Final Argument Paper

Name

Professor name

Subject

May 05, 2019

Ethical dilemma

Argument: is it unethical for president Trump to use derogatory comments against the minority population.

The ethical dilemma deals with the derogatory comments made by Trump against African-Americans and immigrants. Dilemma refers to the issue of Trump making derogatory remarks on immigrants including Africans, Latinos and Asians. It is ethically wrong to use harsh words and criticize them. Under a utilitarian approach, the solution of an ethical dilemma involves choosing to sacrifice an individual for saving a greater number of people. Causing harm to a single person is not wrong when one has to save many people. Utilitarian judgment involves the range of complex issues such as rejection of impartial concern for attaining a greater good. The approach involves cost-benefit analysis that leads to the greater good. It involves, “to be willing to sacrifice one person to save a greater number is mere to reject (or overrule) one such non-utilitarian rule. Such rejection, however, is compatible with accepting extreme non-utilitarian rules in many other contexts—rules about lying, retribution, fairness or property” CITATION Guy15 \l 1033 (Jim, Brian and Miguel). It is important for public administrators to adopt ethical values in the problem-solving process. The concept emphasizes on how public agents will act in public settings. Dealing with an ethical dilemma in public administration requires critical decision-making as it focuses on choosing the best solution. Under utilitarian concept making derogatory remarks is unethical at it threatens the global image of America. Damaging global reputation will influence all Americans ultimately, depicting greater loss, which makes Trump's remarks unethical.

Public agents adopt the utilitarian approach and accept their accountability. The primary solution for resolving an ethical dilemma involves knowing values. It states that Trump must hold certain values that society recognizes. Before applying the values, an individual must know what those values are. Under the utilitarian approach, the resolution of an ethical dilemma depends on personal beliefs regarding the importance of saving a larger number of people. It also emphasizes on sacrificing self because the emphasis of the theory is on benefiting the larger population. Knowing values involving searching for reasoning associated with every decision of an individual. Reasoning about morality reflects choosing for greater happiness. The moral standards emphasize the happiness of many. It involves thinking if the action is just or unjust. It states, "discourse about values that ought to guide conduct was considered as a value in itself that would bring about virtue and happiness if sought after persistently and systematically” CITATION Ant02 \l 1033 (Makrydemetres). The decision-maker face sets of alternatives and need to choose the most appropriate option. They are accountable to the parliament and the public depicting the need for taking actions that result in the greater good. The principles of virtue motivate them to take decisions that concentrate on the happiness of masses. Utilitarianism focuses on the status quo of majority's happiness. The principle of virtue emphasizes the benefit of many that exhibit the idea of equality. The public agents focus on taking actions that lead to the maximization of satisfaction. Providing a benefit to the greater number of people depicts their reliance on utilitarian approach CITATION Guy15 \l 1033 (Jim, Brian and Miguel),

Imperative of accountability help public administrators in solving an ethical dilemma. They know that they are accountable to the parliament and the public. The thought keeps them away from taking actions that threaten their accountability. The concept of democratic virtue also explains the role of accountability in their actions and decisions. The principle of accountability will allow them to take actions that help them in fulfilling their duty. They exhibit spirits of neutrality and discretion in their official capacity in the performance of their duties. Their primary role is to adopt democratic virtues that allow them to perform their duties according to ethical values. Moral integrity is also part of their accountability allowing them to sacrifice self for the benefit of the larger population CITATION Ant02 \l 1033 (Makrydemetres). The self-sacrificing concept explains that Trump's role in making derogatory remarks is unethical as he ignored the public's benefit.

The second principle of virtue identified by utilitarian approach is imperative of legality. The principal plays a dominant role in motivating public agents to take roles that are within legal aspects. Max Weber recognizes the principle as a legitimation of authority. It states, "respect for and application of the principle of legality entails a particular type of control on the administrative action that aims to see that public administration operates within the context of the law established by the legislature (Parliament)" CITATION Ant02 \l 1033 (Makrydemetres). Trump's comments were not supported by the majority of parliamentarians that again makes him unethical. The purpose of the principle is to allow public agents inefficient decision-making that fulfils the legal conditions. The rule of law states that the agent follows the principles and conditions highlighted by justice and administration.

Counter-argument

The counter-argument states that a leader can make comments on races when they threaten the masses. The argument states that the increase in immigrants has threatened the socio-economic aspects. The majority population is facing increased challenges in employment and job markets. Trump's response reflects that he has acted in favour of masses. He justified his point by following laws and regulations, the agent does not make wrong use of his power that allows him to act according to the ethical norms. The actions that the leaders take are according to law and order. Through the adoption of laws and acting according to the defined rules, the agent acts to promote equity and justice. The principle of legality in administrative performance eliminates the chances of injustice or unfair treatment. Avoidance of abuse of power remains another effective concept of the principle of legality.

Trump has followed the principles of the imperative of integrity. The leaders to act according to the principles of virtue involves imperative of integrity. The concept of integrity according to the utilitarian approach allows public agents to exhibit professional behavior. The principle allows public agents to take profession role that eliminates the issues of ineffective management. The option of integrity emphasizes on the recruitment of the performance. It emphasizes on the measures adopted by the public agents in the promotion of corporate spirit and self-governance CITATION Guy15 \l 1033 (Jim, Brian and Miguel).

The option of the imperative of integrity will give the greatest amount of public good. The option is vital for the public leaders to make appropriate use of power and perform duties fairly. The idea of special rights and obligations also promotes integrity. It prevents the agent from engaging in wrongful conduct due to the conduction of judgment by the standards and principles of virtue. The option is most effective in preventing the public agent from focusing on self-interest. It is also significant in promoting fairness and ethical judgments CITATION Ant02 \l 1033 (Makrydemetres). The imperative of legality involves the least cost as it allows public agents to act by laws and rules defined by the justice system. The agents must act according to the law and adopt values identified in the utilitarian system. The imperative for legality permits agents to articulate system of rules and laws. The option focuses on taking actions that are according to the rule of law.

Response to counter-argument

The counter-argument is weak and does not provide adequate justification. The claims are weak because they state that Trump has acted in favor of the majority population. However, in reality, the larger American population disapproved the act of Trump. He received a great deal of criticism from the citizens that makes his position least effective. According to the ethical theory of utilitarianism, the conduct of making derogatory comments is wrong because it caused negative impacts on the larger population. The people who were directly and indirectly affected by the comments comprise of blacks and whites. A larger population of whites criticized the response of president towards the minorities. This confirms that the conduct of Trump resulted in the loss of a larger number of people.

The act of president is unethical because he neglected the ethical principle of virtue. The ethical theory of virtues states that it is wrong to cause harm to others. The comments of Trump has necessarily hurt the feelings of the minority population including blacks and Latinos. The act of Trump is unethical because making hateful or derogatory comments harm the people. His comments caused moral destruction to the African-Americans. He made them realize that they are outsiders and don’t belong to America. The principle of virtue motivates agents to avoid indulging in wrongful acts. As the option relies on personal beliefs, it does not involve monetary cost. Trump fails to act by the laws and principles thus making his comments unethical (Graham et al., 2003). The counter-argument is also weak because the president failed to take into interest the parliament or the members of the Senate. His act of making derogatory comments can be seen as an individual act.

Work Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Jim, Guy Kahane, et al. "‘Utilitarian' judgments in sacrificial moral dilemmas do not reflect impartial concern for the greater good." Cognition 134 (2015).

Makrydemetres, Anthony. "Dealing with ethical dilemmas in public administration: the 'ALIR' imperatives of ethical reasoning." (2002).

Final Essay

[Name of Student]

[Name of Professor]

[Name of Class]

[Day Month Year]

Essay

Scene of Plato’s Apology

There is no doubt that Plato’s Apology is the most famous piece of English literature. It is also the most admired text in the history of world literature. It is interesting to note that Plato did not converse anything even he did not witness the trial of Socrates as well. In Plato’s apology, there has been portrayed a scene where Socrates is defending himself and is standing for a trial in the court of Athens. By taking a look at the title, scene could be predicted as it is making a sense of justification. Another major thing that could be seen in the title is that statement given by Socrates showed no regret or sorrow. The scene that has been depicted in Plato's Apology is of speech that Socrates delivers at the time of his trial when he got charged with blasphemy.

The charge put against him was that he did not recognize the gods that were worshiped by the state and general public. Plato's Apology depicts the scene of the death of Socrates when he decides to drink the hemlock. This scene shows that three accusers came with charges against Socrates, where he is in front of the jury and is given the opportunity to prove his innocence. By taking a look at the scene and his arguments that he proposed against jury, it could be said that he was the one who accepted death but did not deny what he said or did.

Charges against Socrates

Socrates was one of the most famous Greek philosophers and he is best known for saying "knowing nothing". Another thing for which Socrates is best known is that he drank a cup of the poison hemlock. He was sentenced to death for a capital offense. There could be witnessed two main charges that were put against Socrates. First and the main charge is that he was accused of asebeia against the pantheon of Athens, which means that he did not pay respect to the gods of that time that were recognized and worshiped by the Athenian state. Blasphemy has always been a matter of great concern for people as it questions belief of all the rest who had been following set traditions since ages.

Second main charge put against Socrates was that he tried to corrupt the youth of Athens morally. He was the one who inculcated in youth a sense of raising questions against things before accepting and practicing them. Both the charges that were put against Socrates were impious. The first charge was more severe and was considered as a kind of blasphemy. It was believed that he failed to acknowledge the old gods that were worshiped by states. Rather accepting gods, he tried to introduce new deities and this was a totally unacceptable matter for the Athenian court and general public. Both charges that had been put against Socrates were because of his nature of questioning everything. He was sentenced to death as he questioned the authorities about their spirituality and it was the most sensitive matter against which they were not willing to tolerate any question that would be raising questions in the minds of youngsters regarding spirituality.

Defense of the charges

By taking a look at the scene of Socrates trail that is being depicted by Plato in his Plato’s Apology, it could be said that Socrates’ defense was one of the most impressive defenses that could ever be witnessed in the world. Defense of Socrates was quite unique as he tried to convince the jury that he was innocent and a man of average knowledge who knows nothing. He was not at all afraid of death and was just depicting how clear, clever and tenacious he was about his claims. He defended himself in best ways by saying that he doesn't morally corrupt the Athenian youth as he does not want to stay with such people who would be distracted easily. Further, he said that he doesn't want to stay with those who got corrupt. His self-defense was quite unique as he despite having any regret, was trying to convince the jury and all those who were present in court at that time. He told everyone that he never had any experience with the court so he is going to say everything true.

This defense could be called a real defense as in the trail; Socrates never showed that he at any point was asking for apology. He was not at all guilty of what he did; rather he supported things that he did with clear logic and valid reasons as his conduct was not at all apologizing. He supported his defense by explaining that his behavior is stem with the prophecy that was made by oracle at Delphi that there is no man who is smarter than him. His defense was little different than other defenses as it could be seen that despite convincing the jury in his favor, he also questions their justice system. All the points and claims that he proposed were based on true grounds and sound basis. He defended himself by claiming that he never tried to corrupt youth rather he always guided them as a paid teacher. He defended himself against both the charges by talking on some solid grounds that actually convinced the jury but it was bound to give punishment to him so that they could keep intact their conventions.

Reflection

There is no doubt that Socrates was at right as it could be seen that he was the one who supported his claims and defended himself with logic. He succeeded in delivering his points to the jury and this was his real success. As far as his innocence is concerned it could be said that he could not prove himself innocent in front of the jury and accepted the punishment to drink hemlock. It is quite obvious that if he had succeeded in proving his innocence then he would not have to drink the hemlock that he actual took (Kessler,et,al,1992). There are various reasons why he could not prove his innocence. One of the main reasons is that he really doesn't want to live among people where no one has the right to ask questions about things that used to confuse them. Another reason why he could not prove his innocence is that he believed, it is much better to suffer injustice than doing unjust to others as denying truth is just like being unjust with one’s own self.

Socrates was unsuccessful for proving his innocence because there was no expression of regret and apology as for him, he was right. Living in a democratic state means everyone has the right to do and believe whatever one wants to. He remained unsuccessful and could not prove his innocence as he was the one who always wanted to explore more and more by raising questions and he is the one who used to question all the phenomena’s and believes that they were practicing for long. He could not prove his innocence because both the charges that were put against him were true. He used to question why he has to worship the gods that were recognized by the state. This thing must be kept in consideration that he was the one who challenged the conventional society and its traditions.

Work Cited

Kessler, Gary E. Voices of wisdom: A multicultural philosophy reader. Wadsworth, 1992.

Final Exam

Student’s Name

Instructor’s Name

Course Code

Date

Personal Identity, by Hume

Personal identity is regarded as the concept which is developed by an individual him/herself and revolved around the course of life. It includes the part life, which we do not have control over, like the color of skin and where we grew up. However, Hume made a fantastic argument on personal identity. Hume stated that personal identity is about self and there is no self without perception. It is also pointed out that personal identity is self and self is regarded as what makes people distinct. This according to every perception we entered into is very different from others. The perception is what brings the existing of an individual and without perception, there is no identity. Hume argued that the element of self relies on existence which cannot be available without perception. Therefore, our knowledge of personal identity proceeds entirely from the smooth and uninterrupted programs of thoughts. The personal identity relies on how we judge people and therefore, who you are is what people thought of you and without any notions on an individual then it that person is dead.

However, it is pointed out that personal identity is about us and them. It is perceived to be based on the observation and what the mind of people builds after that. For instance, when you’re black, a woman, man or a child, the identity would be build based on how you look and therefore, it what someone becomes. Hume stated that personal identity only exists when an individual can think and build a certain level of perception regarding him or herself. When someone is a sleep or dead all idea of self is gone because an individual cannot be able to think and develop perception as well. The personal identity is therefore, used to separate individuals into groups based on the traits which are built on perception. In conclusion, according to Hume, an individual cannot exist without perception and perception is what builds what we are today.

Be is to be perceived by George Berkeley

To be is to be perceived is the idea of people can only exist when they are being perceived. Berkeley pointed out that to be perceived is the idealism idea which could mean that a person only exists in the collection of ideas that are very minded independent. In this case, it means that the existence of an objective or a person depends on what others perceived. Berkeley believed that everything which exists outside here there is a reason for existence and therefore, everything which exists there is perception or ideas about them. It could also mean that existence is based on the imaginary. For instance, you can imagine a tree outside or a cup inside a fridge and therefore, to perceive the tree and the cup become existence. Therefore, there is existence only because it is in our minds.

Without imagination or thinking in our minds of certain ideas or issues, there would be no existence. It means that whatever exists, exists only because it is in our mind and this is regarded to be perceived. For instance, if we do not have in mind or perceived that trees are outside, then definitely the trees would be in existence. It is therefore, means that to be perceived create the idea of existence and whatever we see or witness is based on our imaginaries. And therefore, according to George Berkeley to be perceived brings out the existence of people or any object. In short, the existence of objects and any other things are based on the way we perceived things and this could only happen when there is a belief of the existence of certain objects.

The Value of Philosophy, by Russell

Russell traces the major goals of philosophies. According to Russell philosophy exist because of the wrong conception which occurs at the end of life. It is also pointed out that for us to realize the value of philosophy we must first free our minds from the prejudice of what we called wrong. Without freeing our minds it would be difficult to determine the true value of philosophy. In this case, Russell means that the best way to understand the value of philosophy is to look at what the body and mind need. In the context, Russell described a person as a deficient of liberal culture. It is also pointed out that practical people will definitely recognize materials need, whether it is less aware of goods or minds. This could mean that the value of philosophy depends on the material value and the value is intrinsically different. Therefore, Russell focuses on the practical and philosophical mind in the relationship to the material value to bring an understanding of the value of philosophy. In this case, philosophy only occurs as a result of the wrong conception which occurs at the end of life of what we try so hard to achieve and strive. It is also believed that philosophy could establish the truth of certain words or matters. Russell pointed out that philosophy is established to analyze the concept and the situation. The value of philosophy could therefore, be established in uncertainty. Therefore, a man has to go through certain prejudice to establish the true meaning of his needs and therefore, the value of philosophy is developed in the mind.

First Short Paper

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[English]

[Date]

Glaucon’s Argument from the Ring of Gyges Experiment

Introduction

Glaucon was Plato’s brother. He was in search of the conclusion that if justice is superior to injustice. Glaucon argues in contradiction to Socrates’ situation of justice in Public Book II. Glaucon believed the fact that humans are unjust and selfish by nature. He believed that people supported justice because of the consequences. For instance, being fair gave one a good reputation. At the beginning of Republic Book II, Glaucon specified the three types of goods. To him, good was either desired for a person's own sake, making it inherent. Or a good was desired for own sake and the consequences attached to it. Lastly, substantial good or instrumental good. It is a bitter reality that the good one wants to do is, because of the consequences it serves. Further, we will discuss if justice precedes injustice.

Discussion

Glaucon stated that injustice is better than justice when it comes to nature. The only thing that makes us pick justice is the law. It is only natural that a person would want to do what is in their best interest. He also claimed that people would go for injustice if they had the option to, we only do the right thing because we have to. The negative consequences stop people from doing things that come to them naturally. Glaucon expressed a tale, “The ring of Gyges” to help explain his view of justice carrying comparative value, only because of our inability of doing the wrong thing.

Let us discuss the story of Gyges; The King of Lydia had a shepherd named Gyges. He came across a ring that made him invisible every time he twisted it on his finger. He used his newfound power to commit unjust acts. Gyges seduced the Queen and plotted the King's death with her, he wanted to take over the Kingdom. Gyges avoided the consequences, because of his invisibility. Based on the story, Glaucon suggested an experiment for the thought. He proposed; if two rings granted the power of invisibility, one should be given to a just man and the other given to an unjust man. At the end of the day, if the just man also turns to the unfair path, Glaucon’s view will be proved right; justice does not benefit us personally, and people will do the wrong thing if given the opportunity. Glaucon’s point was; anyone would do the same as Gyges if given the power.

If an individual could do as they pleased, they would never do the right thing. If there were no justice system, the world would become a barbaric place. People would never trust one another. The story of Gyges proves that if humanity were given this kind of power, the word "Justice" would have never existed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oINsCbU1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Notomi)","plainCitation":"(Notomi)"},"citationItems":[{"id":141,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zTPHp9Do/items/Q2FF93UE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zTPHp9Do/items/Q2FF93UE"],"itemData":{"id":141,"type":"chapter","title":"Imagination for Philosophical Exercise in Plato’s Republic: The Story of Gyges’ Ring and the Simile of the Sun","container-title":"Psychology and Ontology in Plato","publisher":"Springer","page":"1-13","author":[{"family":"Notomi","given":"Noburu"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Notomi 1-13). This also helps us understand that justice indeed is selfish. It is safe to say that within justice, lies injustice.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Glaucon stated the man who chose unjust, got respect and was rewarded. On the other hand, the person who chose to be just and fair suffered shame. Glaucon also suggested that the life of an unfair person is ultimately better than the person who decided to stay on a fair path. People are rather hypocrites, their admiration of justice is based on the terror of injustice. The whole concept of praising justice is to support the façade people have created. Glaucon also believed that justice is like a procedure. It carries value because of the security and direction it provides. The only reason the justice system exists is so the rule abusing unjust people can be removed.

Work Cited

Notomi, Noburu. "Imagination for Philosophical Exercise in Plato’s Republic: The Story of Gyges’ Ring and the Simile of the Sun." Psychology and Ontology in Plato. Springer, Cham, 2019. 1-13.

Fourth Paper- Kant/Nietzsche

Knahdeidnu

Name of Professor

Name of Class

15 March 2019

Fourth paper- Kant/Nietzsche

Take any one of Kant’s four examples (suicide, lying promise, cultivation of talents, charity) and assess whether Kant’s reasoning about it only works supposing a specific or arbitrary formulation of the relevant maxim

The Categorical Imperative (CI) was a moral theory proposed by Immanuel Kant which suggested that a person is to “act only on the maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”CITATION Kan02 \t \l 1033 (Kant). There are certain moral duties that are categorical imperatives which tell human beings how they ought to act, and thus command them to adopt certain actions. Assessing Kant’s reasoning regarding the lying promise through the CI, it is argued that his reasoning holds regarding the lying promise using specific formulations of the CI on the relevant maxim but any arbitrary formulation may not hold for it, or for all moral principles or decisions. Therefore, Kant’s four examples only enable us to rationally exhibit by means of certain formulations of the CI, how specific maxims of acts such as lying promises, which we already recognize to be immoral, are immoral

Kant held that individuals have moral responsibilities owing to their ability to exercise rational choices independently of others. To enable understanding of how the categorical imperative is to be applied, four formulations are offered. The first is the universality principle which is to “act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law” CITATION Kan02 \t \l 1033 (Kant). The second formulation “act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature” refers to the law of nature and its connection to moral law. The third formulation of the CI connects moral law to the principles of humanity, “act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means”CITATION Kan02 \t \l 1033 (Kant). The fourth formulation is concerned with autonomy and free choice which suggests that “the idea of the will of every rational being as a will giving universal law”.

For Kant, goodwill is something that carries intrinsic moral worth and is not merely good because it achieves a better end, but because it is inherently good in of itself. Subsequently, Kant proposed maxims, or generalized rules, that characterize an action’s motives. The maxim of doing what is right is indicative of a will which is good, and respect for moral law determines the moral worth of an action. Kant was of the view that speaking the truth is a duty in of itself rather than a duty because it prevented others from being injured. Thus, consequences did not matter as much as the moral essence of the action or the decision taken by the individual while exercising his rational ability. Applying the same principle, Kant proposed the example of a promise that one makes without the intention of keeping it. To be rational requires not to be self-contradictory; however, not all immoral actions may involve a self-contradiction. For instance, if an individual were to say that lying promises can be made if it achieves something desirable, it does not involve any contradiction. However, when a maxim contradicts itself once it is universalized as a law of nature, then it becomes irrational to perform. Thus, when every rational individual starts to make false promises to achieve a desirous end, this will lead to contradictions. It indicates that this particular formulation also holds.

In the case of the other example regarding suicide, a maxim which holds that suicide is rational once living brings more pain than pleasure is not moral because this cannot be made into a universal law. It is not possible for everyone to consistently will this maxim to become a universal law. Since it could only be held rational if a rational agent could consistently will this maximum to be a universal law; therefore such a maxim cannot be morally correct. Similarly, the same reasoning works in case of the lying promise. If an individual adopts the maxim that ‘When I require money, I will promise to repay the money I borrow, knowing inside that I will not repay it’, it will be morally incorrect because if no individual could consistently will such a maxim to become universal, since no one would lend money in such a world.

Another formulation by which Kant’s reasoning regarding the lying promise works, is by assessing whether one’s duties are consistent with making a lying promise. If the same maxim that ‘When I require money, I will promise to repay the money I borrow, knowing inside that I will not repay it’ is used, then could a world where such a maxim becomes universal law exist? Such a world cannot exist because if it becomes universal law, everyone would be aware of it. Thus, when someone in need of money requests the other to lend him some, that person would assume that the former is making a lying promise. However, because everyone knows this maxim, therefore the ability to deceive would not exist in a world where lying about returning money is universal law. Because it is known by all that a lying to return money is a universal law, there would be no one to buy into the idea or agree to be deceived. A contradiction thus exists, because when imagining a world where lying promises are universal, there is no room for lying or deception. This self-contradiction implies that there cannot be such a world where a maxim such as this is universal.

Furthermore, the same maxim also contradicts with the formulation of humanity and to the idea of being a human being. The maxim involves treating an individual as a means or an instrument to what one desiresCITATION Kan021 \t \l 1033 (Kant). A world where lying promises become universal law cannot have others agreeing to be lied to; therefore a common goal does not exist in the case. Moreover, by applying the CI formulation of humanity, human beings are supposed to be ends in of themselves which necessarily requires that they should be able to share a common goal or an end. Achieving such a common end is not possible in the case of universal deception, such as in the case of lying promises. Likewise, if the maxim was to be modified and restricted to a specific individual with whom a lying promise is to be made. The act would still be incorrect because of the third CI formulation and because everyone will know that being lied to is possible when an individual is in the same position as the one who proposed the maxim. Therefore, the act is morally incorrect because of the second and the third formulation of the CI given by Kant.

However, assessing whether the universalizability tests for the proposed maxims can serve as a standard for all cases of moral deliberations, if Kant’s reasoning is to be used; then it is possible that arbitrary formulations may not hold. The tests proposed by Kant are better suited to test maxims individually for their moral correctness or incorrectness but are not sufficient to provide a positive duty or moral rule. That is so because these tests help conclude that making lying promises is morally incorrect insofar as that it is not rational to perform such an action relying upon the maxim that is used for testing. It does not indicate the impossibility of certain maxims existing through which lying promises or suicide could be made universal CITATION Woo02 \l 1033 (Wood).

The formulations used as universalizability tests are also prone to produce false negatives, in which maxims that are held to be morally correct or innocent could fail a specific or arbitrary formulation. For instance, if a maxim were to exist that ‘When two cars are at a crossing, I will always allow the other car to pass first and only go second’, then morally there is nothing reprehensible about the maxim, yet it could still not be accepted as a universal law. There are many relevant maxims, related to promises, that can be made which would fail a certain formulation but would still not violate laws that are already held to be universally acceptable. Likewise, there is also a risk of false positives when testing against Kant’s formulations. These would involve maxims that are seen to be morally incorrect or impermissible under any reasonable or rational moral law, but can still pass the test according to a specific formulation. Actions may be intentional on many different levels and descriptions of specificity or generality CITATION Woo02 \l 1033 (Wood). Therefore, these formulations do not provide a universal standard to determine the extent of specificity that can be used to construct a maxim to apply Kant’s CI formulations upon, nor does it provide details of any intentional features that would be relevant to the action being morally evaluated.

In this case, it can be inferred that Kant aimed to provide an illustration of the inconsistencies in our will if we tried to make certain morally questionable maxims as universal codes of conduct. Thus, they serve as instruments to enable individuals to rationally observe how maxims that are already recognized to be morally incorrect can be demonstrated as unlawful or incorrect in light of specific formulations of the CI. It can, therefore, be concluded, that the relevant maxims to lying promises discussed by Kant hold in light of specific formulations, but it is possible for false positives or false negatives to occur owing to the nature of these formulations; therefore any arbitrary formulation may not hold for all types of maxims relevant to lying promises. Hence, moral deliberation, using Kant's reasoning, can thus generate rules that apply in particular maxims or cases, still in a flexible manner, that leave room for exercising individual judgment or discretion.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kant, Immanuel. "Transition from Common Rational Moral Cognition to Philosophical Moral Cognition." Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals 1785. Ed. Allen W. Wood. Trans. Allen W. Wood. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. 9-22.

Kant, Immanuel. "Transition from the metaphysics of morals." Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). Ed. Allen W. Wood. Trans. Allen W. Wood. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. 22-63.

Wood, Allen W. "What Is Kantian Ethics?" Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the metaphysics of morals. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. 157-183.

Free Will

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Free Will

Introduction

Free will is an innate characteristic that is possessed by human beings, a person's free actions are those actions that he/she takes as a result of his/her free will. Free will is also interconnected with freedom of movement and moral responsibility. It is also defined as a philosophical term for a particular sort of rational agents to choose a course of responses from other choices. Philosophers in every decade have discussed the idea of free will, and every philosopher had something to add to the idea. By these definitions, it is apparent that human beings make decisions according to their moral beliefs. These beliefs cause actions into motion and that produces the effect in the real world ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fW4Ak0kp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Grim, \\uc0\\u8220{}Free Will in Context\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(Grim, “Free Will in Context”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":256,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/XCJPGUX6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/XCJPGUX6"],"itemData":{"id":256,"type":"article-journal","title":"Free will in context: A contemporary philosophical perspective","container-title":"Behavioral sciences & the law","page":"183–201","volume":"25","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","shortTitle":"Free will in context","author":[{"family":"Grim","given":"Patrick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Grim n.p). Many philosophers including Plato, have discussed that whether humans have free will or not.

Discussion

Plato was the first and only philosopher in the western world to define the term of free will. He claims that free will only exists when a person is independently choosing to change his belief system, but such beliefs provide the straight cause for the application of will. Therefore, in the context of Plato, it is safe to say that while taking life decisions certain conditions are present and that influence the personal decision-making power. Hobbes was another philosopher who explained when a man considers that whether he should do a particular thing, he first thinks about the outcomes of the action being taken and also the impact of the taken action on the overall life of the individual, if the taken action is good for his future then the person will do that otherwise he /she will try another way out. The consideration of a specific action is primarily to consider the good or bad behavior of a particular thing. Hobbes feels that the action a man makes as a result of complete consideration are entirely intentional and those actions are done by full choice and election. Therefore it is safe to say that an individual only takes a specific action by considering the future outcomes and consequence on his life as a result of taking those actions, he or she is not free to take action or take the decision abruptly rather there are some determinants of the action being taken ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U9At4siK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Grim, \\uc0\\u8220{}1. The Dilemma of Determinism\\uc0\\u8221{})","plainCitation":"(Grim, “1. The Dilemma of Determinism”)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":262,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/ICRK8K44"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/ICRK8K44"],"itemData":{"id":262,"type":"article-journal","title":"1. The Dilemma of Determinism","container-title":"Behavioral Sciences and the Law","page":"183-201","volume":"25","author":[{"family":"Grim","given":"Patrick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Grim, n.p).

Although most of the people believe that they have free will because they are free to do everything but in reality, a person takes an action after considering all the factors and outcomes of that specific action. Human beings from the very start follow a particular pattern, they go to school, they get education even if they don’t like to follow the routine. There are people who only follow this pattern because they are scared that if they don’t get education they will be jobless and will not have a secure future, so the fear of the future determines their action, it is likely that if they would follow their free will they will never go to school. Despite of all these facts people still believe in free will because various psychological researches have proved that by believing in free will, a person feels confident and contended, therefore, it is beneficial for the mental health of a person ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VdLFURBz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today})","plainCitation":"(Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1683,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/HCXPHIMK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/HCXPHIMK"],"itemData":{"id":1683,"type":"webpage","title":"Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today","URL":"https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/proceed-your-own-risk/201311/do-we-have-free-will","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,20]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today).

Plummeting feeling of self-rule can make a person violent and stranded. As long as people are aware that only they have control over their lives and they are free to choose everything then they are happy and satisfied, the moment they realize that they don’t have a free choice and there are determinants of their actions then they become irritated and unsatisfied, therefore it is important to make them realize that they have control over their lives and free to take their own decisions. The topic of free will was on the list of debate of philosophers from so many years that whether all humans possess free will or not? Until recently neuroscientists and psychologists enter the discussion by explaining the brain role in the open will dilemma. Several influential neurological studies showed that the brain illuminates with activity before an individual becomes determinedly aware of a decision. They further argue independently made decision activates the brain activity when they made choices out of there free will ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xXeoBoKp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today})","plainCitation":"(Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1683,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/HCXPHIMK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/HCXPHIMK"],"itemData":{"id":1683,"type":"webpage","title":"Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today","URL":"https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/proceed-your-own-risk/201311/do-we-have-free-will","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,20]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today).

Conclusion

On the basis of all these philosophies and discussions that are mentioned above and the modern studies about the brain response to free will, it is safe to say that humans have no free will. Because whatever decision we make and whatever choice we go for we do it by considering all the possible outcomes and the effect of those choices on our future life. Therefore, the decision we make is basically dependent on the outcomes and what type of life we will be living after taking the decision. We take very calculated risks because as human beings we all want a safe and secure experience. Before making any decision, we first consider the potential outcomes if the outcome is good and it involves less risk we take the decision otherwise we go for alternatives. That means that we do not have a free will, whatever we do, we do under the pressure of a happy and healthy life.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Do We Have Free Will? | Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/proceed-your-own-risk/201311/do-we-have-free-will. Accessed 20 Apr. 2019.

Grim, Patrick. “1. The Dilemma of Determinism.” Behavioral Sciences and the Law, vol. 25, 2007, pp. 183–201.

“Free Will in Context: A Contemporary Philosophical Perspective.” Behavioral Sciences & the Law, vol. 25, no. 2, 2007, pp. 183–201.

Free Will And Determinism

Kayla Bilyard

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Free will and Determinism

Since ages, a long debate has been taking place on free will vs determinism. Free will describes the ability to apply our own judgments to certain actions. How people react to different situations or act according to the restraints. However, determinism says that reactions or behavior are due to some cause. The action or reaction of a person has some reason or logic behind it. It also presents the idea that free will is just a delusion because our behavior is somehow greatly affected by external and internal factors. Sometimes, we do not have control over things and our further actions are based on such factors thus predicting our next move.

The concept of free will says that a person has the choice of his acts and behavior according to his own willpower. A person has a capacity to perform actions according to his own choice regardless of the factors and environment he surrounds. Free will can also be apprehended as self-determination; the choice of controlling his life according to his own destiny.

Basis of science is shaped by the laws of determinism. If we study the factors deeper, external forces are described as the factors which are not a part of any individual, rather are the outside causes which directly affect the performance of a person. They can be influence of parents, friends, media or the environment. Internal forces are the factor that has an angle based on biological viewpoint. A specie can perform actions against his nature due to mental and physical health conditions. Personality traits plays a significant role in affecting one’s behavior. The neurological and hormonal process in one’s body can trigger many actions which a part of someone’s personality and nature are not usually not.

It is assumed that a person has make his own decisions and are completely self-determined. Let’s suppose, a person has full authority over his actions to commit a crime.

For better understanding, here is an example. Someone visits a bakery to buy cake to complete festival preparations of a national holiday. The important note is that person is left with only 10-dollars bill and the cake available is 10 dollars too. There are other shops open at this hour, suggesting that if that person wills to buy a cake, this is his only option available to spend all he had and buy the last cake at only open shop. As that person takes steps towards the shop, he sees a person sitting outside the door with a box in his hands. He is collecting donations for the famine victims. The persons stop on seeming him. He is clear with the idea that he can choose as he likes. He can choose to eat or donate. Now the note-worthy point here is that whatever option he chooses, to eat or donate, he is free to decide but whenever he decides, he will be held morally responsible for it. This argument is called Basic Argument and according to which, there is not concept of determinism. The central idea to it is people perform action for a reason when it comes to free action. Also, it is must for a person to be in a critical mind state to make a decision, for which he can be held morally responsible. However, no one can be held absolutely morally responsible. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KRSi3NM9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rosen et al.)","plainCitation":"(Rosen et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":19,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/6144444/items/FFJJ3KBV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/6144444/items/FFJJ3KBV"],"itemData":{"id":19,"type":"book","title":"The Norton Introduction to Philosophy","publisher":"W. W. Norton & Company","number-of-pages":"14","source":"Google Books","abstract":"Edited by a team of four leading philosophers, The Norton Introduction to Philosophy introduces students to contemporary perspectives on major philosophical issues and questions. This text features an impressive array of readings, including 25 specially-commissioned essays by prominent philosophers. A student-friendly presentation, a handy format, and a low price make The Norton Introduction to Philosophy as accessible and affordable as it is up-to-date.","ISBN":"978-0-393-93220-1","note":"Google-Books-ID: qGyQDAAAQBAJ","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Rosen","given":"Gideon"},{"family":"Byrne","given":"Alex"},{"family":"Cohen","given":"Joshua"},{"family":"Shiffrin","given":"Seana Valentine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",1,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rosen et al.)

We can observe that someone who gives an excuse that he had to do something and had no other choice, actually wanted to do that very act and did not consider other options. Thus, theory of alternate possibilities suits to apply here. It suggests that one cannot be held responsible for an act he did if he had no other option. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YWITj7y2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Frankfurt)","plainCitation":"(Frankfurt)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":22,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/6144444/items/45HUNPJP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/6144444/items/45HUNPJP"],"itemData":{"id":22,"type":"book","title":"Alternate possibilities and Moral Reponsibilities","URL":"https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.101502!/file/frankfurt-alt-poss.pdf","author":[{"family":"Frankfurt","given":"Harry G."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,14]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Frankfurt)

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Frankfurt, Harry G. Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibilities. https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.101502!/file/frankfurt-alt-poss.pdf. Accessed 14 Nov. 2019.

Rosen, Gideon, et al. The Norton Introduction to Philosophy. W. W. Norton & Company, 2015.

Freedom And Necessity

In “Freedom and Necessity”, A. J. Ayer talks about freedom, free will and necessity of having a free will. In his paper, Ayer took two positions i.e. regarding the dilemma of determinism and favoring a compatibilist approach. In his argument, Ayer specifically emphasized on the concept of ‘cause’ and being ‘constrained’ in an attempt to practice free will. Ayer is of the opinion that the problem of free will has been the composite result of assumptions i.e. men with free will are morally responsible for their actions, and that the human attitude and behavior is the result of certain causal laws.

In order to overcome the determinism dilemma, Ayer presented a comprehensive compatibilist solution. According to this approach, freedom is only possible within a deterministic scenario or context. This means that no human beings act freely as their actions are governed or caused by certain causal laws. They cannot practice a free will. If they approach to be acting freely, their actions are probably occurring by chance which again means that a certain causal law is acting behind to promote those actions, behaviors and attitude. Therefore, it can be stated that human beings, in a practical world, do not act freely.

However, I personally disagree to this notion. I believe that it is not only the causal laws or the chance by which our actions and behaviors occur. Instead, another force that triggers our actions and choice is our inner conscience and our self-determination. There can be certain causal actions that may not be satisfying our conscience and moral philosophy. Therefore we may tend to act deviant from those causes. How would this phenomenon be justified then? I believe that our morality, ethicality and self-determination hold a significant power to govern, control and provoke our free will or actions.

Gadfly Notion, Why Does Socrates Embrace This And How Gadfly Compares To Humans In Modern Society

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[English]

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Philosophy

The term gadfly was used by Plato for Socrates in his book, “Five Dialogues”. The term infers Socrates' relationship to the people of Athens where Athens is termed as a sluggish horse. The context of term highlights the ideology of Socrates that was an irritant for the political authorities of Athens. According to Plato, Socrates was a gadfly who was much too easy to swat, but the consequences of this swat could be devastating and hampering for both youth and the intellectuals. (Plato). The earliest description of gadfly ethics can be found in the assertion that Socrates said if you kill a man like me you are going to injure yourself. (Plato). A comparison with the present time highlights that today world and society is again like a sluggish horse that is unaware of its surroundings and blinded by rote direction and materialistic approaches, while Socrates’ teachings invite critical thought and varied approachs. Today, man is more like a gadget in the hand of the political manipulators and ethic designers who made their wishes code of conduct and human will is left behind in the walk of self-interest. (Pater, et, al. 2019). Today, what matters for every individual is the social strata that cannot be maintained without being mean and success is the measure of resources and illegal ways that are used to fulfill the materialistic desires of authorities. (Pater, et, al. 2019). There is no space for humanity because it is imprisoned in the pages of history, what prevails is “self-interest” that has compromised the life of a number of people but it hardly matters because the difference between humanity and being human is mitigated in the rush of life. In a nutshell, it can be concluded that a practical approach to teachings of Socrates would diminish the “life spectrums” of today’s individual where “I” comes first and it would be gadfly. Today knowledge is confined to gadgets and deception where survival is dependent on artificial luxuries.

Work Cited

Plato: Five Dialogues. "https://www.google.com/search?biw=1680&bih=788&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei= HwCXYrfBYr0-gSG77rYDQ&q=plato+five+dialogues&oq=plato+five+&gs l=img.3.0.35i39j0i30j0i24l8.25672.26406..27310...0.0..0.140.774.0j6......0....1..gws-wiz-img.......0i67j0.e8IJjoz4ij8#imgrc=p6tFxG03uWk3MM

Pater, Walter. Plato and Platonism. BoD–Books on Demand, 2019.

God's Existence In The Cosmological Argument

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God’s Existence in the Cosmological Argument

The cosmological argument is a posteriori argument that strives to prove the existence of God. It is an argument that uses external observations and experiences in order to prove its conclusion. It looks at the functionality of our universe, causation and order, as these are the things that we experience in the universe and by the principles of essentialism, and these have to come from somewhere.

The argument primarily reaches the conclusion that these things come from God and there are many advocates of the cosmological argument, beginning from Plato and Aristotle, but significant developments for its understanding started to arise in the thirteenth century during the times of Thomas Aquinas and Samuel Clarke. The argument has two parts which are distinct from each other. It is an inductive argument which leads to drawing of a conclusion and it can only persuade its followers about the reasonable nature of its conclusion. According to William Rowe, this argument wants us to accept that the cause of universe is what we associate with a higher deity or God. Putting it another way, it deconstructs the premise that why is there a universe at all. Based on the law of cause and effect, the primary cause can be traced back to the scientifically approved Big Bang Theory. If the idea of infinite regress is rejected, which asserts that the universe has always existed, and if there is a possibility that this chain of events cannot go on forever, then there must be a first cause. Rowe further maintains that if that first cause in not part of this universe, then it not bound by time or the physical properties of matter and energy.

Something which is not physical, is not bound by time, and is not caused can be considered as spiritual, eternal, and necessary respectively. A being which is spiritual, necessary and eternal, and is the cause for creating this universe is called as God by many people. Thus, according to the cosmological argument, the first cause is God.

Two objections to the argument

The advocate of the argument treats the vast collection of all the dependent beings and their chain as though it itself is an independent being an in this process, there is a requirement of a sound explanation of its existence. But the process of objection continues to go on, that the collection of dependent beings is itself a dependent being in the true essence.

The proponent also infers deductively that if all the members of the group of dependent beings have a cause of their existence, then the collection of those dependent beings must also be having a cause. This is also a criticism to the argument but in the notes of Bertrand Russell, this inference is prone to a high chance of fallacy as it mirrors with the analogy that if all the members of human race which in this case is the collection of human beings have a mother, then the human race must also have a mother. This fallacy can lead the argument towards a contradiction among its premises.

Even though the cosmological argument faces heavy critique, it also presents us with a large variety of various points and as reconstructed by William Rowe, succeeds in proving the existence of God. The logical progression as presented by the argument does not seem irrational because it provides the followers with an opportunistic perspective of the creation of universe.

Although Big Bang contradicts the cosmological argument according to the reconstruction of this essay, both agree that the universe has a definite starting point.

Works Cited

Rowe, William L. The cosmological argument. Fordham Univ Press, 1998.

Happiness

Happiness

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Happiness is the most uncertain and expensive thing in the world. Perhaps every person at least once in his life thought about what a happy life should be. I also think about it sometimes. I want to understand what I have to do in order to make my existence just that which corresponds to this very happy life. Happiness is when people smile because they have surprised someone with a gift, pleased them with a pleasant compliment, helped carry heavy bags, danced together in the rain, looked at the stars or saw gratitude in the eyes of the mongrels for the little sausage. This is the minute of the case, and the heat warms the whole day (Veenhoven, 1991).

To become happy do not need money, securities, expensive things and possession of well-known companies. Happiness is a state of the soul, which means that moral values ​​and good deeds play a key role here. Often I hear someone sigh enviously, looking at someone rich: “Here he has a happy life, he is rich. Not that I am!” But it’s possible that this rich, busy person in turn envies a loving family man who has enough time to take care of his relatives. For someone, a happy life will come when he will help a large number of people, for another - when he will gain fame and honor. I think that the concept of "happy life" cannot be universal. It is very subjective (Kahneman, 1999).

Everyone sees a happy life different. And then, when we feel unhappy, someone is convinced that it is not. It all depends on how you look at your life. It is better to do it with optimism and be content with what we have. In the end I want to say that in order for life to be happy, you just need to be happy. There is no other way to achieve this life(Veenhoven, 2013).

Happiness is a subjective concept and it is unlikely that anyone will be able to find a universal explanation for this word. For some, life is happy, when close relatives are smiling, a successful career has developed, there is no constraint in money, every weekend they are accompanied by trips abroad. And this list can go on for millions of pages, because all seven billion people have different worldviews. And in what I see happiness?

Freedom lies in the possibility of self-expression and acceptance of this fact by other people (choice of education, hobbies, friends, future work, and even the environment). This is impossible without equality. After all, what kind of freedom can be discussed if the rich do not see the problems of the poor, and the underprivileged, in turn, offend the rich for his successes. People are so blind and stubborn that they don’t even want to remove the bandage of stereotypes from their eyes and hold hands. But it is worth a little bit to become kinder and expose human love (Ryff, 1989).

To conclude, happiness is good, positive or sublime. the inner state of your soul (a large amount of positive emotions, peace of mind of a person) and doing things you love. Happiness is the most uncertain and expensive thing in the world. Happiness is very special feeling of any person. It brings joy and love among people. Because in that the moment we do what we love we experience positive emotions. For me, being a teacher is happiness, because communication with children always gives me pleasure. They are all so different. and interesting. It is interesting to communicate with them; it is interesting to know them.

References

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069.

Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology, 3(25), 1-23.

Veenhoven, R. (1991). Is happiness relative?. Social indicators research, 24(1), 1-34.

Veenhoven, R. (2013). Conditions of happiness. Springer Science & Business Media.

Happiness And Well-Being

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Happiness and Well-Being

Introduction

Every person wants to lead a peaceful and happy life. People go to great lengths in order to search for happiness. Some seek happiness in different things, some find happiness in spending time with family, some seek happiness in partying, some find peace of mind in reading, while others find solace in charity. However, happiness is not a material thing that can be bought from the market; nor it is a trait or characteristic that can be developed in a person. Happiness is a very important topic of discussion in the areas of psychology and philosophy. Many experts, scholars, researchers, psychologists and philosophers have been struggling to find the actual reason behind happiness. The upcoming details discuss the theory of happiness presented by a successful researcher, Ed Diener, and its comparison with what I personally believe happiness is.

Discussion

Ed Diener’s Views about Happiness

Ed Denier, commonly known as “Dr. Happiness” is a well-known researcher and lecturer in the subject of positive psychology and has extensive research experience of more than twenty-five years on this topic. He is also the coiner of the term “Subjective Well Being´ or SWB, which means that happiness is a trait that can be empirically measured. Diener argues that the aspect of happiness is not directly related to the money or wealth of a person but to our social relations. Dr. Happiness states that humans are generally programmed to be happy, and even the most devastating situations like an accident or tragedies make them sad only temporarily. Diener has mentioned in his studies that although the level of income has increased significantly, the individuals belonging to well-off families are not much happy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WFC6YYRP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Diener and Happiness})","plainCitation":"(Diener and Happiness)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":22,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/aDSOzgCJ/items/DW4EIY5L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/aDSOzgCJ/items/DW4EIY5L"],"itemData":{"id":22,"type":"post-weblog","abstract":"Ed Diener, aka “Dr. Happiness” is a leading researcher in positive psychology who coined the expression “subjective well-being” or SWB as the aspect of happiness that can be empirically measured.","language":"en-US","title":"Diener and Happiness","URL":"https://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-of-happiness/ed-diener/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,28]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Diener and Happiness). It was observed from various experiments that people who had healthy social relationships were much happier as compared to the people who had high salaries but less social relations.

Personal Views about Happiness

I somewhat agree with the concept of happiness presented by Dr. Ed Diener but not completely. In my opinion, the actual reason of happiness presented by Ed Diener is social relations; spending time with people, especially your family and friends, gives you great mental peace and satisfaction, stands to be partially valid. The only way in which you can get happiness from social relationships or bonding is that you do not expect anything from the people, even your friends and family. You can actually find happiness by finding or achieving a state of accomplishment. Happiness can also be found in traveling or in the activities of the charity. Such things not only give peace to the mind but also relax your soul.

Conclusion

Hence, it can be concluded that the pursuit of happiness is not linked to any materialistic things or the wealth of a person. It is a pursuit that can be obtained by self-accomplishment and satisfaction. The aspect of self-satisfaction can also be obtained by taking part in charitable activities, which also leads to happiness and a sense of accomplishment. Spending time with your loved ones also becomes a cause of happiness and increases mental health.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Diener and Happiness. https://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-of-happiness/ed-diener/. Accessed 28 Jan. 2020.

Heraclitus

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Heraclitus philosophy on the nature of things

Of all the sages of ancient Greece, none appear as a mysterious and as interesting as Heraclitus of Ephesus. The first thing that strikes Heraclitus, when he looks at the visible world, it is the universal change that is in the things. Everything changes and varies; everything crumbles; nothing remains. For Heraclitus, everything flows like a river: the universe is like a mass of water in incessant movement.

Heraclitus compares the universe to a huge home everything is made of fire because nothing is more mobile or more insane as fire. Fire is the primordial stuff of the universe. This common subject to all things are eternal: in this Heraclitus does not differ other wise men of antiquity. “This world," he says, "the same for all beings, no gods and men did not create it, but it was always, and it will always be a fire eternally alive, lighting up with measuring and extinguishing with the measure. "Indeed, inside this universe of fire, multiple transformations: "The transformations of fire are first the sea, and the sea is half land, and half wind." (Hussey88) So the sea is the first to come out of the fire, it is like the seed of all things, and it is she who, by successive transformations, will produce the earth and the sky and everything they contain.

This fixed law which governs the transformations of fire is the law of opposites because the birth of a being is the death of others, and the destruction of a thing is the production of another. Things are turning into their opposite: life becomes dead, the day becomes night. Heraclitus then clearly affirms the existence of a lying all beings (Kahn,127).

The universe is an immense river where everything starts and drowns in an endless whirlwind. Above, pre-sinking by his thought to the struggle of things, there is the immutable Wisdom. Between the divine world and the world of becoming, there has a multitude of other realities, extremely mysterious: the "daemons." (Stern603).

They do not understand how what is fighting can agree: movements in the opposite direction, as for the bow or the lyre. "Immortals, mortals; mortal, immortal; our death is the life of the first, and their life our death. "In other words, when we are born, an immortal die, and when we die, an immortal comes to life. Which is mortal, it is the man, but what is immortal ?( Minar323).

Heraclitus advocates that fire and everything can be transformed into each other. He believes that there are a certain scale and logos in the burning of fire. The reason is that the fire is the most refined of the elements and is the closest thing to the absence of form; more importantly, fire is both sporty and can move other things.

Finally, after a while, because, for Heraclitus, time is played just like a child and happens at the end of everything, the universe will return to its original form, by inverse transformations. Everything will return to the fire, and nothing cannot escape. The fire saw the death of the earth, and the air saw the death of fire; the water lives the death of the air and the earth that of the water.

Concludingly for him one thing leads to another thing, such as the fire turns into water, and the fire disappears into the new form of existence. Everything becomes its opposite, so everything is the unity of opposite nature. Nothing has the same nature, and nothing has an eternal character. In this sense, everything exists and does not exist. With this kind of opposition, there is a world. His attitude towards war is clear. Heraclitus emphasizes the variability of things. The movement of things is carried out according to some inherent law. Heraclitus calls this law "logos," which is the earliest thought of the regularity in the West. Heraclitus said that this "logos" is the inevitability of guiding and controlling everything, which is met by most people every day, and this inevitability is the law of movement of things.

Work cited

Hussey, Edward. "5 Heraclitus." The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy (1999):

88.

Kahn, Charles H., ed. The art and thought of Heraclitus: A new arrangement and translation of

the fragments with literary and philosophical commentary. Cambridge University Press, 1981.127-130

Minar Jr, Edwin L. "The logos of Heraclitus." Classical Philology 34.4 (1939): 323-341.

Stern, David G. "Heraclitus' and Wittgenstein's river images: stepping twice into the same river."

The Monist 74.4 (1991): 579-604.

Hinduism

Hinduism

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Hinduism

Q1.Brahma, atman, samsara and moksha are some of the main concepts of Hinduism. At the same time, different texts from Bhagavad Gita reflect on these concepts. Braham is a Sanskrit word which refers to magnificent power beyond this world. This power is to uphold and support everything in the world. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Kirshna reflects on the concept of Brahaman by using the words, “eternal source of all”. It covers two concepts one is the unlimited power and the other is the “eternal self”. Atman is the right word for “everlasting self” or ‘spirit”. It is all about spirituality and Hinduism philosophy emphasizes on detachment from material world to satisfy atman. Likewise, Samsara is the continuous process of reincarnation which is a complete cycle. According the Hinduism philosophy any soul is immortal and it is reborn again and again. On the other side, Moksha is the process through which a person gets free from the cycle of reincarnation. As the Lord Krishna says in Bhagavad Gita that “these creatures return to unmanifested matter” and “I send them fourth again”. In addition, Karma is the action and it is similar to the law that every action has an equal reaction. Every good action a person performs will have an equal good reaction. For instance, there is a text from Bhagavad Gita in which Krishna promises that, “Those who worship”, “I will provide for their needs”.

Q2. However, there are few concepts of social injustice embedded by the Brahman Hindu caste. It has introduced different caste systems in Hinduism, and it discriminates against the lowest caste (untouchables) in this category. Many of the philosophers criticized on this system and Mahatma Gandhi was one of them. He fought against such extremist concepts in Hinduism. He used the words, “This evil has stuck to us and still remains with us”, against the division of people into caste system. He further stated that it is a sin against God and human beings. Nothing is good about categorizing human beings as untouchables. He criticized the Brahamans that these are “selfish Motives” where they consider themselves high and other people low. Using his philosophy he changed the typical concepts about untouchables. He told the people about the other religions of the world which call God as friend of helpless people. He used a word “Harijan” that means “a man of God” for the weak people. He described untouchables as the men of God, because they were helpless and miserable. However, Gandhi’s beliefs changed the minds of many Indians. It was a turning point in Hinduism, and Gandhi’s efforts minimized the consequences of caste system.

Q3.The concept of divine varies in different traditions of Hinduism. As Hinduism is considered as the oldest religion, it has many gods. However, some of the Hindu concepts claim that they worship many gods who are under one supreme God; there are different names for all the deities. The four main deities of Hinduism are Shiva, Shakti (Devi), Vishnu and Smarta. All of the deities are linked with each other and they are responsible for specific functions. However, polytheism has never affected the Hinduism. They are very tolerant to other religions and they think that each religion has its own ways to reach the one supreme God. At the same time, all the deities have equal powers under the Hindu view. All the followers of Hinduism equally worship all the deities without denying the existence of other gods. Also, they remember the supreme one as the above of all. However, the concepts of Divine varies in Hindu Tradition from time to time.

Home Work

Philosophy

Client Name

Name of University

Philosophy

Question 1 (part 1)

The second scene titled “No Country for Old Men : Scene 2: I feel overmatched” clearly predicts that the world has not changed with the advent of time but has always been somewhat of an evil place. While the same movie presents a scene showing how unremorseful a killer of a young fourteen year old girl is; the second scene from the movie shows that world has always had people like him. The second scene shows an old guy stating “You got ain’t nothing new, this country is hard on people” indicating how the morales of the society have never changed with time but instead dictate the actions of others as well.

Question 1 (part 2)

The emotions that powered Franz’s emotions to save his enemies’ lives was that of humanity. Being a personal victim of war and having to lose his brother in the cross fire, he was personally hurting. When confronted with a situation when he could hurt the enemy and take his revenge however, Franz decided to help them instead because it was something that he would have wanted for his brother to have as well. A chance to save lives and chose compassion, forgiveness and humanity over brutal killings in the name of war was what guided Franz’s behavior that day.

Question 1 (part 3)

Judge Caprio according to me is showing in-depth wisdom while making decision for her. The woman was at a loss owing to the death of her child. Death of any child or infant would shake any individual and so the woman grieved in her pain. Judge Caprio not only took sound decisions, but acted wisely on them, taking in to account her personal suffering before passing any decision. I personally vouch for him since I believe that a good leader isn’t about following the rules but instead it is about knowing when and how to make exceptions to the rules.

Question 2

Paragraph 1

I believe that the comment is right on moral grounds. If a judge made a decision based on empathy, he would make a morally sound judgment. Empathy is all about being sensitive to other people's needs and feeling what they feel. It is like standing in the other person's shoes and going through the same scenarios. Various reasons make empathy in the case of judging others important. For instance, a person having empathy cares, had better inter interaction, builds rapport, strengthens relation with another. If you possess empathy, you can get someone to mentor and you will sure do a good job. The mentee under your guidance can build a successful career. Hence, instead of punishing a grieving person and adding to their pain, the use of empathy can go a long way.

Paragraph 2

The comment indicates clearly that there is a major difference between a criminal and a bad guy. Indeed, this may be the case since to me the definition of a criminal is someone who is looking to actually indulge in a crime, regardless of the circumstances. But a person is able to do something wrong and feel remorse for it and might not even know that they were doing wrong making them a bad person in the situation but definitely not a criminal. Hence, we not to separate our definitions of both kind of individuals before passing verdicts for any of them.

Paragraph 3

Our justice system is flawed to its very core. It defines a person to be a murderer if he gets caught in the act or the proof of burden lies down upon him. But, if the same murderer never gets caught, he is never labelled as a criminal in his life. I believe this is grossly unfair and unjust to the entire society and we need to update our understanding of criminality.

Homework

Homework

[Author’s name]

Homework

Essay 1

Introduction

Individuals have to go through with different phases of transition that influence their functioning in lives. The impact of different stages of cognitive development also appears in the form of various domains of interactions. It is established that change in the form of development stage eventually appears as the change in case of parent-child and child-peer interactions and active involvement. Here the particular focus is to figure out how parent-child and child-peer involvements change from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood.

Discussion

Adolescence and adulthood are established as the phases that increase social interaction of individuals. This particular development eventually influences their communication level with the parents and peers. Both these stages enhance the domain of independence for the individuals as compared to the phase of childhood ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t7qDC4ZC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Myers & DeWall, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Myers & DeWall, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1127,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/7Hi3kAOD/items/SE6KY3N9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/7Hi3kAOD/items/SE6KY3N9"],"itemData":{"id":1127,"type":"book","title":"Exploring Psychology","publisher":"Worth Publishers","URL":"https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=0_xqCwAAQBAJ","ISBN":"978-1-319-01801-6","author":[{"family":"Myers","given":"D. G."},{"family":"DeWall","given":"C. N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Myers & DeWall, 2016). People have the liberty to make crucial decisions of their lives that influence their choices of interaction with their peers and parents. Children-Peers or children- parents relationship change in adolescence as compare to childhood because there are higher chances of conflicts between both the stakeholders when individuals have the authority to take decisions independently. The changing social environment during the phases of adolescence and adulthood mostly encourage individuals to anticipate that their parents are turned as harsh and controlling authorities for them. The change between the relationship and interaction between children and parents also appears because parents start perceiving their children as non-cooperative and stubborn individuals due to their rapidly changing thoughts.

Conclusion

Lastly, I want to figure out how significantly my relationships with my caregivers change in the time-period of adolescence and adulthood. The stage of adolescence has changed my interaction with parents because I am now more inclined to figure out every aspect based on logical reasoning. As an adult, I am trying to explore the consequences of every paradigm and never obey parents blindly. This specific prospect has eventually changed my interaction with my peers.

References

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Exploring Psychology. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=0_xqCwAAQBAJ

Essay 2

Introduction

The aspect of brain development impacts the behavior of individuals when it comes to their interaction with others. It is noteworthy to consider that the life stage of adolescence established as the phase when teenagers start increasing their interaction with the external environment. This particular approach causes different forms of changes in their behavior. It is observed that teenagers are more frustrated and hostile because they come up with different and new life experiences on a daily basis. Here the main focus is to critically analyze how the maturity of the brain can be helpful for the teenager to better deal with the problem of frustration.

Discussion

It is established by the counselor that the issue of teenager’s frustration can overcome through the improvement in the behavior. The counsellor comes up with the statement that this form of improvement is effectively possible with the passage of time as his brain matures. It is interesting to assess how the maturity of the brain can be helpful for the teenager to better handle the issue of frustration. Brain maturation is identified as one of the crucial aspects of the overall development of the individual during the time-period of adolescence. Memorization capacities further increase the teenager’s approach to understand the different aspects or consequences of different strategies and their actions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zEDQiunA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Romeo, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Romeo, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1126,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/7Hi3kAOD/items/3AW3LA29"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/7Hi3kAOD/items/3AW3LA29"],"itemData":{"id":1126,"type":"article-journal","title":"The teenage brain: The stress response and the adolescent brain","container-title":"Current directions in psychological science","page":"140-145","volume":"22","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Romeo","given":"Russell D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Romeo, 2013). The maturity of the brain helps individual to properly inhibit to different forms of automotive, reactive, and emotional impulses. This specific domain can be helpful for the teenager to regulate his behavior according to the actual requirements of the situation.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it is essential to establish that the brain maturity further helps teenagers to enhance their developmental skills and adopt different measures to successfully deals with the issue of frustration. Brain development provides necessary assistance to the individuals when it comes to the utilization of various disciplines and actions according to the actual requirements of the situation.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Romeo, R. D. (2013). The teenage brain: The stress response and the adolescent brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(2), 140–145.

Homework

Intellectual virtues refer to deep personal qualities and good habits of the mind that enable us to achieve truth, knowledge, and understanding necessary for us to flourish as humans. Intellectual virtues include qualities like curiosity, open-mindedness, attentiveness, intellectual courage, intellectual tenacity, intellectual autonomy, intellectual thoroughness, and intellectual humility. These characteristics emphasize the fact that learning and good thinking have an ethical and character-based aspect to them, which come from practicing these intellectual virtues.

One of the intellectual virtues which I think I am strong at is intellectual autonomy. It refers to the ability and willingness to think for oneself. I consider myself strong in this ability because when it comes to making a decision, I make it on my own and do not let anyone make that for me. Although I listen to what my parents or my friends have to say about something but, in the end, I make my own decisions, which at times might be different from what others advised me with. It is important to me to think through things by myself and evaluate different situations to arrive at a decision. Moreover, I tend to reflect over what others might do if they were in my position, and talk about things that are going on in my life with them; nevertheless, I still form my own decisions by logically approaching the matter while trusting my judgment, knowledge, and life experiences. In addition, I do not seek other people’s approval or validation for my decision, if I truly believe something to be right. I will, thus, take action based upon it regardless of whether others confirm or disapprove of it. For instance, if a friend wants me to tell her about any negative characteristics or habits that she has, I would tell her the truth without being afraid of whether she may not like hearing it. I would rather tell the truth and be honest with her instead of lying.

One intellectual virtue that I think I am lacking in is my sense of curiosity. I feel like sometimes I am not curious and motivated enough to search for some of the questions that I do not yet have answers for. It may be because I feel entitled to getting all the answers and when I do not get them, I become upset. I often forget the fact that if I choose to know something and find a way to acquire knowledge about it, I may get the answer I am looking for; instead of completely ignoring that question and trying to move on with other subjects. It often happened to me, while I was growing up, that I would have some questions regarding God and prayers. I kept asking those questions from my parents and would often get answers such as, “when you grow you will understand and find them out yourself." However, as I grew older, I did manage to find the answers to some of those questions, but my lack of curiosity impeded me to obtain answers to all of them. I realize that I have to overcome this weakness because, in academics, a lack of curiosity may hinder my ability to understand the subject matter. It is out of a fundamental need to know answers to questions, which develop within a student’s mind, which ultimately drive them to grasp difficult concepts.

Therefore through this semester, I have planned to write down some questions that I might have and ask about the things that fascinate me, not simply by trying to look for them online, but through actual conversations and cross-questioning people in my community.

Homework

Homework

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Homework

Summary 1

Author: Christian Nordqvist

Title: What is psychology and what does it involve?

Source: Medical News Today

Date of publication: 1-02-2018

The article generally explains about psychology and its branches. According to the author human mind is extremely complex and it is therefore, it is very difficult to understand any mental disorder because these disorders are not visible physically. The author described various branches of psychology that include clinical psychology, developmental psychology, Forensic, evolutionary psychology, and social, health psychology. This article is very useful for beginners that are interested in the field of psychology as it provides a complete guide about branches of psychology that correlate to multiple career options also how vast this field is (Nordqvist, 2018).

Summary 2

Author: Adler, A.

Title: Individual psychology. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 1987

In this paper, the author provides a complete guide about how every person is different and how the perspective of every person is different from others. He argued that humans are always striving to achieve superiority especially children having any disability or spoiled children. This desperation to achieve superiority leads an individual to involve in criminal activities or making decisions that have serious consequences. However, modern psychology and education can help an individual to cope with the inferiority complex. The best thing about this paper is that it focuses more on individuality because traditionally in psychology same old methods and theories are applied to every person which is wrong as every person is different and their thought process is also different. It is therefore important to analyze the person and then help them according to their psychological needs.

Summary 3

Author: Elizabeth Whittaker & Robin M. Kowalski

Title: Cyberbullying Via Social Media

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 25-09-2014

In this paper, the author discussed one of the major issues prevailing in our society that is cyberbullying and how to prevent it. Generally, most of the cyberbullying is done on a social media platform and people of every age group or any social status are targeted. The author conducted a survey using different college students to determine the methods used for cyberbullying and the result showed that texting and social media is the platform used for cyberbullying. This paper provides an insight into how the misuse of social media platforms leads to cyberbullying and how it affects people of every age group (Whittaker & Kowalski, 2015).

Summary 4

Author: James and William M

Title: Exposure to Violence in Young Inner-City Adolescents: Relationships with Suicidal Ideation, Depression, and PTSD Symptomatology

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 11-02-1999

In this paper, the author discussed the effects of violence exposure on the health of children and adolescents. Many pieces of research have shown that exposure to violence in early childhood can cause severe mental issues like depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, etc. These children also develop suicidal tendencies when they grew up. The author further used different methods like the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) to evaluate the symptoms of depression among adolescents. This paper helps a lot in understanding how violence can leave a long-term impact on the human brain (Mazza & Reynolds, 1999).

Summary 5

Author: Lydia Fehm

Title: Performance anxiety in gifted adolescent musicians

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 1-11-2004

In this paper, the author focused on the performance anxiety that can negatively affect and individual mental health especially children. Performance anxiety is a major issue that music students face. For this purpose, the author conducted a study in which he explored the performance anxiety in adolescents attending German music school. The results showed that one-third of the students were handicapped by their anxiety and students asked their teachers to help them cope up with the anxiety. The paper is very useful for students who wanted to pursue music education (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006).

Summary 6

Author: Thomas L. Sexton

Title: Functional Family Therapy

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 20-11-2017

In this paper, the author explained the functional family therapy and its importance. The author discussed that FFT is an evidence-based treatment program that helps in treating several problems such as drug abuse, mental health and, etc. that affects children and their families. This paper is very helpful for the families that are considering to take therapy as it provides an insight into one of the most famous therapy that could help them solve their family issues (Sexton, 2017).

Summary 7

Author: Michael W

Title: Can Postpartum Depression Be Predicted?

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 11-03-2014

In this paper, the author discusses the postpartum depression that many women face. This depression can have a serious effect on the health of both the mother and her newborn. The author explained that depression can occur during pregnancies and can last months after giving birth. This paper helps a lot in understanding different factors that are the main cause of depression such as social factors, obstetric factors, endocrine factors, etc. This paper is recommended to all the women that are expecting as this can help them to figure out whether they have symptoms of depression or not and how they can prevent it (C. P, 2004).

Summary 8

Author: Maguire, P., Faulkner, A., Booth, K., Elliott, C., & Hillier, V.

Title: Helping cancer patients disclose their concerns.

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 1996

In this paper, the author focuses on the issue that health care professionals often face that is their hesitation in enquiring about the concerns and feelings of their patients. In this paper, the focus was on cancer patients. The author used a health professional that was attending a workshop to interview the patients about the problems they were facing regarding their treatment and health. This helps health professional in understanding the condition of a patient. The paper is very helpful in understanding about how listening to the concerns of patients can help the patients cope with their depression and trusting their doctors (Maguire & Hillier, 1996).

Summary 9

Author: David Spiegal

Title: Health Caring (Psychological support for patients with cancer)

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 1994

In this paper, the author discussed how different psychosocial treatments can help patients suffering from cancer. The author explained that the reason for these therapies is to help the people cope up with the depression they have after discovering about the disease and also during their treatments. This paper provides complete information about different methods that can provide psychosocial support to the patients suffering from cancer (Spiegel, 1994).

Summary 10

Author: Speaks, A

Title: What is autism?

Source: Google Scholar

Date of publication: 17-11-2011

In this article, the author discussed the disease known as autism. A disease that causes extreme difficulty for children in interacting and communicating with others. This disease can affect any child and there is no cure for this disease. He also explained about the ways that can help the children having autism that include early age therapies, initiating a conversation with the child during routine activities and create opportunities that will help the child in interacting with other people within the community. This article helps in understanding the general concept of autism and how to treat a child that has autism (Speaks, 2011).

References

Depression, C. P. (2004). Can postpartum depression be predicted?. Primary Psychiatry, 11(3), 42-47.

Fehm, L., & Schmidt, K. (2006). Performance anxiety in gifted adolescent musicians. Journal of anxiety disorders, 20(1), 98-109.

Maguire, P., Faulkner, A., Booth, K., Elliott, C., & Hillier, V. (1996). Helping cancer patients disclose their concerns. European Journal of Cancer, 32(1), 78-81.

Mazza, J. J., & Reynolds, W. M. (1999). Exposure to violence in young inner-city adolescents: Relationships with suicidal ideation, depression, and PTSD symptomatology. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 27(3), 203-213.

Nordqvist, C. (2018). What is psychology and what does it involve?. Medical News Today. [online] Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154874.php [Accessed 6 Aug. 2019].

Sexton, T. L. (2017). Functional family therapy. The Encyclopedia of Juvenile Delinquency and Justice, 1-7.

Speaks, A. (2011). What is autism. Retrieved on November, 17, 2011.

Spiegel, D. (1994). Health caring. Psychosocial support for patients with cancer. Cancer, 74(S4), 1453-1457.

Whittaker, E., & Kowalski, R. M. (2015). Cyberbullying via social media. Journal of School Violence, 14(1), 11-29.

How Does Art Enrich, Explain, And Define The Human Person- Or Does It?

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

How does art enrich, explain, and define the human person- or does it?

There is no clear-cut fencing regarding the standards of beauty and the basis for its subjective evaluation. Different people experiencing a particular work of art have contrasting and varying opinions about it. The value of art and its masterpieces has the same niche in an individual’s life as of any other concept which has profound meaning and affects a person in his daily struggles. The classical Greek era was instrumental in laying the foundations of Western philosophy and the simultaneous creation and appreciation of art was also introduced at that time. According to Tolstoy, art is essentially a human activity and the external stimuli are conveyed by one person to another and the second person lives those feelings again. Eliciting emotion and unconventional attitudes in human beings, art is one of the many styles of expression. Although Aristotle developed the meaning of art in a very different way, he was chiefly influenced by his teacher, Plato who largely regarded art as a form of imitation. Plato opined in his seminal work, Republic, that if there is an ordinary bed in consideration, it is merely an abstraction of the actual form of bed and its true essence. Similarly, the painter does not depict or delineate the actual meaning of the images they paint and their representations of art lack truth and genuineness. Aristotle, while discussing the nature of linguistic poetry and its relation to human beings believes that art is inter-linked with poetry. He also stipulates that there is an active and fundamental relationship between human nature and various manifestations of art. Plato on the other hand, postulated that art has no capability to contain any shred of truth and it cannot pave the way for mankind to know what is true. Aristotle took a didactic approach in this regard and believed that the delight arising from imitation is nearly identical to the delight that human beings take from knowledge and learning. This point of view also manifests itself from different experiences of human beings, the reason of extracting delight from a process of visually seeing something is similar to the process of learning something and gathering meaning from a piece of art.

In different locales and in different times, art has sprung up independent of the prevailing cultural and social conditions. The origins of art and mankind can be traced back to something similar, something which is also common in its essence. Since the eighteenth century, art is perceived as a potential source for pleasure which is distinct from the practices of utilitarian or practical advantages. These practices also involved religious or socially moral contemplations, therefore many religious scholars have continued to condemn various expressions of art, for instance music and dance. Certain interpretations of the theories of aesthetics propounded by Immanuel Kant also propagate the idea that art is an event for contemplation that does not involve the elements of interest. Some philosophers also believe that there are no such things as a persistent and enduring acts of nature displayed by human beings. The believers of Marxism also believe that humankind is habitual to create its own essence through repeated and monotonous practices and by the virtue of these repeated habits, mankind secures its existence and lays the foundation of a conducive environment for its future generations. For this purpose, art plays a pivotal role in the pursuit of human beings to leave something for their offspring in the form of material memories. There is also a great distrust in the human nature according to many philosophical schools of thought, and one of the direct implications of this distrust is that art is the only possible solution left for the enrichment and explanation of the human existence.

There is a quote by Immanuel Kant describing the universality in beauty and art,

“If someone is ‘conscious that his delight in an object is with him independent of interest’, then he will inevitably look on the object as one containing a ground of delight for all men, CITATION Cot07 \p 717 \l 1033 (Cottingham 717)

During the eighteenth century, there was a spark of great intrigue and interest in the root causes of our sense of beauty and much of this instigation was the work of a Scottish philosopher and thinker Frances Hutcheson. Comparing the sense of beauty with the relatively ordinary senses of hearing and sight, Hutcheson maintained that the sense of beauty arising from encountering various works of art enriches the human existence and crucially defines that what it is to be a human. The idea that art and aesthetic experiences are cherished only for their own sakes does not align with the understanding of the human nature. Stress relief, learning, provision of beauty, provoking of emotions are some of the ways art enriches the human life and motivates individuals to break the monotony of their everyday struggles and pursue something for the growth of their minds. Since the advent of mankind, art has existed in one form or another and the principles of valuing art are universal in everyone on this earth, but there are only a few people who are qualified enough to pass a better judgment on the sentiments regarding the socially acceptable standards of beauty and art. According to Hutcheson,

‘When the critic has no delicacy, he judges without nay distinction, and is only affected by the grosser and more palpable qualities of the object: the finer touches pass unnoticed and disregarded, CITATION Cot07 \p 715 \l 1033 (Cottingham 715).”

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Cottingham, John G. Western Philosopy: An Anthology. Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.