White Collar Crime
Author Note
Introduction
Money Laundering, corruption, and deception are some specific forms of white collar crimes. In all such practices, generally, public power is misused to earn private benefits. There is a dearth of literature about corruption and money laundering, and there are not many theories which have addressed the issue of White Collar Crime in a scholastic manner. There are very few studies available which talks about the basic types and forms of White collar crime and how it is conducted. The available literature about the White-collar crime overlooks the causes and factors responsible for such crime. The present study is therefore designed to trace thoroughly the cycle of white-collar crime and to fill the literary gap by identifying the factors which are responsible for the occurrence of White collar crime.
Research Methodology
The proposed research will be qualitative in nature. Some primary literary materials i.e. journal articles, books, and interviews will be cited in order to get to develop the requisite literature. In addition to this, some existing case studies relating to the issue in hand would be referred.
Literature Review
The extended use of credit cards and the increasing trend of online shopping has provided a chance to hackers for transferring this digital money to their accounts illegally. Such scams came to the limelight not more than a decade ago. The fraudulent use of credit cards or e-money is a classic example of white-collar crime. This view has been shared by Renuga who argues that the use of digital transactions to such an alarming level might be made limited and people should feel urge to use other means to complete their banking transactions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yn2NI7rr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(RENUGA, RABIYATHUL, and Kamaladevi 2014)","plainCitation":"(RENUGA, RABIYATHUL, and Kamaladevi 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1109,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SLGXUDQ4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/SLGXUDQ4"],"itemData":{"id":1109,"type":"article-journal","title":"FRAUD DETECTION IN CARD NOT PRESENT TRANSACTIONS BASED ON BEHAVIORAL PATTERN.","container-title":"Journal of Theoretical & Applied Information Technology","volume":"61","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"RENUGA","given":"DEVI T."},{"family":"RABIYATHUL","given":"BASARIYA A."},{"family":"Kamaladevi","given":"M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (RENUGA, RABIYATHUL, and Kamaladevi 2014). He argues that the dearth of tracking such activities continues to provide an easy target to these hackers,
This view has been shared by Vivek Thakur, who has used a case study on American digital criminal system which elaborates that how illegal transactions have caused serious harms to the banking channels worldwide ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KKWsD307","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Thakur, Chaudhary, and Sharma 2012)","plainCitation":"(Thakur, Chaudhary, and Sharma 2012)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1111,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DCB35DQX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/DCB35DQX"],"itemData":{"id":1111,"type":"article-journal","title":"Performance appraisal of economic offence wing of Chandigarh police: an analytical study","container-title":"ACADEMICIA: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal","page":"210–227","volume":"2","issue":"5","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Performance appraisal of economic offence wing of Chandigarh police","author":[{"family":"Thakur","given":"Vivek"},{"family":"Chaudhary","given":"Rouchi"},{"family":"Sharma","given":"R. K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Thakur, Chaudhary, and Sharma 2012). He goes on to argue that as like every other aspect of life is transformed due to the emergence of technology, crime has also experienced massive transformation. He considers the digital offenses as the most silent crime reported up till now. Sasha has also explored the same dynamic. She mentions that despite much personalization and customization of the digital technologies, there exists a space for the miscreants to enter in a system which holds crucial transaction ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WEcf33w6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yadav and Jha 2001)","plainCitation":"(Yadav and Jha 2001)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1112,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/RFB8DT9Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/RFB8DT9Z"],"itemData":{"id":1112,"type":"article-journal","title":"A Framework for Authorship Identification of Questioned Documents: Forensic and Linguistic Convergence","container-title":"MJAL","page":"1–7","volume":"3","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"A Framework for Authorship Identification of Questioned Documents","author":[{"family":"Yadav","given":"Sresha"},{"family":"Jha","given":"Smita"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Yadav and Jha 2001). She mentions that despite many measures ion securing the transactional channels it appears that there exist some gaps which will keep on hinder the progress of the system.
Sutherland argued the emergence of White collar crime and its linkage with the technology in times when it was not a routine practice. His book offers great insight as to how the collaboration of these two could lead towards destruction of mega money transaction network ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DaX1ZJuK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sutherland 2017)","plainCitation":"(Sutherland 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1115,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/W42LH2LB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/W42LH2LB"],"itemData":{"id":1115,"type":"chapter","title":"White-collar criminality","container-title":"White-collar Criminal","publisher":"Routledge","page":"3–19","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Sutherland","given":"Edwin H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sutherland 2017). He argues that since there are many people involved in the transaction of heavy sums, therefore it is right to argue that in any way possible, this system might get hacked. He has also provided with a list of mercantile and mining corporations, which he argues could get affected directly or indirectly. Rensselaer takes forward the idea presented by Sutherland. In his book published after his death, he argues that technology might not be able to create a shield against those who will learn the art of working with digits. His description suggests that in many ways technology remains vulnerable to human errors. He argues that white collar crime is normal, affluent and well- adjusted. His recent book is, in fact, a revised edition of his previous book published in the late twentieth century. He also has taken another approach in making his readers understand the severity of White Collar crime. He argues that slowly the society will learn to live with such crimes, as they become a routine affair and many social norms will be readjusted with what the white crime will have to offer to the society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5LwX1ZTW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lee 2017)","plainCitation":"(Lee 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1117,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7HKJVZL3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7HKJVZL3"],"itemData":{"id":1117,"type":"book","title":"White-collar criminal: the offender in business and the professions","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"White-collar criminal","author":[{"family":"Lee","given":"Renssalaer"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lee 2017).
Michel (et. al) have then taken the approach of white-collar crime from the digital world to how society treats this. They have completed an exploratory study on these crimes and have studied it parallel to the social behaviors of human. They have closely studied about how white-collar crimes could me made adjutant to general crimes of the society. Their findings suggest that since white collar crime is of technological nature and requires some much know-how of the internet world, therefore it will be impossible to categorize it as kind of a normal crime ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YETPujVb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Michel, Cochran, and Heide 2016)","plainCitation":"(Michel, Cochran, and Heide 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1119,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7RJKQJTA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/7RJKQJTA"],"itemData":{"id":1119,"type":"article-journal","title":"Public knowledge about white-collar crime: an exploratory study","container-title":"Crime, law and social change","page":"67–91","volume":"65","issue":"1-2","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Public knowledge about white-collar crime","author":[{"family":"Michel","given":"Cedric"},{"family":"Cochran","given":"John K."},{"family":"Heide","given":"Kathleen M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Michel, Cochran, and Heide 2016). Their study also illustrates how white-collar crime is linked to societal conducts. Dervan (et.al) takes this approach forward and argues that the investigation and prosecutions related to the white collar crime take a whole new approach ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Pc5DFxcU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dervan and Podgor 2016)","plainCitation":"(Dervan and Podgor 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1123,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CCDHAILF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CCDHAILF"],"itemData":{"id":1123,"type":"chapter","title":"Investigating and Prosecuting White-Collar Criminals","container-title":"The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Dervan","given":"Lucian E."},{"family":"Podgor","given":"Ellen S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dervan and Podgor 2016). In a comparative study, they present how white-collar crime is different from many other traditional forms of crime. This handbook about White collar crime suggests that technology is just a facet or a tool in the occurrence of such crimes. There are many cases discussed in this handbook which suggests that legal definition of white collar crime might be different but it can be brought into the existing legal nexuses in order to prosecute any offender convicted of such malicious attempts. This handbook about White collar crime is a thorough study of the complete process involved in such activities.
In comparison to the legal aspects as discussed by Dervan (et. al), Benson argues that corporate crime is all together with a new field and distinctive to others. He argues that White collar crime is making its way because it is not characterized as a traditional form of Crime, which is wrong ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vWnBJKfb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Benson 2016)","plainCitation":"(Benson 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1125,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/96US7QMV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/96US7QMV"],"itemData":{"id":1125,"type":"chapter","title":"Developmental perspectives on white-collar criminality","container-title":"The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Benson","given":"Michael L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Benson 2016). He has argued in the book that there are many areas in such crimes which still needs exploration. He maintains the point of view that nothing in its conduct is different compared to traditional forms of crime. The only difference in its conduct is the use of technology and much such wireless equipment (which with time will be normalized). The author has characterized the present form of the crime as a base and argues that this is evolving and therefore needs to be curbed at this very stage. His arguments are thorough but lack a sense of interpretation, they apparently are in conflict with the existing laws of America. Prechel has taken this notion more forward and has developed an organizational attire of such crimes and their conduct. He argues that White collar crime is not a separate field of study, neither can it be studied in isolation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1gCfD6zn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Prechel 2016)","plainCitation":"(Prechel 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1127,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NRYQFXGE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NRYQFXGE"],"itemData":{"id":1127,"type":"chapter","title":"Organizational Political Economy and White-Collar Crime","container-title":"The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Prechel","given":"Harland"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Prechel 2016).
He argues that the major mistake in curbing such crimes are studying and treating them in isolation. According to him, white crime has now grown up and has developed itself into a major crime. He goes on to argue that this crime is complementing many other crimes as well, therefore there is a dire need to study it in connection with all such crimes as it benefits almost every present crime. His book also covers many other perspectives related to corporate crime in this century. He argues that as the world is changing and is developing itself in a much-organized manner, therefore some proper and well- organized techniques are used to counter such perspectives. He has provided a framework of developing a converging framework of the corporate sector, development sector and energy sector for countering corporate crimes. He argues that this might help in dealing with a broad framework designed which will benefit many areas which are based on the usage of technology. He has referred to all this as an organizational way of protecting the political economy.
Yeager argues about the practical challenges of countering the White-collar crime. In his article, he has taken a very general approach in dealing with such crimes. He argues that since this notion of crime is different to all the established crimes, therefore there is a need to develop some more robust mechanisms to deal with this crime ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LxKirjdd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yeager 2016)","plainCitation":"(Yeager 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1129,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CTIZQKXE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CTIZQKXE"],"itemData":{"id":1129,"type":"chapter","title":"The practical challenges of responding to corporate crime","container-title":"The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Yeager","given":"Peter Cleary"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Yeager 2016). He opines that in dealing with such crimes, there could be different methods. For example, creation of a converged framework which is in a position to address the concerns of all related stakeholders, advanced training of the personnel involved in countering such crimes and the creation of a similar framework worldwide which can address the concerns of all countries. He also argues that since there are many people in the United States with expertise in such crimes, therefore it must take lead in the development of effective mechanisms of countering such crimes.
He mentions that such development will be beneficial for not just the United States but for many of its allies to. Payne has taken this notion forward and has argued about how countering such crimes will affect the existing criminal justice system, He has referred to some existing example of creating new frameworks for such crimes by referring towards some latest criminal frameworks related to such crimes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QcryFEpC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Payne 2016)","plainCitation":"(Payne 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1131,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/PVRYWC9T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/PVRYWC9T"],"itemData":{"id":1131,"type":"chapter","title":"Effects on white-collar defendants of criminal justice attention and sanctions","container-title":"The Oxford handbook of white-collar crime","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Payne","given":"Brian K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Payne 2016). He argues that since media is involved in giving much attention to the people involved in white crimes, therefore it can be used as a starting point in the criminal investigations against such offenses. He has also pointed out many flaws in the existing criminal framework. He argues that since there is an absence of a general framework of countering such crimes, therefore, it might be difficult in the swift creation of a broad and overarching framework against such crimes. He has then finally pointed toward areas such as the personal identities, finances, economies, existing criminal justice system and mutual state affairs which can be at risk of being affected with the emergence of the new legal framework of countering such crimes.
Conclusion
The proposed research has highlighted many areas which are still away from the scholastic debate. Although there is much literature available regarding such crimes, still some areas still need exploration. The present study is therefore designed to elaborate on how technology is directly benefitting the conduct of such crimes and how this could be brought in the existing nexuses of the criminal justice system. The literature review presented covers all such aspects. Many research articles and journals have been concerned in order to sort out the most relevant material for this research. During the compilation of the literature review, it has been noticed that many studies related to the criminal aspects of the White collar crime present partial aspects and don't provide a thorough analysis, therefore considering such aspects the most thorough literature has been cited and referred. There is also another perspective which has been noticed in the existing literature which is the different frame of analysis regarding the studies relevant to the White collar and corporate crimes. Such issues have been kept in notice while compiling the relevant literature for this research.
References:
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Benson, Michael L. 2016. “Developmental Perspectives on White-Collar Criminality.” In The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime.
Dervan, Lucian E., and Ellen S. Podgor. 2016. “Investigating and Prosecuting White-Collar Criminals.” In The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime.
Lee, Rensselaer. 2017. White-Collar Criminal: The Offender in Business and the Professions. Routledge.
Michel, Cedric, John K. Cochran, and Kathleen M. Heide. 2016. “Public Knowledge about White-Collar Crime: An Exploratory Study.” Crime, law and social change 65(1–2): 67–91.
Payne, Brian K. 2016. “Effects on White-Collar Defendants of Criminal Justice Attention and Sanctions.” In The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime.
Prechel, Harland. 2016. “Organizational Political Economy and White-Collar Crime.” In The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime.
RENUGA, DEVI T., BASARIYA A. RABIYATHUL, and M. Kamaladevi. 2014. “FRAUD DETECTION IN CARD NOT PRESENT TRANSACTIONS BASED ON BEHAVIORAL PATTERN.” Journal of Theoretical & Applied Information Technology 61(3).
Sutherland, Edwin H. 2017. “White-Collar Criminality.” In White-Collar Criminal, Routledge, 3–19.
Thakur, Vivek, Rouchi Chaudhary, and R. K. Sharma. 2012. “Performance Appraisal of Economic Offence Wing of Chandigarh Police: An Analytical Study.” ACADEMICIA: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal 2(5): 210–227.
Yadav, Sresha, and Smita Jha. 2001. “A Framework for Authorship Identification of Questioned Documents: Forensic and Linguistic Convergence.” MJAL 3(1): 1–7.
Yeager, Peter Cleary. 2016. “The Practical Challenges of Responding to Corporate Crime.” In The Oxford Handbook of White-Collar Crime.
