements on Islam that attracted a lot of criticism, however appealing to certain quarters. The party’s rhetoric against Islam became the focus of its 2016 federal campaign and now remains a core political agenda. With rising communities of Asian and Muslim immigrants, and their rising influence as well as investments and contribution to the Australian economy, the party’s policies may not once again bear fruit. As the ONP grows older, it has to adopt more sophistication and field higher quality candidates to stand a chance. As Pauline Hanson retires, the party is now eyeing to widen its outreach, however, without the appeal and charisma of Hanson, that will remain a challenge. One Nation is planning to field candidates in NSW and Victorian state elections in 2019 for which it began a process to vet out unsuitable candidates; nevertheless, polls show that the party's support has further declinedCITATION Kel18 \l 1033 (Kelly & Lewis, 2018).

To conclude, Hanson’s One Nation party is in a critical situation as it continues to lose relevance in mainstream Australian politics, dominated by the Labour and the National Party. Its support base, according to recent polls, has dropped to a meagre 2 per cent; however, many of the social processes, which contributed to the formation of the party are still existent and continue to play a significant role in Australian politics which is hard to ignore. The party attracting disenchanted and angry voters along with the overall impact its rhetoric has had on Australian politics, and the social and political psyche of Australia is hard to ignore. The mainstream Australian voter, however, does not commonly share racist views with regards to immigrants and ethnic minorities contrary to what Pauline Hanson may claim. A quick look at the existing support base of One Nation, however, reveals that most are native-born Australians that belong to the working class. Despite little chance for electoral success, it indicates that her views still resonate with a sizeable segment of the population.

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahluwalia, P. & McCarthy, G., 2008. Political Correctness’: Pauline Hanson and the Construction of Australian Identity. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 57(3), pp. 79-85.

Dorling, P., 2017. The American Far-Right Origins of Pauline Hanson’s Views on Islam: Investigating One Nation’s thinking, Canberra, ACT: The Australian Institute.

Goot, M., 2005. Pauline Hanson's One Nation: Extreme Right, Centre Party or Extreme Left?. Labour History, Issue 89, pp. 101-119.

Hage, G., 2014. Continuity and Change in Australian Racism. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 35(3), pp. 232-237.

Hanson, P., 2018. Why Australia Day must stay. [Online] Available at: https://www.onenation.org.au/why-australia-day-needs-to-stay-pauline-hanson/[Accessed 1 Febraury 2019].

Jackman, S., 1998. Pauline Hanson, the Mainstream, and Political Elites: The Place of Race in Australian Political Ideology. Australian Journal of Political Science, 33(2), pp. 167-186.

Kelly, J. & Lewis, R., 2018. Pauline Hanson‘s One Nation prepares succession plan. [Online] Available at: https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/pauline-hansons-one-nation-prepares-succession-plan/news-story/c010e7107f033fd90f2d89fa1befcb23[Accessed 1 Febraury 2019].

Leach, M., Stokes, G. & Ward, I., 2000. The rise and fall of One Nation. 1st ed. St. Lucia, QLD: University of Queensland Press.

Marr, D., 2017. Looking back, and angry: what drives Pauline Hanson's voters. [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/mar/27/looking-back-and-angry-what-drives-pauline-hansons-voters

One Nation, 2018. History of One Nation. [Online] Available at: https://www.onenation.org.au/history/[Accessed 1 February 2019].

Saunders, K., 2005. Taking the International Spotlight: Pauline Hanson and Pauline Hanson's One Nation Party. Queensland Review, 12(2), pp. 73-79.

Stimson, R. & Davis, R., 1998. Disillusionment and disenchantment at the fringe: explaining the geography of the One Nation Party vote at the Queensland election.. People and Place, 6(3), pp. 69-82.

Essay #3

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Essay #3

Bureaucracy is a topic of interest to many people, who are whether in government or not or are normal citizens of a country. This area is of mere importance to the wellbeing of a country as it involves the Department of Homeland Security, responsible for securing the country from corrupt and malicious government, its officials and supporters (Niskanen, 2017; West, 2016; Stivers, 2018). The bureaucracy helps in saving the country from lobbying and division at the hands of the enemies from international and national forums (Thielemann, & Stewart Jr, 2016). Therefore tis topic is mere importance for the graduate of political science who perceives the politics of a country from almost every angle.

The topic of Bureaucracy is related to the chapter as it covers all the topics and subheadings related to the bureaucracy. The chapter of bureaucracy includes the hierarchal organization of departments, agencies, and cabinets. It involves all the setting related to the topic of government and subsidies (Andrews et al., 2017). The government is answerable to the commodities who are not committing loyally to the interest of their country. The relationship of this topic to the one covered in the chapter is that the government system is unable to stabilize without bureaucracy and it has become the fourth branch of policies regarding government (Niskanen, 2017). The authority of bureaucracy is not challengeable, because it has the judicial powers of quasi-legislative (Johnson, Reynolds, & Mycoff, 2015).

The sites provided in the chapter are very useful, as further the topics can be explored in the bureaucracy, i.e., transportation security, privacy, terrorism, partnerships of law enforcement agencies, resilience, science and technology, homeland security careers, human trafficking, and custom and immigration enforcement (Evans, 2016; Grissom, Kern, & Rodriguez, 2015) . The articles provided on the site of Project On Government Oversight (POGO) are helpful in this regard that they provide the current scenario related to an ongoing issue in the country and gives an insight to the governmental affairs (Binderkrantz, Christiansen, & Pedersen, 2015; Bach, & Wegrich, 2018).

Works Cited

Andrews, R., Groeneveld, S., Meier, K. J., & Schröter, E. (2016, June). Representative bureaucracy and public service performance: Where, why and how does representativeness work. In the PMRA Public Management Research Conference. Aarhus University.

Bach, T., & Wegrich, K. (Eds.). (2018). The Blind Spots of Public Bureaucracy and the Politics of Non‐Coordination. Palgrave Macmillan.

Binderkrantz, A. S., Christiansen, P. M., & Pedersen, H. H. (2015). Interest group access to the bureaucracy, parliament, and the media. Governance, 28(1), 95-112.

Evans, T. (2016). Professional discretion in welfare services: Beyond street-level bureaucracy. Routledge.

Grissom, J. A., Kern, E. C., & Rodriguez, L. A. (2015). The “representative bureaucracy” in education: Educator workforce diversity, policy outputs, and outcomes for disadvantaged students. Educational Researcher, 44(3), 185-192.

Johnson, J. B., Reynolds, H. T., & Mycoff, J. D. (2015). Political science research methods. Cq Press.

Niskanen, J. (2017). Bureaucracy and representative government. Routledge.

Niskanen, J. (2017). Bureaucracy and representative government. Routledge.

Stivers, C. (2018). Democracy, bureaucracy, and the study of administration. Routledge.

Thielemann, G. S., & Stewart Jr, J. J. (2016). A demand-side perspective on the importance of representative bureaucracy. Representative Bureaucracy: Classic Readings and Continuing Controversies: Classic Readings and Continuing Controversies, 176.

West, W. F. (2016). Controlling the Bureaucracy: Institutional Constraints in Theory and Practice: Institutional Constraints in Theory and Practice. Routledge.

Essay Plan And Annotted Bibliography

RUNNING HEAD: ESSAY PLAN

Assignment 3A Essay Plan: Pauline Hanson’s One Nation: Ideology, Core Beliefs & Challenges

Tut Nienkel

[Name of the Institution]

Assignment 3A Essay Plan: Pauline Hanson’s One Nation: Ideology, Core Beliefs & Challenges

Annotated Bibliography

Ahluwalia, P. & McCarthy, G., 2008. Political Correctness’: Pauline Hanson and the Construction of Australian Identity. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 57(3), pp. 79-85.

In this article, the authors discuss the notion of political correctness in Australia and the cultural and political norms that arise as a result, especially with regards to sensitivity over sexism and racism. In this context, the authors discuss the rise of Pauline Hanson and her brand of politics after Australia had adopted multiculturalism. The author explores the backlash in Australian society against political correctness and how it led to the emergence of Hanson's politics. It traces One Nation party's arguments and rhetoric to be aimed at creating the ‘other' whom Australians need to defend against. It will be important to incorporate it by explaining the motives of her party and how it rose.

Hage, G., 2014. Continuity and Change in Australian Racism. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 35(3), pp. 232-237.

The author compares racism trends in Australian society and distinguishes the racism espoused by Pauline Hanson's One-Nation party, which he classifies being numerical racism with that of existential racism. The form of racism found in Hanson's One Nation party seems to be based off numbers, comparing the native white population to other ethnic minorities, however, the author argues that the party's racism borrows a lot from existential racism, that is based off disgust and hostility towards ethnic minorities, which consequently is also on the rise. Hanson's racism has inherited a lot of these features and is un-Australian in nature given the less overt nature of racism found here. The article will be useful to incorporate in my discussion on racism and racial trends within the party.

Jackman, S., 1998. Pauline Hanson, the Mainstream, and Political Elites: The Place of Race in Australian Political Ideology. Australian Journal of Political Science, 33(2), pp. 167-186.

The authors discuss the racial component of Australian political ideology which often resurfaces in debates over immigration and Aboriginal rights. In this context, Pauline Hanson and her party’s appeal to mainstream Australians to support her claims and views are discussed in light of the perceived divide between political elites and mainstream Australia, especially on matters of race. The author uses survey results to demonstrate that on many issues Australian voters and elite remain largely in agreement, and playing the race card in electoral politics may not be wise.

It will be helpful to incorporate this study into discussing the perceived support base of One Nation, in the essay.

Leach, M., Stokes, G. & Ward, I., 2000. The rise and fall of One Nation. 1st ed. St. Lucia, QLD: University of Queensland Press.

In this book, the author explores the sudden rise and gradual decline of Pauline Hanson’s One Nation political party, by examining its history, origins and character as well as its performance in elections, role in the parliament and the effect its policies have had on the social and political psyche of Australia. Moreover, the party attracting disenchanted and angry voters along with views of Pauline Hanson on immigration, race and national identity are discussed. The right-wing organisational links of the party and the overall impact its rhetoric has had on Australian politics are also discussed. It will be useful to incorporate many of the ideas of the book in y discussion of the party’s origins and background.

Essay Plan

Introduction

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party like other far rights groups in the Western World, has experienced a sharp rise which is linked to the deep resentment and hostility among the masses and working-class populations, with the Australian political institutions. The party was founded in 1997 and played a key role in shifting the political spectrum towards the right, and owing to this ability, manages to stay important in Australian political despite dwindling support. The paper will examine the ideology, core beliefs and support base of Pauline Hanson’s One Nation, and outline the challenges it faces in becoming a viable player in future Australian politics.

Paragraph 1: The basis for the party

Resentment for political establishment

Perceived difference between mainstream and elite

Disagreement over multiculturalism policies

Racial bias and divide with minorities and aboriginals

Paragraph 2: Core Beliefs and ideology

Right-wing nationalism and conservatism

Economic conservatism and capitalism

Inclination towards White-European view of Australian history

Promoting pro-working class and populist policies

Paragraph 3: Support Base

Native-born Australians predominant national background

A majority of working-class support compared to other parties

More than half of the support base non-church going Christians

Larger support base in cities

Generally worried about economy and financial situation

Paragraph 4: Racism and One Nation

Idea of numerical racism

Egalitarianism and tirade against aboriginal rights

Backlash against Political correctness

Perceived support of Australian mainstream

Paragraph 5 – Challenges & Future

Planning future expansion at every territory and state level

Dwindling electoral support but social support still exists

Internal war in the party since the start

Racial politics may not become mainstream

Challenges with regards to Muslim immigration and Chinese investment

Conclusion

To conclude, Hanson’s One Nation party is in a critical situation as it continues to lose relevance in mainstream Australian politics, dominated by the Labour and the National Party. Its support base, according to recent polls, has dropped to a meagre 2 percent; however, many of the social processes, which contributed to the formation of the party are still existent and continue to play a significant role in Australian politics which is hard to ignore. The mainstream Australian voter does not commonly share racist views with regards to immigrants and ethnic minorities contrary to what Pauline Hanson may claim. A quick look at the existing support base of One Nation, however, reveals that most are native born Australians that belong to the working class. Despite little chance for electoral success, it indicates that her views still resonate with a sizeable segment of the population.

Essay Writing

Essay Writing

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Essay Writing

Crime is an action taken by an individuals or group which is prohibited by law. Every law (good) has specific punishments for different crimes. Some punishments can be found fine in the US because of their natures. Different categories are based on the offense and punished accordingly. In such categories and punishments, different types of crimes exist which are but not only Misdemeanors, Felonies, and violation where the violation is considered as the most serious crime.

Commonness and trending are the way through which crimes are understood where the stats of crimes are utilized as a tool for evaluating crimes for justice. In the US, the stats of crimes of entire states are gathered by the FBI's UCR where the UCR is involved in the crimes which are reported by the states police. The UCR is an efficient system but it has a common issue which is that there are several crimes which do not come to police attention.

In terms of benefits and concerns, NIBRS is the reporting system which provides crimes data to particular agencies and agencies benefit from the system by using the collected data from the system (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2016). Beyond that, all agencies benefit from NIBRS in different ways/manners. Beyond that, NCVS is the body that gathers crimes information which is done individuals which were reported to the law or not.

In term designation, FBI labels crimes as index offense based on the seriousness and frequent happenings. Those offenses include criminal homicide, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, larceny-theft, arson, and vehicle theft.

References

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Modernizing Crime Statistics: Report 1: Defining and classifying a crime. National Academies Press.

Essay#1

Ethical Dilemma Paper

Ethical Dilemma Paper

Farrion McCollough

17 July 2019

Counterterrorism operations by intelligence agencies frequently involve resolving ethical dilemmas that require trade-offs between liberty, integrity, privacy, moral values, and human rights considerations over security and threat aversion. However, ethics remain integral to military, homeland security, and intelligence operations, and therefore, it is critical for counter-terrorism officials to be able to evaluate between various ethical and national security considerations when making decisions. In this case, a CIA contractor TZTYPHOON is providing reliable and critical information to avert ISIS threats in Europe. However, the operative makes ethically questionable requests to his CIA handlers. A refusal by the CIA to provide him with prostitutes in return for his information may adversely impact current counter-terrorism operations.

In general, every employee of U.S. federal agencies is provided with clear Standards of Conduct at the time of induction. Any activities involving sex trafficking, prostitution, or similar activities that bring dishonor to the agency, are forbidden in the code. These also include engaging in promiscuous sexual relations, soliciting or frequenting prostitutes, or being engaged in notoriously disgraceful conduct. Furthermore, engaging in sex acts that could potentially lead to a federal employee to coercion, blackmail, or improper influence are clearly prohibited, regardless of whether these acts are legal in host countries. Moreover, employees of Intelligence agencies, as well as their contractors, are obligated to comply with the same standards which apply to the executive branch.

However, a number of factors have to be considered whilst adhering to ethical guidelines. The counter-terror operations being conducted by the CIA, with the aid of TZTYPHOON, involve a high degree of secrecy. The sensitive nature of information involved requires to be constrained among a few individuals who have to decide between jeopardizing operations and upholding general ethical guidelines. Furthermore, the information relates to high-impact, low-frequency terrorist attacks that require undertaking measures to eliminate risks and sometimes override civil liberties for security purposes. The time-sensitivity of TZTYPHOON’s information and the critical nature of this collaboration also means that only a few CIA operatives will have to make decisions independently, quickly, and based on a single source of information. In this case, even if a clear violation of ethical guidelines and professional integrity is occurring, these factors may justify overriding them, alongside other core civil liberties, to protect the collective interests of the U.S. and the host countries’ security.

Integrity-related problems may occur within any institution, especially when one colleague sees another violating statutory guidance or the code of ethics. However, at times, some professionals, especially international collaborators and contractors, operate under different ethical standards. Thus, certain ethical guidelines that are mandatory to be followed in social work, for instance, may not apply to the security sector, despite the violation being a universally unacceptable practice. Under such collaborations, critical information obtained through deceitful measures that are known to be useful may override general ethical guidelines. Moreover, it is also not possible to subject these decisions to an ethical committee given the secrecy and time-sensitivity of the information involved.

The decision whether to hire prostitutes for TZTYPHOON will require the CIA to strike the right balance between professional integrity, the critical and underground nature of the information available, and its utility. Although, a strictly utilitarian model of ethical decision-making may not be suitable for every case; however, the sensitive nature of the information involved require the CIA officials to consider the context and utility of the operations. Once the secrecy or sensitivity of the information. the circumstances under which it is obtained, and the critical nature of its outcomes is ascertained, the CIA can justify temporarily violating certain ethical guidelines.

In conclusion, the secretive nature of the operations, the extensive collaboration involved, the need to eliminate risks, the time-sensitivity of the operations, and the potential loss of innocent lives in case of an intelligence failure are all grounds to justify allowing a contractor to violate certain ethical guidelines. This comes in addition to protecting U.S. national interests that sanction such operations in the first place. Nevertheless, intelligence officials must still not accustom themselves to believing that ethical norms are an obstacle to counter-terror operations; a temporary allowance does not justify a routine violation.

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY Andregg, Michael, Hans Born, William J. Daugherty, Jack Davis, and Peter Gill. 2007. "The Accountability of Security and Intelligence Agencies." In Handbook of Intelligence Studies, edited by Loch K. Johnson, 67-82. New York, NY: Routledge.

Baarle, Eva van, Jolanda Bosch, Guy Widdershoven, Desiree Verweij, and Bert Molewijk. 2015. "Moral dilemmas in a military context. A case study of a train the trainer course on military ethics." Journal of Moral Education 44 (4): 457-478. doi:10.1080/03057240.2015.1087389.

Reding, Anaïs, Anke Van Gorp, Kate Robertson, Agnieszka Walczak, Chris Giacomantonio, and Stijn Hoorens. 2014. Handling ethical problems in counterterrorism: An inventory of methods to support ethical decisionmaking. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR251.html.

Zakaria, Tabassum, and Susan Cornwell. 2012. "U.S. government agency rules vary on specifying misbehavior." Reuters. April 24. Accessed July 17, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-agents-rules/u-s-government-agency-rules-vary-on-specifying-misbehavior-idUSBRE83N00H20120424.

Ethical Moral Choice Paper

Ethical Moral

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Applying “Utilitarianism” in Q.1

Taking into consideration the given situation in which America has been gathering the information about Russian via the communication system. This communicative system, as well as the information obtained, are helpful for knowing what Russia is planning and what it would be doing in the coming months. America got information about what the Russian leadership was planning and what are its intentions against various countries especially against Syria. From the communication America got information that Russia is transporting weapons to the Assad regime that would be used against anti-regime members who live in the town of Zafarana. America got information that the Assad regime (a force that is supported by the Syrian military) would attack in 24 hours and it would result in the death of hundreds of civilians who are innocent. In this situation, America got stuck in a difficult situation where it had to decide whether it should be saving people or whether it should not disclose the fact that it has cracked the highly classified communication systems of Russia.

America is being left with two choices, one it could call up an emergency meeting of special UN Security Council that would also reveal the secret that America has broken Russia’s communication code. America can also let Russia attack the anti-regime members. America knows that if the Russians come to know about the breaking of its communication system, it would not use that communication system.

By considering the given situation, it could be asserted in this scenario America should choose Utilitarian ethical framework. Utilitarianism is the ethical framework that emphasize on great good. Utilitarianism demands that despite any negative effects, when it comes to choose an ethical framework, one must choose utilitarianism as it works best in the favor of the greater good. Utilitarian ethical framework claims that one must determine right from wrong by keeping an eye on the outcomes. It teaches that one has to choose an option that would produce greater good for maximum number of people. This framework helps in promoting those actions that would be beneficial for the majority of the population.

Utilitarianism teaches, one must take all actions by keeping the outcomes in mind. If the outcome has a negative impact on the greater number of people, the action should be taken for saving people. In the given scenario, it could be asserted that American, already knowing that hundreds of people would be killed if a meeting of Security Council is not called, should have done what it had to in order to prevent the Syrian regime’s misadventures. It could be assumed that if Russia would come to know that America has broken its communication code, it would surely not continue to use it. America must not consider its own benefit. It must not think about the communication code, rather America, by taking into account the long term benifits, should immediately inform the UN Security Council so that lives of hundreds of Syrian civilians could be saved.

Applying “The Justice Approach” to Q.2

Considering the given situation, it has been seen that Maoist terrorist group Sendero Luminoso has long been a threat for the Peruvians. Not only Peruvians but also other Americans were threatened by this group. This group was involved in the murdered of many businessmen and diplomats. Even this group was involved in the killing of eight Americans who were killed in Embassy, in Lima. CIA has secretly started training Peruvian National Police and military for spoting and killing the members of this terrorist group. Police is not allowed to arrest them. It is a fact that high profile criminals and terrorists cannot be brought for trails as such cases involves danger, so police and military are being trained to spot and shot Maoist terrorist group Sendero Luminoso. In this scenario, Justice Approach could be used for justifying the situation that has been created.

Yes, CIA’s equipping and this training of killing the terrorists would be morally accepted as it has been seen that an ethical theory called Justice Approach. This ethical approach claims that equal should be treated equally and the unequal should be treated unequally. Though it is morally not right to kill people but when people are openly massacring others then they also deserve to be killed. Human rights are not as such compromised in the given scenario because what they are doing is ethical wrong so doing wrong with the wrongdoers would not really raise any questions against the agencies like CIA. Police and military counterterrorism know doing the things that they could not justify morally, but as they are just treating the equals with equals, it would not affect them morally. CIA is doing what they think is morally right as they are not been given any other chance other than killing those dangerous terrorists. CIA is using unfair means for providing intelligence and killing the Maoist terrorist group as arresting and bringing them to legal trails who put lives of many in danger. Judiciary members could be corrupt as well so this may make the situations worst, so as a whole it could be concluded that rather than brining high profile terrorists for trial agencies prefer to spot and shot them on spot.

End Notes

Scarre, Geoffrey. "Utilitarianism and evil." In The History of Evil in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, pp. 130-147. Routledge, 2018.

Novoa, AJ Jurado. "Ethical aspects of overdiagnosis: Between the utilitarianism and the ethics of responsibility." Atencion primaria 50 (2018): 13-19.

Guishard, Monique Antoinette, Alexis Halkovic, Anne Galletta, and Peiwei Li. "Toward epistemological ethics: Centering communities and social justice in qualitative research." In Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, vol. 19, no. 3, p. 24. DEU, 2018.

Vakil, Sepehr. "Ethics, identity, and political vision: Toward a justice-centered approach to equity in computer science education." Harvard Educational Review 88, no. 1 (2018): 26-52.

Ethics And Public Policy

Full Title of Your Paper Here

Your Name (First M. Last)

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Ethics and Public Policy

Introduction

The ethical policy analysis manifests several methods to be deployed in the public sectors to address the issues related to ethics and morality. The primary theories and concepts are underpinned as utilitarianism, Kantianism and Prudent Pragmatism. These theories can be applied in intricate and general situations to reach a solution. Each of these theories is dated back to the European philosophy. The utilitarianism approach harnesses the values of self-interested individualism and majoritarian individualism for the efficient resource consumption. The Kantian approach highlights the moral worth of the individuals in the society. The theory of prudent pragmatism illustrates both the disdain of Americans pertaining to the disembodied entities and the recognition that the paradigm of values is untidy and multifaceted.

To begin, utilitarianism was stipulated by Bentham to reflect the traditional moral belief and the goodness in an act ought to be critically examined. It lies at the very heart of observing its ramifications on community instead of observing the intentions. In the contemporary age of enhanced democratization, both political and social paradigms of these assumptions postulate that the social good can be manifested by adding the contributions of the individuals. A critical appraisal of utilitarianism reveals that the policymakers and stakeholders limit the spectrum of choices which maximizes the worth of social value in the future. The recent frauds committed by the companies in the United States can be evaluated as pert h values of the utilitarianism approach. For instance, the adverse impact of these frauds on the stock market offers ample proof of the wisdom of the approach as the rule utilitarian approach. If the actors refrain from trusting each other in true letter and spirits, the capital markets may not be able to function potentially.

Moreover, the act utilitarianism is the simplest manifestation of the philosophy. It states each moral value seeks the calculation of the quantity of the fundamental social benefit. For instance, the questions as should the funds be utilized to improve and expand highways or a better structure of mass transportation should be developed relies on the present benefits. The incumbent policymakers have the prerogative to use the available evidence to assess the comparative productivity of these two choices as the grounds of their decision. However, utilitarianism struggles to address the concerns thoroughly. It will never postulate the long-term impacts of the decision. In addition, it will also not answer the factor related to threat of the pollution arising from the construction for the future generation.

Kantianism (Deontological Ethics)

This concept advances to discern between the good from the right thing independently. In essence, it states certain acts are either wrong or right irrespective of the consequences. The primary aim of Kant’s problem was the identification of a regulation that complies with the free agency. Lying, as pet the theory, is a behavior which can never be universalized in absence of contradiction. The absolute distinction between the good and wrong will be essentially desecrated. The major provision of the deontological theory is based on the paradigm that human emotions are not backed with laws and thus can be wrong. Furthermore, Kantianism is an ethical philosophy which calls for the availability of rights and offers the individuals autonomy in the values of American society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"twP0H1Aq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf}, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2241,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/H8YOvGFC/items/RF59MP8U"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/H8YOvGFC/items/RF59MP8U"],"itemData":{"id":2241,"type":"article","title":"hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf","URL":"http://www.docs.writing4money.com/uploads/orders/hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf, n.d.).

Both Kantian and Ethicists tradition played an instrumental role in the previous decades to gives patients the autonomy in the decision making of medical settings. Similar confrontation is witnessed these days related to the controversy of making abortion legal and defending life. In the recent years, the ethicists have advanced to establish hybrid structures of both the utilitarian and deontological values. All these endeavors are aimed at minimizing issues of ethics to explore a defined system of rules.

Prudent Pragmatism

As per the postulates of Aristotle, the universal moral ideas as adultery, murder and lying underpin themselves to be evil. The crux of the ethical problem lies at making the decision to applying the universals and not in merely identifying them. For instance, people are not obliged to be enlightened that lying is wrong. Instead, the need to comprehend the acts that constitute the occurrence is the key. An intricate mater is worth mentioning here. these acts are not definite or absolute. The acts can have distinguished moral interpretations. For instance, the cynics of death penalty argue legal execution can never be justified and also equals murder. Kovesi also calls for the similar demonstration of values as the interpretation of the acts instead of the moral significance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"twP0H1Aq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf}, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2241,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/H8YOvGFC/items/RF59MP8U"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/H8YOvGFC/items/RF59MP8U"],"itemData":{"id":2241,"type":"article","title":"hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf","URL":"http://www.docs.writing4money.com/uploads/orders/hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (hn4u2ikv8bkbif3ifncfp1iij5---Bluhm-and-Heineman-A-Framework-for-Ethical-Policy-Evaluation.pdf, n.d.).

Nowadays, the robust paradigm of technological advancement has constructed a similar requirement for the innovative maxims and paradigms of actions. Several dramatic concerns have also been produced amid the technological changes. For instance, a recent lawsuit demonstrates this objective. Court was asked to disinherit the last wife of father, the person who underwent a sex transformation. The son demanded the right that as she was not inherently women, she possessed no right for inheritance.

A Critical Appraisal

The prudent pragmatism values can never guarantee an absolute answer to the ethical question. Irrefutably, it is a spectrum of reasoning and process comprising a dilemmatic case which is the crux of the ethical decision making. A prudent person can rarely contemplate critical questions related to public policy in vacuum. Assumptions and speculations are an ineffective tool to reach a potential solution to the problem. To reach an ethical conclusion, it is imperative to traverse a wide spectrum of possibilities and options. For instance, the onus lies on the incumbents to consult with each other whether they are administrative officials promulgating a policy, legislators in a constitutional settings and citizens voting for the rival candidates in the election.

Discussion Questions

What is the primary ethicality of the Oregon statue?

The Oregon law stipulates that a patient may attain a prescription for a critical medicine if two doctors give their consent on the suffering of patients as a terminal disease. The patient is bound to take both the requests in writing and orally while waiting for a period of fifteen days between both the requests. The residents of Oregon are the sole beneficiaries of the stature. However, it is critical to determine the validity of the statute as the other states always advance to establish similar policies. It raises a potential question as is it plausible to name the actions which are made legal by a certain connotation as suicide. The act in essence confronts the usage of that name in the law. Nowadays, the vigorous advancement in the medical sciences has opened ways to determine the remaining lifespan of an ill person.

The utilitarian objectives of saving money in medical settings in critical questions are a potential controversy. The deontological emphasis of the equal distribution of resources is also noticeable. Besides, the ethicality can be measured on the basis of the incentives offered to the patients to exercise the right to supervise the time of death and honoring the patient’s autonomy. Honoring life ought to be consider a central theme of making prudent decisions to preserve life. All these instances can be investigated to reach a conclusion to determine the ethicality of the Oregon statute. Several schools of thoughts will prefer to either accept or nullify the need of the statute based on the ethical theory. These ethical theories, as discussed above, play their part in devising policies and changing perceptions of the public.

As per Kant, an act of a person inspired by personal emotions or feelings is immoral. Why?

The fundamental interpretation of Kant nurtures the values of personal feelings and acts as selfish and imprudent. The other primary aspects of the deontological ethics stem from this element. The natural law is omnipresent and every other person has to obey it. Since the world around us is governed by regulations, Kant stated that nature of people ought to be examined and governed. Kant believed that humans should not be hindered from exercising their will under any circumstances. However, certain limitations and provisions were also tied with the theory. The act of a person, which must be free, should be credible and fulfill the requirements to be promulgated as a law. The free will of humans is deemed universal and same is the case with laws.

Besides, the discussion reveals that deontological theory addresses the manifestations of humans’ actions to be right and flawless. When humans get influenced by emotions, they are likely to commit actions which are immoral. Thus, Kant calls for evaluating the actions of humans as per the laws which must be universal and devoid of any ambiguity. The deontological theory highlights the need of formulating laws to promulgate the truthful and universal policies. It is the foremost aspect which contributes to strengthen the moral values and ethics related to the availability of justice. Therefore, Kant manifests that the feelings of humans are not supplemented with laws and thus can be immoral or wrong. References

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Ethics And Targeted Killings

Ethics and Targeted Killings

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Ethics and Targeted Killings

Q. 1 Why does Israel justify and pursue a policy of targeted killings?

Israel adopted the policy of targeted killing in order to suppress the surging wave of terrorist attacks from the Palestinian land. There were numerous incidents over the year that motivated Israel to pursue this policy of targeted assassination. For instance, multiple hijacking incidents of Israeli airplanes were witnessed. Israeli citizens were not only subjected to terror attacks in their country but they also faced numerous incidents abroad. The incident with most significance occurred during the 1972 Munich Olympics when eleven Israeli athletes were ruthlessly murdered. Additionally, there were incidents of cross border terrorist attacks from Hezbollah, Lebanese based terrorist group. These incidents left negative connotations on the minds of the general Israeli population. The Israeli population was left to think whether they are safe or not in their own country. It is worth mentioning that all the terrorist outfits that were targeting Israel were based in neighboring states of Israel. The neighboring states of Israel are all Arab nations with no official relation with Israel. For this reason, the terrorists that have had committed a heinous act that resulted in the death of innocent Israeli citizens could not be extradited to Israel. Therefore, Israel was left with this option of targeted killings to dismantle the terrorists’ infrastructure and target the perpetrators.

Since the early 2000s, Israel has adopted the policy of targeted killing to neutralize the terrorist threats facing its population. Israel has employed state of the art modern artillery and weaponry to target the terrorists based primarily in Palestine. Although the Israeli policy has drawn widespread condemnation on different international forums, Israel enjoys special support from major international players such as the US. After the deadly attacks of 9/11, the US has been in the driving seat to identify, locate, and neutralize terrorists anywhere in the world. Since US policy of targeted killings was successful in neutralizing terrorists in Afghanistan and Iraq, the Israeli actions of neutralizing terrorists outside their territory were justified by the Israeli authorities. Israeli authorities argued since they devised the policy of targeted killing, the US found it pragmatic enough to employ it to neutralize terrorists.

There is another critical aspect of the targeted killing policy of Israel. Although international laws have outlawed assassination during peace and war, targeted killing has been often conflated with assassination drawing the ire of Israeli authorities. Israel has justified its policy of targeted killings by arguing that it is not at war with Palestine since war is between two armies and two states. These two attributes are not found in the case of Palestine. However, since Israel has been involved in armed conflict with the Palestinians, they have a right to target militants. According to many legal analysts, this point of Israel is valid. The reason for its validation is that Israel is drawn into armed conflict with terrorists. According to Law Professor John Norton, if one is engaged in armed conflict, targeting militants cannot be conflated with the assassination- which is outlawed by International laws. This point was reflected when the Bush administration went against the executive order and reserved the right to target individuals who they believe were terrorists. Furthermore, Israel states that International laws bind their signatories to prevent their land from being used in planning and perpetrating terrorist attacks. In order to abide by the International laws and frameworks, they conduct preemptive strikes against targets that they feel would become a source of scourge for the Israeli population. Additionally, Israel has blamed Palestinian authorities that signed Oslo accords for funding and arming terrorists. Israel states that, since the Palestinians authorities have not stuck to their end of the agreement in curbing terror financing, they hold the right to conduct preemptive strikes against the terrorists.

Q. 2 Are David’s recommendations completely sound or should they be modified? If they are completely sound, please support your argument of why. If targeted killings are completely wrong, please support your argument of why. If David’s recommendations are not completely sound present and support modifications to his recommendations.

As long as the dispute does not come to a peaceful solution, Israel will continue to pursue its policy of targeted killing to neutralize terrorists. Since there is convergence on the point of view that Israel will not abandon its targeted killing policy, one can offer some suggestions aimed at bringing improvement in the policy of targeted killing. David has rightfully concluded that Israel must not beat around the bush and should come out unapologetically regarding its policy of targeted killing. Since according to Israel’s stance, it is their right to respond vociferously against any terror attack, they should openly exercise their right. Israel must take ownership of any preemptive or non-preemptive strike conducted against militants. Furthermore, David recommended that Israel must maintain a balance posture while pursuing the policy of targeted killing. Certainly, Israel has set its sight to annihilate terrorist organizations and dismantle their infrastructure, it must abstain from becoming a state that evades the law and does not believe in due process of law. As it is the attitude of terrorist organizations to defy law and Israel must keep it distinguishable. Additionally, Israel should comprise some sort of mechanism or policy that oversees the panel or body that sanctions the killings. Therefore, in case there is collateral damage, the decision-makers can be brought to justice. David has brilliantly argued that Israel must not target political leaders. This recommendation is significant because there needs to be political leadership on the other side with which Israel would negotiate any sort of settlement. Furthermore, Palestinian political leaders are revered by Palestinians. Therefore, killing political leaders would not only increase hate for Israel among the Palestinians but there will be no chance left of embarking on political dialogue. Lastly, David has concluded that Israel must openly come out and make it clear to the world that targeting killing of terrorists is merely a temporary solution. Certainly, if Israel opts this strategy, then it would give away an idea to the world that it is not merely pursuing targeted killing policy to shed blood of innocent Palestinians but it believes in a peaceful and long-lasting solution to the long-festering Palestinian problem.

Q.3 What does targeted killings mean to the future of war?

With technology making great strides, militaries all around the world have employed it to revolutionize warfare. Before the invention of drones, militaries engaged in ground battles. However, after the invention of drone, militaries have gained the capability to hit any target while sitting anywhere in the world. The drone technology has so far proven a useful tool in neutralizing terrorists anywhere in the world. Since pilot-less or rather soldier-less warfare is the future, there are significant ethical issues attached to the usage of drone technology. The countries that have acquired drone technology have, more often than not, engaged in operations on the land of other countries with which they are not at war. The secretive operations have witnessed collateral damage; however, the perpetrator of the attacks so far remained out of public sight. In order to ensure the technology is not misused, the military high command that sanctions a targeted strike must be brought to justice. According to Gregoire Chamayou, the use of drone technology in targeted killings must take into account the consequences of this technology. Furthermore, Chamayou argues that people living in areas with a constant drone hovering above them develop psychological disorders. This has the potential to lead further hatred against authorities. Therefore, it can be concluded that since targeted drone strikes are based on surveillance, their innocence is determined on the very same basis. If the authorities that sanction targeted killings are allowed to conduct their operations without little to no accountability, then it can be concluded that the world is going to witness more bloodshed and even more collateral damage.

End Notes

Luft, Gal. "The logic of Israel's targeted killing." Middle East Quarterly (2003).

Guiora, Amos. "Targeted killing as active self-defense." Case W. Res. J. Int'l L. 36 (2004): 319.

David, Steven R. Fatal Choices: Israel's Policy of targeted killing. Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University, 2002.

Chamayou, Grégoire. Drone theory. Penguin UK, 2015.

Ethics Of Information

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What if somebody is asked whether or not his actions manifest righteousness? Trojan Horse scenario put up James Olson in his book “Fair Play” explain the answer. The use of sensitive intelligence technology by CIA to sabotage computer into illegitimate MSS (Ministry of Security and State) technology acquisition channel. The reason behind this particular action of CIA determines the righteousness. The heist carried out by MSS to steal and acquire embargoed US technology through radar tracking. The action taken by CIA to sabotage the computer system is legitimate as long the CIA is aware that the radar system for stealing their technology is being used by Chinese military. If CIA is not sure about the end user i.e. whether it is Chinese military or civilian authority is using radar tracking system then the legitimacy of CIA’s action can be questioned. It is because sabotaging computer system can potentially be a reason for civilian catastrophe.

What makes something right or wrong? The answer to this specific question is neither very straight nor very intricate. False Flag from the book Fair Play explain the answer. Ali Reza Rahami, who works for Ministry of defense has personally observed torture. The decision of CIA to recruit Rahami and penetrate to the Iranian Defense Ministry is a right decision. There isn’t any moral problem with the recruitment of Rahami owing to the consequences. Rahami obviously desires to do something against the brutalities and injustices committed by his own government. The consequences of the decision will reflect the morality or immorality of the decision taken by CIA

Can the question of morality be answered by single a single argument? That is not possible to answer the question of morality with single argument. In case of aforementioned False Flag scenario, the recruitment of Ali Reza Rahami pass the ethics tests as he and CIA would both help each other to without being coerced or blackmailed. At the same time, it fails the ethic test on the basis that using Amnesty International for false flag recruitment is clearly in violation with human rights. Because no human rights organization can be used for espionage. Although recruiting false flag for espionage is justified but using human rights organization for such purpose is neither justified nor ethical.

Bibliography

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Olson, James M. Fair Play: The Moral Dilemmas of Spying. Potomac Books, Inc., 2006.

Executive Leadership: A Review Of Pertinent Leadership Principles For Law Enforcement

Executive Leadership: A review of Pertinent Leadership Principles for Law Enforcement

Author’s name

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Executive leadership: A review of Pertinent Leadership Principles for Law Enforcement

The article in question is a well-researched document published in the journal of California Law Enforcement published in 1998 and authored by Mark A. Wright. It gives a concise review of the principles of leadership required for law enforcement and the challenges faced by them.

Effective policing organizations can only function when the executive leadership is aware and equipped to tackle the multiplicity of challenges faced by them. Law enforcement is an ever-evolving area of leadership. There are times when the law enforcement organizations need to adapt to changing circumstances to function effectively. Executive leaders should understand that and make that transition as fluid as possible. It also needs to be understood that evaluation mechanisms for law enforcement agencies should also be determined considering the evolving law and order context. Factors usually used for the measurement of a department’s overall effectiveness are typically some aspect of response time or fulfilment of calls for service, which has become obsolete. Another big challenge that has appeared for the law enforcement agencies is that of cyber-crimes. In this day and age, law enforcement agencies also need to build defense mechanisms for the protection of their national assets from cyber-criminals. Such mechanisms cannot be developed without direct involvement from the executive leadership.

In my experience, law enforcement executives should be prepared to listen to their sub-ordinates for the development of a fluid working model. They should adopt a more flexible approach towards evolving problems such as cyber-security. It should be understood that problems related to cyber-security could only be solved by the employment of experienced cyber-professionals. If they remain rigid and stagnant, criminals will come up with better approaches to counter them. Another factor that law enforcement executives should appreciate is that in human beings, personal pride is a very big motivation. Personal pride should be strongly associated with organizational pride. Another prime reason of concern for the law enforcement executives includes the recruitment of the next generation. The coming generations will be very different than the previous ones. The effects that digitalization may have on the working class still remain to be seen. The skills required to manage them and make them effective will thus, also be different. It remains an area ripe for research for management consultants. Many law enforcement executives and leaders established their careers in earlier times and remain influenced by models established by traditionalist cultures. Even though, these associates have initiated huge transformations over the past 4 decades and are not resistant to strategic change, fiddling with longstanding executive structures, standards for performance, or benefit and payment schemes may be difficult for them to accept.

Executive leadership for law-enforcement requires vision, imagination, attention to organizational accomplishment, stratagem, an understanding of apt management techniques and a reflective organizational evaluation. It necessitates honesty, trustworthiness and principles. True leadership inspires people and people inspire true leaders. Leaders have the ability to carry a torch that shatters the gloom of the commonplace. They are self-aware and have the vision of where they are going. They have the energy to endure the journey and the aptitude to plan it. Their charisma wheels it and their skills of organization, professional ability, hold of the technical and human understanding get them there. Law enforcement executives transform societies when their people believe in them. In order to achieve these objectives, law enforcement executives need to understand the importance of forming partnerships with the people and developing relationships ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ZEzMFGHz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jurkanin & Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board., 2001)","plainCitation":"(Jurkanin & Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board., 2001)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":40,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/LVAQYARR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/DTmO0ro3/items/LVAQYARR"],"itemData":{"id":40,"type":"book","title":"Enduring, surviving, and thriving as a law enforcement executive","publisher":"Charles C Thomas","publisher-place":"Springfield, Ill.","source":"http://worldcat.org","archive":"/z-wcorg/","event-place":"Springfield, Ill.","abstract":"This is a guide to future and present police chiefs, sheriffs, and other law enforcement executives on how to survive and ultimately thrive in a job that is becoming increasingly difficult to handle. The genesis of the book is a series of executive forums where successful law enforcement executives discuss factors that positively and negatively influence their careers. It examines law enforcement survival from three perspectives: demands upon the individual, demands from within the police department, and external/environmental pressures. The book discusses dealing with the media, behaving as a professional, becoming more involved in the community, establishing new policing procedures within the department while eliminating former procedures, and dealing with roles, leadership, missions, management, planning and budgeting, associations, and quality policing. The Police Executive Research Forum estimates that the average large city police chief will last anywhere from 2 1/2 to 4 years on the job. Factors likely contributing to the turnover rate include: (1) increases in the number of competing constituencies chiefs must appease; (2) new demands and expectations of police departments and police chiefs; and (3) the perception that all government (including police programs) was part of the problem, not the solution. The book credits guidance from experienced law enforcement personnel, formal education, and in-service professional training programs with providing a sound backdrop for executing responsibilities, but claims that actual application of skills and knowledge is where more learning takes place.","ISBN":"0-398-07116-0","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Jurkanin","given":"Thomas J."},{"literal":"Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jurkanin & Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board, 2001). Correspondingly, leaders also have the ability to motivate people to excel in their respective fields. They have the ability to align competing goals to reach common purpose.

Works Cited: ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jurkanin, T. J., & Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board. (2001). Enduring, surviving, and thriving as a law enforcement executive. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas. /z-wcorg/.

Explain The Causes Of Democratic Instability

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Political Science]

[Date]

Causes of democratic instability

Introduction

“Democracy presupposes equality before the law, due process and political pluralism” (Kurlantzick). There are a number of empirical and comparative studies regarding democratic stability. These studies have focused on either the institutional political traditions or the socioeconomic factors. It is notable to mention that many studies focused on the transition and consolidation of democracy, but none of them addresses its long term stability. It is notable to mention that four groups of relevant independent variables determine the causes of democratic instability. These groups include institutional variables, societal variables, mediating variables, and foreign involvement. Rising strength of authoritarian power results in democratization. Here, the focus is to combine the two approaches (socioeconomic and political institutional traditions) in order to determine various factors that cause democratic instability.

Variables

Institutional Variables

There are four institutional variables that are associated with democratic instability. Among them, the first variable is federalism which distinguishes between the federal government (Germany) and unitary governments (Great Britain). It is observed that democratic collapse is vulnerable for federal states rather than unitary ones. It is evident in the case of the American Civil War that inclusion of federalism could undermine democracy as it leads to center-periphery struggles. Federalism is one of the majorities of restraining facets that can destabilize democracy. Therefore, federalism is beneficial to democratic stability (Groshek 1166). A stable democracy in pluralistic societies is achievable through federalism as it is conducive in alleviating ethnic and other social conflicts. Presidentialism is another variable which extricates presidential or semi-presidential systems (The United States and France) and parliamentary systems (Italy). Various studies have been made on this paradigm to find the connection between democratic stability and presidentialism. It is found that presidential regimes are more susceptible to democratic instability than parliamentary ones. It is notable to mention that the chances of conflict between the legislative and executive branch are the main reason behind this instability. Consolidation of democracy can be impeded by presidentialism (Llanos & Marsteintredet). Regardless of presidentialism, dual legitimatizes, rigidity, and zero-sum elections can emasculate the capability to make concessions, lead towards democratic instability.

Another important institutional variable is proportionality. Countries having less proportional electoral systems (Canada) are less prone to democratic instability as compared to countries with high electoral system proportionality (Netherlands). Various studies also examine the vulnerability of high electoral system proportionality to democratic collapse. High proportionality can increase the fragility of the party system as it has the ability to expand fragmentation. Constitutional weakness is an important factor that can determine the democratic stability of a country. Existing literature concludes that political systems with low constitutional constancy are more vulnerable to democratic instability as compared to high constitutional stability (Norris). It is evident in the case of Israel (lack of any stable constitution) and Thailand (major constitutional changes), which results in democratic collapse (Merom). On the other hand, democracy in the United is more stable as it has stable constitutions. The reason behind this is the normative framework of a constitution in which a democratic country function. Clashes that undermine democracy can be minimized with clear rules of the game in critical situations.

Societal Variables

Social cleavages are also associated with democratic collapse. Countries having parallel or deep social cleavages are vulnerable to democratic instability. It is evident in the case of Lebanon having deep social cleavages, which results in democratic collapse. Moreover, countries with low social cleavages such as Sweden are less prone to democratic collapse. The malfunctioning economy is another significant facet that evaluates its linkage with democratic stability. Economic stability is an important paradigm that elaborates the performance of democratic states. Countries having a stable economy are more likely to have democratic stability than those who have weak or unstable economies (Acemoglu, Daron, & Robinson). Weimar Germany is facing major economic problems, so its democracy is not stable, while Norway is democratic stable due to minor economic problems (Pérez-Liñán). High inflation rates are more susceptible to democratic stability. Positive economy performance contributes to democratic stability. Existing literature validates that economic development is more likely to endure a democratic system.

Unfavorable history is another significant variable for democratic stability as it deals with political culture, historical experience, and the extent of progress of the social society of a country. It is noteworthy to mention that a strong political culture and historical background are essential regimes to stabilize democracy in a country. Switzerland has democratic stability due to the democratic historical and civil societal background. Whereas, Peru and Turkey have democratic instability due to undemocratic or mixed historical backgrounds. Therefore, it is safe to say that democratic historical and civil societal background have the tendency to adopt democratic stability.

Mediating Variables

Mediating variables include fragmentation, polarization, and government instability. The degree of fragmentation of the party system in a single chamber of the parliament is a critical factor that distinguishes democratic stability and instability. Countries having low party fragmentation are more prone to democratic stability in comparison with countries having a high level of fragmentation. Democratic instability of Weimar Germany is a clear indicator that a high level of fragmentation in party systems (Brysk). On the other hand, the US is democratically stable due to low fragmentation. Therefore, it is evident that the two-party system is beneficial for political stability. Polarization in a party system is another mediating variable which is associated with democratic stability. Highly polarized systems are vulnerable to democratic instability. The sizable anti-systems political system of pre-Franco Spain is responsible for democratic collapse (Epstein et al.). On the other hand, a low degree of polarization in Australia is responsible for its democratic stability. The legitimacy of the regime is undermined due to polarization as it gives rise to extremist or anti-system parties. They hinder the formation of the government, hence resulting in democratic instability. Governmental instability is another mediating variable that is based on the durability of government coalitions (Rotberg 25). Governing coalitions and unstable governments are more vulnerable to democratic instability as seen in the case of the Fourth French Republic. Governmental instability indicates the overall decline in democratic stability.

Extraneous Variable

Foreign involvement is a significant factor as it has a great impact on democratic stability of a country. The illustrative power of foreign involvement makes its annexation authoritative in the examination of democratic collapse. Many cases have been seen in which foreign involvement plays a remarkable role to bring an end to democratic rule. Therefore, it is evident that countries experiencing immense foreign involvement are more vulnerable to democratic instability.

Discussion

Protests movements in Thailand and other states confirm that no inherent commitment to democratic ideals is exhibited when democracy secure the votes of the poorer majority due to populist policies (Kurlantzick). These countries damage the progress of strong democratic structures due to protests against elected leaders and calling for military intervention. According to Kurlantzick, War on Terror has the same impact on society as the Cold War. With the help of war on terror, western powers tried to align themselves with non-democratic leaders, which increases the democratic instability in that particular country. Additionally, corruption and mismanagement of the revenue of the country by political leaders are major factors that can cause democratic collapse. There is a high likelihood of democratic instability in countries having major episodes of corruption. If the rights and freedom of the people are trampled upon, then it gives rise to democratic instability (Kurlantzick). It is notable to mention that economic development contributes to democratic transitions. However, it is evident that the average effect of development on maintaining democracy is higher than the average effect for the whole period. The increase in education, urbanization, equality, and the weakening of traditional loyalties to the tribe are all contributing factors to economic development.

If states grew wealthier, they would develop greater middle classes that can lead to greater political, social, and economic freedoms. Dictators ruled a major portion of Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe up till 1900. However, in 2005, for the first time in history, more than half the population of the world was living in democratic states. Many leaders in those countries morph into elected autocrats after gaining control in the government's offices (Belloni). For instance, it is noteworthy mention that Hugo Chavez in Venezuela is elected as a dictator, while president of Ecudar, Rafael Correa recently won legislation which has provided him with excessive new powers. However, people themselves are responsible for sliding away from open and free government rather than just political leaders. A survey has been made by Afrobarometer in the African states to find out the patriotism of democratic states. It is found that the majority of Africans are not living to support democracy which is declining levels of support for democracy in these states. East Asia also shows rising dissatisfaction with democracy along with Colombia, Paraguay, Honduras, Peru, and Nicaragua. The populist leaders who appeared to be sliding into authoritarianism (McFaul). Citizens of these nations ended up supporting military coups against these democratic leaders due to their unethical measures. Such an example is seen in the history of Thailand when Thaksin Shinawatra turned populist and was elected with the largest mandate in the history of Thailand. The reason behind his success was a large mandate for the poor. During his service, he benefited the poor through various schemes and policies including national health insurance that proved to be effective for democracy. However, charismatic prime minister in 2005 gain victory in the free election (Diskin et al. 294). Majority of middle class revolted results in the military invasion to hold the current situation of the country. Democratization is forestalled due to the rising strength of authoritarian powers in Saudi Arabia, Russia, and China, etc. Foreign leaders play a major role in the democratic instability in a country. Foreign leaders often approach the autocratic leaders in the country to support them with money and power to help them forestall new color revolutions (Crane et al.). Such invasion can be seen in Ukraine, where an advisor Putin was running a Russian Press Club. It was found that Russia's involvement in Ukrainian elections is facilitated by that Russian Press Club, which clearly indicates that foreign involvement plays a critical role in the democratic stability of a country. Stopping the global democratic reversal is essential to promote democracy among various nations. The United States has the power to various covert countries into democratic states where it has significant strategic interests such as Bahrain and Saudi Arabia (Wantchekon). It will help to neutralize the idea that democracy is just a concept.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, institutional variables, societal variables, mediating variables, and foreign involvement are major facets that are associated with the democratic stability of a country. Federalism is a major restraining aspect of democratic stability. Proportionality of political system and their fragmentation can lead towards democratic stability. Citizens also contribute towards democratic instability if they force the military to take control of their country by diminishing the political parties. Rising strength of authoritarian powers leads towards democratization in countries like Saudi Arabia.

Works Cited

Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. Economic origins of dictatorship and democracy. Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Belloni, Roberto. "Civil society in war-to-democracy transitions." From war to democracy: Dilemmas of peacebuilding (2008): 182-210.

Brysk, Alison. "Democratizing civil society in Latin America." Journal of Democracy 11.3 (2000): 151-165.

Crane, Andrew, Dirk Matten, and Jeremy Moon. "Stakeholders as citizens? Rethinking rights, participation, and democracy." Journal of Business Ethics 53.1-2 (2004): 107-122.

Diskin, Abraham, Hanna Diskin, and Reuven Y. Hazan. "Why democracies collapse: The reasons for democratic failure and success." International Political Science Review 26.3 (2005): 291-309.

Epstein, Susan B., Nina M. Serafino, and Francis T. Miko. "Democracy Promotion: Cornerstone of US foreign policy." LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON DC CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, 2007.

Groshek, Jacob. "Media, instability, and democracy: Examining the Granger-causal relationships of 122 Countries from 1946 to 2003." Journal of Communication 61.6 (2011): 1161-1182.

Kurlantzick, J. Democracy in Retreat: The Revolt of the Middle Class and the Worldwide Decline of Representative Government. Yale University Press, 2014, https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=RBOdngEACAAJ.

Llanos, M., and L. Marsteintredet. Presidential Breakdowns in Latin America: Causes and Outcomes of Executive Instability in Developing Democracies. Palgrave Macmillan US, 2010, https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=7YPGAAAAQBAJ.

McFaul, Michael. "The fourth wave of democracy and dictatorship: noncooperative transitions in the postcommunist world." World politics 54.2 (2002): 212-244.

Merom, Gil. How democracies lose small wars: state, society, and the failures of France in Algeria, Israel in Lebanon, and the United States in Vietnam. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Norris, Pippa. Democratic phoenix: Reinventing political activism. Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Pérez-Liñán, A. Presidential Impeachment and the New Political Instability in Latin America. Cambridge University Press, 2007, https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=PA1En2CF7E4C.

Rotberg, Robert I. "Failed states, collapsed states, weak states: Causes and indicators." State failure and state weakness in a time of terror 1 (2003): 25.

Wantchekon, Leonard. "The paradox of" warlord" democracy: A theoretical investigation." American political science review (2004): 17-33.

Explain The Institutional Advantages Of Territorial Rulers.

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Sovereign State / Sovereign State System

A sovereign state is a modern nation form with three elements of sovereignty, territory, and people. Along with the demolition of the feudal society, it was formed in the Western European countries such as England, France in the 16th century. Originally the king had taken the form of absolute monarchy with sovereignty, but after the civil revolution it shifted to the constitutional monarchy or republican, democratic politics by the parliament system will be carried out. In the process, the border was formed, which is the area surrounded by artificial borders with the concept of the people supporting the nation by tax and others.

Demolition of feudal state

As a feudal state established on the feudal society of medieval Europe, as the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Kingdom of France, the emperor and the king are only one of feudal lords, they dominate the nation uniformly The borders were not clear, they were intricately intertwined (to remember the relationship between Britain and France at the time of the centennial war). The feudal lords (nobility) fell down as the feudal society dismantled with the improvement of the productivity of Europe and the change of production relations, and became decisive, especially by the 100-year war and the British rose war.

Formation of a sovereign state

In the 16th century, the Italian war (1494-1559 in the broad sense) came to recognize the needs of the territorial concepts and the regular army, especially the formation of a unified state under the royal right in France advanced. Also in this war the use of firearms (guns) is generalized, the military revolution that the cavalry tactics change into collective tactics by infantry with guns advances, the fall of the feudal lords becomes clear, each country possesses a former army. In the UK also the national integration progressed under the Tudor morning in the 16th century. Thus, each country has exclusively territories separated by borders, unified state power rule, governments and the stationary army, guarantee domestic economic activity and the state collects systematic taxes. A country with a mechanism called a sovereign state. Also, since the 16th century is an era of religious reform and religion was a major element of national integration, the conflict between sovereign states at this time in Europe will have aspects of Catholic and Protestant religious warfare.

Establishment of national consciousness

Also, in the medieval feudal state, the lordship is bound by the master-slave relationship, the farmers are bound by the manor, there is little awareness of attribution to the state, but when the feudal society collapses and the sovereign nation is formed it “Citizen" will become conscious as an element. The development of the economy will also produce a wide range of markets beyond the manor and city limits, closed groups like guilds are gradually disintegrated, citizens who develop free economic activities, citizens supporting the unified state People with a consciousness that there is an existence will become the center of society. In this case as well, religious unity became an important element of public consciousness.

The first form of a sovereign state is absolute monarchy

However, at this stage national sovereignty is held by the king and nobility, the people are not yet sovereign. The sovereign states of the 16th - 18th century stage had a political form of "absolute monarchy" where the sovereign is owned by the king and the power concentrates on the king (it is justified by the theory of kingship ). In addition, the economic activity also adopted a mercantilism policy in which the king monopolized profits by tying with the privileged merchant , free commercial activity and trade were not done. It is now pointed out that the existence of an association (intermediate group) is important as a social foundation that supports the absolute national rule of the king, which is the earliest form of a sovereign state.

To form a national state accompanying the citizen revolution

When industrial capitalists (bourgeoisie) are formed with the industrial revolution starting in the UK, they cause a civil revolution in search of freedom of economic activity and political equality. By doing so, the absolute principle killing has been overthrown, it is conscious that the people of national sovereignty are in the citizens, and it will form a "national state". It can be said that the movement that aims to form the "nation state" is nationalism (nationalism), and the stage where the concept of "citizen" is established is the completion of the "modern state".

Sovereign state system

A way of international relations between sovereign states established in Europe in the 16th - 17th century is called the sovereign state system. It became the prototype of diplomatic relations and international organizations between modern nations. In Europe from the 16th to the 17th century, with administrative organizations and regular army, centered on the tax collecting mechanism, the monarchs (king) who is a sovereign in a clear boundary area are unitarily (in a centralized system) The " sovereign state " that governs and the international relations between those nations are formed. .

　The manner of diplomacy among contemporary nations, the way to exchange diplomats with ambassadors or ministers as ambassadors and make them resident is starting in the 15th century Italian Republic of Venice. Also, in order to resolve international disputes, international conferences of modern meaning that delegates from various countries hold international conferences, conclude treaties, and oblige countries to observe compliance, The Westphalia Conference and its achievements, the 1648 Treaty of the Westphalia, are considered the first.

The establishment of sovereign state system

The conflict for territorial acquisition such as the Italian war, competition for acquiring overseas territory, religious conflict, etc. were intertwined in a complex manner, and Britain, France, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal etc. formed the sovereign state system. Germany lags the unification as a whole, Prussia and Austria are separated after the thirty year war. It is said that the European sovereign state system was established by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the thirty year war. Italy lags the most unified, continues to receive interference with the control of foreign forces, and the formation of sovereign states will eventually be in the middle of the 18th century. Russia in the east also formed a sovereign state in the 17th century.

The sovereign state system of the modern world was formed in the course of the Italian war, the following sentence is explained in an easy-to-understand manner. In 1494 (the Italian war began), the French king's army opened the early modern "Pandora's Box". The Italian Peninsula became an arena of international conflict, and the result of the Renaissance became the northern gradually. That is not all. During the Italian war, Milan and Genoa, Venice and the Ottoman Empire, and Spain, Netherlands, France, England and the Emperor, and the Papacy have both offered diplomatic missions in the midst of battle and diplomacy during the Italian war, ensuring their safety, the practice of exchanging documents has become established. In parallel with the collapse of the Christian community through religious reform, a unique world order that sets rules and repeats war and negotiation, between modern states that claim sovereignty in certain areas, while differences in size, strength, Appears. The researcher will call it "the sovereign state system" or "nationality family". For this to become established as an international law, it is necessary to wait for a law scholar like Gentili and Grotius, and the Westphalia Convention, but it is meaningful that the rule of international relations is established for the first time in human history. For example, a rule that is essentially different from 'Huajian order' and 'tsunami relation' in East Asia was established.

Sovereign national system and international law

Grotius's “Law of War and Peace “announced as the miserable damage of the Thirty Years War was expanded advocated that international law is necessary to alleviate the misery of war. By the establishment of the Westphalia Peace Treaty after the war, the modern sovereign state has created international laws that govern the relationship between states, as the upper powers of the Roman Pope and the Holy Roman Empire in medieval Europe have disappeared.

However, the American Revolution in the latter half of the 18th century, the French Revolution brings victory of the citizen who is the emerging class against absolute monarchy, changes the view of war, and the new rules of war will be formed. In the case of land battle war is not a mercenary but a military, it is done by the national army, in the case of a naval battle it is supposed to be done by a warship ship, not a private pleasure boat (pirate), a certain restraint is made by a belligerent provision and inhuman treatment of prisoners of war It will be recognized that it should be added.

Absolute monarchy / absolutism

The sovereign state: The political system of the state where the power of the state concentrated on the monarch (king) during the period of national formation, the prince exercised absolute power. The political system in which a monarch in a sovereign state formed in the 16th - 18th century has absolute dominion power is called "absolute monarchy absolutism" (or absolutism system). The emergence of absolute monarchy is seen in Western Europe during the transition period from feudal society to modern society and can be regarded as a system which is knocked down by the citizen revolution of the 18th century. The foundation of the King's absolute power is that the feudal lords (aristocrats, upper clerics) depend on the king to recognize tax exemption privileges and others who have become bureaucrats and military personnel supporting the power of the kingdom On the one hand, the Birthay citizen (bourgeoisie) was also a person who had guaranteed monopoly rights etc. depending on the king power still. Supported by these superior status, the political form of the sovereign state during the formation of a sovereign state where the king directly governs "people" in a centralized system with the bureaucratic organization and the permanent military system was absolute monarchy.

　As a typical absolute monarchy, there are Portuguese and Spain early in the 15th century to the 16th century, England in the Tudor morning of the 16th and 17th centuries, France of the Bourbon Morning of the 17th and 18th centuries, and so on. Formation of the absolute monarchy of Germany and Russia was delayed in the 18th century, and was not established in Italy. Under the absolute monarchy, bureaucracy and the creation of regular army advanced, and economic policy of mercantilism was taken to obtain financial resources to maintain them. Moreover, thought that the theory that absolute monarchy is theory is the theory of the theory of kingship. It was developed in England and France.

Classical absolutism

The image of the conventional legendary absolute monarchy was as follows. "In the era of French" Absolute monarchy ", especially during the heyday of Louis XIV, which is said to be the heyday, there is a huge bureaucracy group where the king holds absolute power in his hands and remains his own clothing, It was considered to have exercised powerful control up to the corners of the kingdom by the mighty stationary army which was declared.

Association / intermediate group / corporate state

In the 16th - 18th century Europe, given a certain privilege from the king, it is an organization that has been recognized as independence, such as a guild like associate union, a community of cities and villages. Absolute monarchy ruled the people through the association. In the absolute monarchy of Europe (absolutism), among other things, in the so-called absolute monarchy period of the Louis XIV of France from the 17th to the 18th century, while supporting the kingship, at the same time, the various social groups with the power to restrict the kingship as an association, The state governed by the royalty underpinned by it is taken as an association state. As a state form that appears in the transition period from the middle Ages to the modern period, which was proposed instead of the conventional theory of absolutism, the view that the system is overthrown by the citizen revolution can be regarded as "modern times" has Treaty of Cateau Cambresis. In 1559, the peace treaty of Italian war. Due to the prolongation of the war, both the Hapsburg and the Valois families are in the background.

The final peace treaty of Italian war concluded in 1559. Cateau Cambresis is the name of the current place in France. The prolongation of the Italian war has brought financial difficulties in both the Habsburgs (Spain) and France, and in particular the Habsburg family has become increasingly difficult to repay due to the huge debts from the Huggers. In response to such circumstances, Henry II of France (husband of Catherine de Medici’s) agreed with the Spanish Felipe II and the King of England Elizabeth I to agree on the peace of the Italian war, the Cateau Cambresis treaty was concluded. In this treaty France abandoned its interest in Italy, Savoie and Piedmont also gave the public Savoy as a marriage to her older sister Marguerite. However, the possession of France was recognized for curry, sang kantan etc. In addition, as a proof of friendship between France and Spain, it was decided to make the daughter of Henry II (that is, the daughter of Catherine de Medicis) the wife of Felipe II. In the Cateau Cambresis treaty, the Italian war in a broad sense has been concluded, but there were circumstances of the former religious forces that had to cope with the increase of the Shogunist forces in the background.

References

Gross, Leo. "The peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948." American Journal of International Law 42.1 (1948): 20-41.

Krasner, Stephen D. "Sovereignty." Foreign Policy (2001): 20-29.

Knecht, Robert Jean. The French civil wars, 1562-1598. Routledge, 2014.

Major, J. Russell. From Renaissance Monarchy to Absolute Monarchy: French Kings, Nobles, and Estates. JHU Press, 1997.

Mallett, Michael Edward, and Christine Shaw. The Italian Wars 1494-1559: War, State and Society in Early Modern Europe. Routledge, 2014.

Exploring Early California History

Student’s Name

Professor’s Name

Course

Date

Exploring Early California History

The interaction between early Spanish explorers and California’s indigenous population is evident in trading, racial hierarchy, colonization and other characters. Early Spanish explorers entered California with different aims after sailing for long periods. Coming to California contributed to new developments in terms of living standards and culture (Rose, and Robert, 2015). Therefore, I would characterize the relationship as one that has negative and positive effects on the California’s indigenous population.

Economy oriented

This is the first characteristic depicted by the interaction between early Spanish and California’s indigenous population. A complete change experienced in California arose due to interactions of new people entering the land and introducing new approaches. Spanish people participated in the lands trade that contributed to the growth of California’s economy.

Suffering

Early Spanish explorers who visited California introduced new diseases to the indigenous people. Smallpox, influenza, measles and malaria among other diseases infested the people of California leading to their suffering. The interactions reduced California’s population. The diseases affected the generation and growth retarded the community’s expansion.

New reign and regime

The new regime characterizes the interaction between the early Spanish explorers and indigenous population of California. Coming of the Spanish people led to colonization of California. Spain claimed colonization but never settled in California because of the distance. This made the country not to be colonized.

Racial development

Communities within the country comprise of different races. Interactions paved room for emergence of new races in California. Existence of Spanish people in California contributed to classification of the races in the country according to a particular hierarchy.

Violent activities and disagreements

Having many races within the community led to violence and disagreements between the Spanish population and early California’s indigenous population. Settlement of the Spanish people in California contributed to issues of power and control amongst the inhabitant. Curiosity and self-interest were among the main reasons for the battling groups to continue their disagreements to the present.

Work Cited

Rose Marie Beebe and Robert M. Senkewicz, Junípero Serra: California, Indians, and the Transformation of a Missionary (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015)

Federalism

Federalism

Name

Affiliation

Date

Federalism

Introduction

Different forms of government are practiced in different countries of the world, according to the organization of the country, as well as the political choice of its population. Federalism is a relatively popular system of government which is practiced in a significant number of countries of the world. Federalism is the type of government in which the political powers are divided among the central government and the regional or ethnic governments, though the division of powers may not be equal among the central and regional and ethnic or provincial governments. Although the provincial, regional or state level governments have their own rights, authorities, and powers, the federal government holds greater power than them. The federal form of government is mostly practiced in those countries of the world which consist of populations belonging to different ethnicities or regions. The major purpose of the federal government is to balance the powers and authorities among the subordinate power groups of provincial or state level government while implementing an equal system of government in the whole country. Although the federal form of government is greatly supported and practiced, it has some disadvantages in addition to the advantages, which require the government authorities to reconsider the policies and recommendations, to make them more profitable for all the units of the society.

Background Information

Federalism has been practiced as the system of government since the nineteenth century in different parts of the world. The major purpose of the establishment of the federal government is to lay the foundation of a central government which would have dominant power and authorities over the regional governments and would be able to contribute to the progress of the country as a cohesive unit. The divisions of powers sometimes become the source of conflict among the central and the regional governments because of the fact that some states have their different laws, which are not applicable to other states. When the individuals move within the states, they have to take care of their own state laws, as well as of those of the state in which they are currently present. Most of the researchers think that the federalist system is unreliable and unstable because of such type of conflicts. The example of the conflicting situation is that marijuana is legal in some of the states of the United States of America, while it is still illegal in some of the other states. If a person travels from the states where marijuana is legal to the state where it is illegal, then he would have to face the legal punishment and proceedings according to the other state of the country. Such kind of situation, where a law is applicable to only one states, creates difficulties for the intrastate travelers, as they have to become careful of their code of conduct, in order to avoid any conflicting situation. In addition to it, the regional forces keep trying to get more rights and powers in order to become the central power, but it is not true for every country of the world. So, some countries of the world look up to the federal laws and authorities to resolve their political, cultural and economic conflicts. Moreover, the federal government and its laws play a constructive role in uniting the different sections of the society, by enabling them to resolve their issues and reach some point of unity (Riker, 2017).

Under federalism, there is power sharing whereby the national government has a role to play, and at the same time, the states governments have its specific duties. For instance, the federal government should maintain security in the country and regulate international trade. On the other hand, the states are obliged to establish schools and the formation of local governments. However, both the national and states governments share some powers. For example, both bodies are required to collaborate in matters related to setting tax rates, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure like roads.

Analysis/Competing Arguments

There are some pros, as well as cons of the federal system of the government which not only impact the life of the people living in those particular areas but also impact the image of the country while affecting its economy. Some of the pros of federalism are following. One of the most important positive aspects of federalism is that it allows diversity among the population of the country. The people are free and have the constitutional rights to depict themselves with the help of different policies, laws, and institutions. They are not bound to follow the specific policy or law, which does not relate to their ideology or practices.

Besides, federalism has increased government responsiveness when it comes to serving the population. Through the existence of state and local government, meeting the public’s need becomes easy since it is simple to understand what is happening at the grassroots. Another important positive aspect of federalism is that it allows room for the experimentation of new programs or policies, which can be reverted if they do not seem appropriate for the society. Furthermore, another pro of the federal system of government is that it provides the opportunities of closer contact between the government and the citizens. It allows self-government, as well as paves the way for democracy. Ricker (2017) has explained in his article that

“Thus for well over half its history federalism in the united states actually meant freedom for some southern whites to oppress blacks, hardly the conventional picture of federalism as freedom. Fortunately, in the recent generation, however, federalism in the United States has served as an addition to the separation of powers and has thus, on the whole, served liberty. Taking together all federations in the world at all times, I believe that federalism has been a significant force for limited government and hence for personal freedom (p. 617).”

One of the most important pros of the federalism is that it resolves the regional issues on the priority basis, while not letting them emerge as the national issues. Besides, federalism has really helped in a way of solving interstates conflicts. The fact that federalism requires all stats to have their own governance, it prevents disputes that might arise due to disagreement. If states were to fall under on leadership, it would take a long time to resolve conflicts since every party would fight for its ideas to be implemented. Therefore, federalism has indeed eased the process of problem-solving. Moreover, it provides opportunities for healthy competition at the regional level and provides the experience and training of leadership to future leaders. The most remarkable feature of federalism is that it does not allow the accumulation of political powers, at a single unit of government (Robertson, 2017).

Apart from all the above-described pros of federalism, there are some cons of this particular system of government as well, which are following. One of the most important drawbacks of federalism is that it causes great confusion and inconvenience to the general public, in terms of doing interstate and intrastate business. The laws regarding doing business, as well as a free movement, are different according to the state level and people have to take care of them while interacting with the affairs of other states. The example of legalization of marijuana can be accounted for in this case as well. Some of the states have legalized the use of marijuana for medical purposes, while some other states of the United States of America have not legalized the use even for medical purposes. So the people in the business of marijuana have to be careful about the laws of different states in order to ensure their safety as well as unfavorable circumstances and implications. There is no doubt in the fact that dealing with different types of laws in different states can cause great inconvenience to travelers, as well as the general society.

Another con of federalism is that it comprises of a number of unit of government, which increases the cost for the country as well as affect their efficiency. Moreover, coping with certain problems becomes a bigger issue in society, because of the inability of the local, as well as central government, to resolve the issue. These situations sometimes lead to harmful or unwelcomed competition among the states, which also becomes the source of weakening the national political parties. Another con of federalism is that it gives special support to the local industries which are not recommended because of the fact that it hinders the progress of the regional industries, as well as the federal industries (Kincaid, & Cole, 2017).

Observations and Recommended Policy Changes

The promotion of diversity is one of the most important points of the federal system of government; however, it also stops the regional units to develop the laws which would be enacted all over the country. Due to such little issues, federalism sometimes becomes the source of conflict among the regional and central governments. Some policy recommendations can be made to make the federal system of government more effective and progressive for society. One of the most important points in this regard is that decision making should be decentralized in the society, which would allow the regional units to make the decisions and policies according to their circumstances and benefits. It would also allow the multiple units to access the government for the benefit of the local population. Another recommendation is that the state laws should be formulated in the way that they allow the profits and interest of different regional populations. In addition to it, another policy recommendation in this regard is to allow the regional and state governments to contribute equally to the establishment of new policies and laws in federalism and the laws related to business should be formulated to support every state (Ziegler, Waldis, Kübler, Gustin, & Glaser, 2018).

Conclusion

Federalism is a particularly more supportive system of government which allows the promotion of diversity. It allows the room for the regional or the provincial level of governments to make the laws and policies according to the cultural beliefs, ideologies, and preferences of their own population, which is centrally controlled and supported by the central, more powerful government. However, federalism also gives rise to some conflicts and barriers when the people of one state, interact with the other state due to their business, or general movement. There are pros and cons of the federal system of government; however, these can be resolved with the help of the policy recommendations, in order to make the system more efficient, supportive and progressive for the general population. most importantly, in order to solve the significant challenges, associated with federalism, the government should consider awing the regional and states governments to contribute equally to the establishment of new policies and laws in federalism and the laws related to business should be formulated to support every state.

References

Kincaid, J., & Cole, R. L. (2017). Issues of federalism in response to terrorism. In War on Terrorism (pp. 135-145). Routledge.

Riker, W. H. (2017). Federalism. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, 612-620.

Robertson, D. B. (2017). Federalism and the Making of America. Routledge.

Ziegler, B., Waldis, M., Kübler, D., Gustin, A., & Glaser, A. (2018). The Pros and Cons of Horizontal Federalism. Federalism and Education: Ongoing Challenges and Policy Strategies in Ten Countries, 187.

Federalist Papers Persuasive Essay

Kyle D Krush

Professor

Course

16 April 2019

Title: Federalist Papers Persuasive Essay

Q1

In The Federalist, Hamilton termed the judiciary to be the least dangerous branch. This view was based on the idea that the judicial branch lacked the legislature's political passions or the executive branch's power. Moreover, it does not have an army to enforce its opinions, nor the legislature's purse by means of which it can have a say on the government's spending or taxation policies, nor can it make other laws. Instead, it only serves to interpret the laws approved and enacted by the other branches. Hamilton suggested that the judicial branch only had judgment and integrity but neither will nor force to compel other branches.

Q2

The effects of being held or termed as the "least dangerous" branch in the Federalist papers was that the judiciary was not able to overpower any other branch of the government for any purpose. The military still remains in control of the president while the flow of money is still controlled by Congress. Moreover, its effect was to ensure that corruption does not cause other branches of the government to be a judge of their own action's constitutionality, thus serving as a check and balance against the relatively more powerful branches of the government, in order to ensure the general liberty of the people is not infringed.

Q3

Hamilton stressed that the independence of the judiciary from the government's other branches. This implied that other branches should not be able to wield any influence over the court's functioning or decisions out of partisan or private interests. Thus, the independence of the judiciary prevents encroachment upon individual rights by the legislative and executive branch and serves as a safeguard for the privileges, freedoms, and rights of the citizens granted by the constitution. The entire judicial system, its officers, and courts will be free of governmental intervention as a result of this independence which will ensure that the judiciary is able to provide equal protection for all.

Q4

The main purpose or role of the judicial branch, according to Hamilton, is to ensure that any law passed by the legislative branch stands consistent with the superior and fundamental law provided by the Constitution. For this purpose, there is sufficient authority granted to the courts, through the power of the judicial review, which they can exercise to render any law null and void if it is interpreted or determined to be unconstitutional, judging whether it violates a “manifest tenor of the Constitution”. Through this, it ensures that the legislative branch remains subservient to the Constitution and not its master.

Q5

According to Hamilton, one of the primary terms of office regarding the selection and appointment of judges is that they will not be changed based upon the legislative or executive branch’s whims or interests. If the Judges exhibit good behavior during their tenure, then this permanent tenure will help uphold the rule of law in a free society. Moreover, not all people have the integrity and ability to judge a law, and thus those people who are adequate for the position should not be replaced. Additionally, these terms promote judicial independence and enable them to guard the people's constitutional rights against any invasions or infringement by the legislature. Hamilton neither supports periodical appointments nor elections since this would harm their independence and make the process prone to manipulation

Q6

Some of the key characteristics that have to be possessed by judges are integrity, knowledge and good behavior during their tenure. They should abide by the established legal rules, instead of relying upon discretion, in order to protect people from the tyranny of other branches or the judicial branch itself. For this purpose, the selection of judges must not be subject to elections or periodic appointments since that would interfere with their ability to apply the law objectively. Any appointments must strictly be based on merit, appointing lower court judges or lawyers to higher positions on the basis of their integrity and performance without any political influence or connection.