Assignment 2

Assignment 2

Name of Student

[Name of the Institution]

Assignment 2

Impact of On-line World on Crime and the Criminal Justice System

Introduction

Technology is a blessing for the world until it falls into the wrong hands and becomes a curse for people. While the rapid progress in technology and the online world has made the lives of people very easy, it also has created many negativities in the world today. The crime rate has increased a number of times in the world because of the use of technology and on-line systems. With the passing time, information and communication technologies are evolving ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0iAXOWB3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cross et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Cross et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":325,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/JQUC93EY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/JQUC93EY"],"itemData":{"id":325,"type":"article-journal","title":"Challenges of responding to online fraud victimisation in Australia","container-title":"Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice","volume":"474","source":"eprints.qut.edu.au","abstract":"Online fraud occurs when an individual or a business responds in some manner to an unsolicited invitation received via the internet and suffers financial or other detrimental effects as a result. In 2010–11, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) found that over 1.2 million Australians (6.7% of the population aged 15 years and over) had been a victim of personal fraud, losing approximately $1.4b in the preceding 12 months. More than half of these victims (55.7%) were contacted via the internet or email (online victimisation). In addition to monetary losses, victims of online fraud suffer serious psychological, emotional, social and even physical problems as a consequence of their victimisation. This paper explores the challenges of responding to online fraud victimisation in Australia and describes some of the specific support services that have recently emerged to support victims of this crime.","URL":"http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/tandi_pdf/tandi474.pdf","ISSN":"0817-8542","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Cross","given":"Cassandra"},{"family":"Smith","given":"Russell G."},{"family":"Richards","given":"Kelly"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",5]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cross et al., 2014).

With the advancement of information and communication system, the opportunities for criminals are also increasing. There are a lot of concerns over the misuse of new technologies that can be used against common public. The crimes that have spread through advancement in information systems involve altering of data within corporations for personal gains and profit, political objectives, spoiling the minds and lives of people especially youth and teenagers, and online theft and fraud. Progress in ICT, on one hand, has greatly helped in connecting developed countries with newly emerging countries such as India and China ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vnAFcw1P","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rice et al., 2016)","plainCitation":"(Rice et al., 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":328,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/ZPLKZ7NG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/ZPLKZ7NG"],"itemData":{"id":328,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social media and digital technology use among Indigenous young people in Australia: a literature review","container-title":"International Journal for Equity in Health","volume":"15","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"Introduction\nThe use of social media and digital technologies has grown rapidly in Australia and around the world, including among Indigenous young people who face social disadvantage. Given the potential to use social media for communication, providing information and as part of creating and responding to social change, this paper explores published literature to understand how Indigenous Australian youth use digital technologies and social media, and its positive and negative impacts.\n\nMethods\nOnline literature searches were conducted in three databases: PubMed, Google Scholar and Informit in August 2014; with further searches of additional relevant databases (Engineering Village; Communication & mass media complete; Computers & applied sciences complete; Web of Science) undertaken in May 2015. In addition, relevant literature was gathered using citation snowballing so that additional peer-reviewed and grey literature was included. Articles were deemed relevant if they discussed social media and/or digital technologies and Indigenous Australians. After reading and reviewing all relevant articles, a thematic analysis was used to identify overall themes and identify specific examples.\n\nResults\nA total of 22 papers were included in the review. Several major themes were identified about how and why Indigenous young people use social media: identity, power and control, cultural compatibility and community and family connections. Examples of marketing for health and health promotion approaches that utilize social media and digital technologies were identified. Negative uses of social media such as cyber bullying, cyber racism and the exchange of sexually explicit content between minors are common with limited approaches to dealing with this at the community level.\n\nDiscussion\nStrong cultural identity and community and family connections, which can be enhanced through social media, are linked to improved educational and health outcomes. The confidence that Indigenous young people demonstrate when approaching the use of social media invites its further use, including in arenas where this group may not usually participate, such as in research.\n\nConclusions\nFuture research could examine ways to minimise the misuse of social media while maximising its positive potential in the lives of Indigenous young people. Future research should also focus on the positive application of social media and showing evidence in health promotion interventions in order to reduce health inequities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous young people.","URL":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4881203/","DOI":"10.1186/s12939-016-0366-0","ISSN":"1475-9276","note":"PMID: 27225519\nPMCID: PMC4881203","shortTitle":"Social media and digital technology use among Indigenous young people in Australia","journalAbbreviation":"Int J Equity Health","author":[{"family":"Rice","given":"Emma S."},{"family":"Haynes","given":"Emma"},{"family":"Royce","given":"Paul"},{"family":"Thompson","given":"Sandra C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",5,25]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rice et al., 2016).

Online Crimes in Australia

Just as the on-line world is creating wonderful possibilities for the aid of mankind, it also has provided many opportunities for the criminals to commit crimes. The crimes carried out in the past are now committed in new ways by the use of advanced technology. A large number of people are becoming victims of these online crimes and frauds. Due to the high use of technology and growing wealth, people in Australia are becoming victims of cybercrime with every passing day. The use of online government services, online banking, and social media apps have made the criminal activities in Australia common and easy. Almost 13,500 reports of cybercrime have been addressed to the Australian Cyber Security Centre in the past few months. The most common crime reported among the crimes that are present in the country is fraud that includes banks scams and romance frauds. The romance fraud involves the building of an online relationship over several months and then asking money from them for health-related issues such as medical treatment, for necessary goods or items, and other domestic issues. A person receives a text message or an email that seems to be sent by the bank regarding fixing his account problems. If the person agrees and gives his details, the cybercriminal gets an opportunity to access and hack the account. This is how the crime rate in Australian is increasing day by day by the use of online systems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TgYodzZ1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stratton et al., 2017)","plainCitation":"(Stratton et al., 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":357,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/KU4AZ25X"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/KU4AZ25X"],"itemData":{"id":357,"type":"webpage","title":"Crime and Justice in Digital Society: Towards a ‘Digital Criminology’?","container-title":"International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy","genre":"Text","abstract":"The International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy is an open access, blind peer-reviewed journal that publishes critical research about challenges confronting criminal justice systems around the world.  The Journal is committed to democratising quality knowledge production and dissemination.\nThere are no APCs (Article Processing Charges). Authors can submit and publish at no cost.","URL":"https://www.crimejusticejournal.com/article/view","note":"DOI: 10.5204/ijcjsd.v6i2.355","shortTitle":"Crime and Justice in Digital Society","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Stratton","given":"Greg"},{"family":"Powell","given":"Anastasia"},{"family":"Cameron","given":"Robin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",5,22]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stratton et al., 2017).

Negative Impact of On-line World on Crime and Criminal Justice System

A variety of criminal activities are being performed in Australia using the online sources. Crime is not new to the country, but the ways and mediums are new. The first online fraud is the theft of telecommunication services. From simple mischief-making to a major crime, this act has become a part of life for the criminals and a serious issue in the crime industry. The stolen telecommunications service has a large market. Some criminals just obtain a discount through a phone call, while there are others who perform illicit business without letting their identities or status disclosed. It has posed a serious threat to the general public that bears all the financial burden of the committed fraud. Another major task performed by the criminals is the criminal conspiracy. They can communicate with each other regarding their activities and plans through online communication ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6lZkGJNI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Peter Grabosky, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Peter Grabosky, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":331,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/JRRPPGZZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/JRRPPGZZ"],"itemData":{"id":331,"type":"webpage","title":"Crime and telecommunications","container-title":"Australian Institute of Criminology","genre":"Text","abstract":"This paper summarises a current research project at the Australian Institute of Criminology which is exploring risks and countermeasures relating to the use of telecommunications as the instrument and/or target of crime. Issues discussed include theft of telecommunications services, criminal conspiracies, theft of intellectual property, dissemination of offensive material, electronic money laundering, electronic vandalism, telemarketing fraud, illegal interception, electronic funds transfer fraud, law enforcement, and countermeasures.","URL":"https://aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi59","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Peter Grabosky","given":"Russell G. Smith"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",11,3]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Peter Grabosky, 2017). Organized crimes such as gambling, money laundering, trafficking, prostitution, trade in weapons, and child pornography are being facilitated by the online world. Anyone who is capable of using the internet may easily carry out the copyright infringements. The emerging multimedia technologies are being used and developed rapidly that causes the loss of billion dollars each year by the sales and royalties ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9U3DbuAP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hogden, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Hogden, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":333,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/B7ME4G5G"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/B7ME4G5G"],"itemData":{"id":333,"type":"webpage","title":"From state to federal to global crime issues","container-title":"Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission","genre":"Text","abstract":"CEO Chris Dawson speaking at the Youth and Community Justice Conference","URL":"https://www.acic.gov.au/media-centre/speeches/state-federal-global-crime-issues","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hogden","given":"Kate"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",4,11]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hogden, 2017). Dissemination of offensive materials is also caused by the negative use of online sources in abundance. Crimes such as harassing, intrusive communications, threatening, and transfer of sexually implicit material to an unwilling recipient are being committed through this online world. The criminals have invaded the personal and private lives of people through the internet. They use harmful behaviour online and corrupt and steal the data of people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"y5NTLBOZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kim-Kwang Raymond Choo, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Kim-Kwang Raymond Choo, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":335,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/W4S8MDYW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/W4S8MDYW"],"itemData":{"id":335,"type":"webpage","title":"The future of technology-enabled crime in Australia","container-title":"Australian Institute of Criminology","genre":"Text","abstract":"As our use of information and communication technologies increases and evolves, incidents of technology-enabled crime are likely to continue. Based on what we know today, this paper summarises a range of potential challenges that regulators and law enforcement agencies need to bear in mind. Key areas identified include infrastructure risks, the use of wireless and mobile technologies, more sophisticated malware, new identification and payment systems, computer-facilitated fraud, exploitation of younger persons, intellectual property infringement, and industrial espionage. Successful prosecution and appropriate sentencing for these crimes will require coordinated policing and on-going legislative reform.","URL":"https://aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi341","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Kim-Kwang Raymond Choo","given":"Russell G. Smith"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",11,3]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kim-Kwang Raymond Choo, 2017). More than one million Australians become a victim of the crimes committed using online sources every year. Through these acts, the criminals are easily able to steal personal data, access bank accounts, obtain loans, and download infected files. Long term reputational harm and financial damage can be caused to the people by the organized criminals who create counterfeit cards and running up debts. The children and teenagers face cyberbullying and are exposed to have a contact with strangers, sharing their personal or private information such as photos or videos without realizing that it may get shared or become a subject to theft or fraud ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YuiReUEK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Monica and California 90401-3208, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Monica and California 90401-3208, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":340,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/P82NPPJL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/P82NPPJL"],"itemData":{"id":340,"type":"webpage","title":"Internet Technology Could Aid Police, Courts and Prisons; Resolving Privacy Issues Key to Future Use","abstract":"New Internet-based technology may aid criminal justice agencies through promising tools such as better criminal databases, remotely conducted trials, and electronic monitoring of parolees. But many of the developments raise issues related to civil rights, privacy, and cybersecurity that must be addressed.","URL":"https://www.rand.org/news/press/2015/08/17.html","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Monica","given":"1776 Main Street Santa"},{"family":"California 90401-3208","given":""}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Monica and California 90401-3208, n.d.). The technological innovations and declined prices of the data storage materials has enhanced the power of online criminals involved in the theft and crime using online resources. The better-educated criminals easily explore data over the internet and use it as they like. This data includes the websites protected by passwords and social accounts of people. The excessive use of mobile phones has also become one of the major reasons for the increase in criminal activities in Australia. The advancement in 3G, 4G, SMS, MMS, and Bluetooth system are used and exploited by the criminals resulting in spoiling the private lives of people especially young children and teenagers Police are using social media to increase transparency, share real-time information with the public, and enlist the community's help to solve crimes (Sadulski, 2018). Many psychological tricks are used by the criminals to manipulate the users for gaining information. The online gaming and gambling let the players purchase accommodation, virtual properties, and merchandise by using the physical cash. The game hackers steal the usernames and passwords of the players and then sale the virtual property to other players. Online auction frauds are also a type of fraud that is likely to increase with the passing time. The criminals design malware for their illicit financial gains by buying and selling illegally. These online scams are most probably affecting the young children as they are less wise in detection of the crimes or scams approaching them online. Through the use of communication and online technologies, the lives of many young children are ruined and it has become a new form of harassment and bullying. Child exploitation has become a highly common and favourite practice of the offenders nowadays. These negative effects of the use of online systems have become very common in Australia. Every day people are facing this issue and waiting for the government to take proper actions.

Positive Impact of On-line World on Crime and Criminal Justice System

Along with the negative impacts, the online world also has some positive impacts on the crimes and criminal justice system. The use of online sources and social media plays a significant role in the enforcement of law and criminal justice system in Australia. The famous social media sites and online websites are being used by the police departments as an effective and economical way to provide information to the public about the current events and issues ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GbGBYeSq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Shi et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Shi et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":353,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/9GKKWRYN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/9GKKWRYN"],"itemData":{"id":353,"type":"article-journal","title":"Media consumption and crime trend perceptions: a longitudinal analysis","container-title":"Deviant Behavior","page":"1480-1492","volume":"40","issue":"12","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"For over two decades, despite the downward crime trend, the American public has persisted in believing crime is on the rise. Cultivation theory holds that the media is responsible for the public’s crime trend perceptions. Previous cultivation studies heavily rely on cross-sectional data, which may lead to spurious conclusions due to reverse causation and omitted variable bias. This study aims to address these issues by utilizing longitudinal analyses. Drawing on three waves of the 2008–2009 American National Election Survey, we test the cultivation hypothesis using traditional OLS, OLS with lagged crime trend perceptions, fixed effects, and dynamic panel models. Newspaper and TV news consumption are related to crime trend perceptions in traditional OLS models. In other models, media consumption is not related to crime trend perceptions. The results do not support the cultivation hypothesis. It is likely that the cultivation effect of media has been overstated in the previous cross-sectional research.","DOI":"10.1080/01639625.2018.1519129","ISSN":"0163-9625","shortTitle":"Media consumption and crime trend perceptions","author":[{"family":"Shi","given":"Luzi"},{"family":"Roche","given":"Sean Patrick"},{"family":"McKenna","given":"Ryan M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Shi et al., 2019). The agencies of law enforcement share real-time activities and issue warning to the people for their protection and security. Social applications such as Twitter and Facebook are used by the police departments to create awareness in public and to encourage the citizens if they witness any suspicious activity around them. Often the videos of suspected people are posted to make people aware of them and their activities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4CVkQduG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cross, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Cross, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":351,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/VUBFD52W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/VUBFD52W"],"itemData":{"id":351,"type":"article-journal","title":"(Mis)Understanding the Impact of Online Fraud: Implications for Victim Assistance Schemes","container-title":"Victims & Offenders","page":"757-776","volume":"13","issue":"6","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"Australia provides victims of violent crime access to financial support to assist with recovery, excluding victims of nonviolent offences. The author examines the experiences of online fraud victims, and details how the impacts experienced extend beyond financial losses, to include deterioration in health and well-being, relationship breakdown, homelessness, and unemployment, and in the worst cases, suicidal ideation. Using online fraud as a case study, the author argues eligibility to access victim assistance schemes should consider harms suffered rather than the offence experienced. Consequently, the author advocates a shift in eligibility criteria of victim assistance schemes to facilitate much-needed support to online fraud victims.","DOI":"10.1080/15564886.2018.1474154","ISSN":"1556-4886","shortTitle":"(Mis)Understanding the Impact of Online Fraud","author":[{"family":"Cross","given":"Cassandra"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",8,18]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cross, 2018). The online sources and applications prove to be useful in locating the missing children or informing the public about them. The missing child’s pictures are posted along with some information and the contact number by the police and anyone who witnesses the child is encourage and asked to contact the local police. The public nature of social media allows it to conduct criminal investigations and use online sources to identify the suspects of theft, burglary, and other criminals. These online sites are also a valuable source to find out the sex offenders in the country, but it is not progressed up to the mark. The law enforcement agencies are using different sites and online sources to build community relationships and trust among people and the justice system ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nx259Oc8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Drew and Farrell, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Drew and Farrell, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":348,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/PF6KSF8E"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/PF6KSF8E"],"itemData":{"id":348,"type":"article-journal","title":"Online victimization risk and self-protective strategies: developing police-led cyber fraud prevention programs","container-title":"Police Practice and Research","page":"537-549","volume":"19","issue":"6","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"The prevalence and impact of cyber fraud continues to increase exponentially with new and more innovative methods developed by offenders to target and exploit victims for their own financial reward. Traditional crime reaction methods used by police have proved largely ineffective in this context, with offenders typically located outside of the police jurisdiction of their victims. Given this, some police agencies have begun to adopt a victim focused, crime prevention approach to cyber fraud. The current research explores with a sample of two hundred and eighteen potential cyber fraud victims, the relationship between online victimization risk, knowledge and use of crime prevention strategies. The study found those most at risk of cyber fraud victimization despite accurate perceptions of risk and knowledge of self-protective behaviors in the online environment underutilise online prevention strategies. This research has important implications for police agencies who are designing and delivering cyber fraud education. It provides guidance for the development of effective prevention programs based on practical skills development.","DOI":"10.1080/15614263.2018.1507890","ISSN":"1561-4263","shortTitle":"Online victimization risk and self-protective strategies","author":[{"family":"Drew","given":"Jacqueline M."},{"family":"Farrell","given":"Lucy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",11,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Drew and Farrell, 2018). An improved communication system can be fostered through the use of online sources in dealing with and handling the problems. The public can easily communicate to the police about any issue, problem, incident, or event through the online world. The social media broadcasting of the trials of criminals has become an obstacle in the criminal proceedings and reduced the criminal activities in the country ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3eWwHofL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Broadhurst, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Broadhurst, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":350,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/JJ567TE8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/JJ567TE8"],"itemData":{"id":350,"type":"chapter","title":"Cybercrime in Australia","container-title":"The Palgrave Handbook of Australian and New Zealand Criminology, Crime and Justice","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"221-235","source":"Springer Link","event-place":"Cham","abstract":"The prevalence, definitions, and scope of cybercrime including the dual role of ‘weaponed’ malware are reviewed in this chapter. Also outlined are the history and role of hackers and online criminal networks in the dissemination of malicious software. Various forms of cybercrime are described including the use of deception or social engineering in the exploitation of computer systems or acquisition of identities. The importance of international cooperation in the suppression of cybercrime is illustrated by the coordination required in response to the proliferation of child exploitation materials (CEM). This chapter concludes with a summary of the challenges for law enforcement and the pressing need for broad partnerships in the prevention of cybercrime.","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55747-2_15","ISBN":"978-3-319-55747-2","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55747-2_15","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Broadhurst","given":"Roderic"}],"editor":[{"family":"Deckert","given":"Antje"},{"family":"Sarre","given":"Rick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Broadhurst, 2017). Many anti-crime Facebook pages have been created that help people recognize and report about any illicit activity that they witness. A senior operations researcher at RAND, a non-profit research organization, John S. Hollywood says, “Criminal records today are incomplete and the records we do have are generally based locally. What we need is an ability to get information about a person's criminal history quickly and reliably, even when they move across city or state lines.” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"X3mRMNLr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Monica and California 90401-3208, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Monica and California 90401-3208, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":340,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/P82NPPJL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/P82NPPJL"],"itemData":{"id":340,"type":"webpage","title":"Internet Technology Could Aid Police, Courts and Prisons; Resolving Privacy Issues Key to Future Use","abstract":"New Internet-based technology may aid criminal justice agencies through promising tools such as better criminal databases, remotely conducted trials, and electronic monitoring of parolees. But many of the developments raise issues related to civil rights, privacy, and cybersecurity that must be addressed.","URL":"https://www.rand.org/news/press/2015/08/17.html","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Monica","given":"1776 Main Street Santa"},{"family":"California 90401-3208","given":""}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Monica and California 90401-3208, n.d.) A Cyber Operations Team has been established by the Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre (AUSTRAC) for tracking the criminal activities related to online transactions and financial theft. Australia is working collaboratively with the United States, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom in a framework known as The Five Eyes Law Enforcement Group Cyber Crime Working Group to practice best approaches for fighting against the crimes committed through the online world. The officers, judges, and other officers are being provided with the opportunities to get training for the understanding and prevention of online world crimes and criminals. The country is further planning to work with PILON for strengthening the online crime legislation in the whole region. It has also planned to deliver awareness about online world crimes across the whole Indo-Pacific through a partnership with the Cyber Safety Pasifika Program. The Australian Federal Police has established many cyber safety and online crime education programs to create awareness in the society.

Ways to Counter the Problem

The online world is a wonderful achievement of science and technology. The online system itself can be used to counter the problems and crimes related to social media and other online systems. Social media has created both problems and solutions for the criminal justice system. The criminals have got opportunities to commit crimes in more advanced ways while the criminal justice system has got many solutions to combat these crimes and bring peace to the society. Computers can be used to control data inputs such as the case histories of criminals and other information about them. Improved methods of electronic monitoring should be used depending on the crime and risk to the public. The technology-enabled crime can be handled by through collaborative efforts of the public and the government. It is a multi-dimensional challenge that requires effective actions and coordination. The useful and effective software systems should be designed for the security of the data of public. Information sharing initiatives and public and private sector partnerships should be established. Effective and secure technical assistance should be established to minimize the criminal activity that takes place because of using technology and other online systems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yTZpVkuG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Alazab and Broadhurst, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Alazab and Broadhurst, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":364,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/Z3DIZJZB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/Z3DIZJZB"],"itemData":{"id":364,"type":"report","title":"Spam and Criminal Activity","publisher":"Social Science Research Network","publisher-place":"Rochester, NY","genre":"SSRN Scholarly Paper","source":"papers.ssrn.com","event-place":"Rochester, NY","abstract":"The rapid growth of the\tinternet is transforming how we engage\tand communicate. It also creates new\topportunities for fraud and data theft.One way cybercriminals exploit the vulnerabilities of new technologies and potential victims is the use of deceptive\temails on a massive scale.","URL":"https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2467423","number":"ID 2467423","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Alazab","given":"Mamoun"},{"family":"Broadhurst","given":"Roderic"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",9,3]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Alazab and Broadhurst, 2015). An understanding of the current and emerging crime threats and criminal activities should be developed and a national picture of crime should be created. The criminals committing crimes online should be disrupted and denied through an end-to-end approach of the law enforcement agencies. Trust and confidence should be built in the community for the use of national information and intelligence. The law enforcement officers should be provided with more social media and online training to combat online crimes and build their relationship with the public. The difficulties arising in the way of detecting, investigating, and prosecuting illegal activities should be solved. People should be encouraged to report any crime they witness and the lack of clarity or confusion about crimes should be reduced ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RFXnRVwC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cross, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Cross, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":366,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/6YB6FX7B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/6YB6FX7B"],"itemData":{"id":366,"type":"article-journal","title":"Using financial intelligence to target online fraud victimisation: applying a tertiary prevention perspective","container-title":"Criminal Justice Studies","page":"125-142","volume":"29","issue":"2","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"It is well established that policing in an online environment is fraught with challenges. To combat losses attributed to online fraud, Australia has seen the emergence of a victim-oriented approach, which uses financial intelligence to identify potential victims and deliberately intervenes through the sending of a letter. This approach predominantly targets victims of advance fee fraud and romance fraud who are sending money to West African countries. The current article presents three Australian case studies: Project Sunbird (West Australian Police and West Australian Department of Commerce); Operation Disrepair (South Australian Police); and the National Scams Disruption Project (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission). The article locates these cases within existing theory on crime prevention, using available data to document initial positive outcomes. Overall, this article supports the use of a victim-oriented tertiary approach to online fraud, and advocates its potential to reduce both repeat victimisation and the harm incurred through online fraud.","DOI":"10.1080/1478601X.2016.1170278","ISSN":"1478-601X","shortTitle":"Using financial intelligence to target online fraud victimisation","author":[{"family":"Cross","given":"Cassandra"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",4,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cross, 2016). The online criminals are intelligent and they tend to find new ways for exploitation of technology and social media to perform further illicit activities. Therefore, the agencies and government service offices should remain up to date and alert of all the changing trends and new method so that they are able to recognize the changing patterns, ideas, and areas of problem ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QWsKxCdH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen and Russell, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen and Russell, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":368,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/YQFLAPME"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/YQFLAPME"],"itemData":{"id":368,"type":"report","title":"Social Media, Vigilantism and Indigenous People in Australia","publisher":"Social Science Research Network","publisher-place":"Rochester, NY","genre":"SSRN Scholarly Paper","source":"papers.ssrn.com","event-place":"Rochester, NY","abstract":"The pervasiveness and prominence of mass media is a key feature of contemporary societies. Nowhere is this more relevant than when we look at the ubiquity of social media. In recent years ‘anti-crime’ Facebook pages have appeared across all states and territories in Australia, and as our social spaces increasingly shift from the physical to the virtual realm, different forms of online ‘cyber’ vigilantism have emerged. This chapter explores the ways in which community-justice and vigilantism in Australia are exercised through social media in the wider context of the racialised criminalisation of Indigenous young people. We explore how new forms of media are used to produce and reproduce a racialised narrative of crime, which at the same time has the effect of legitimating violence against [young] Indigenous Australians. This chapter draws on a number of ‘anti-crime’ Facebook pages, and finds that the very presence of these sites legitimates the beliefs of its members, while at the same time providing details of potential targets, most of whom are young people. We contend that the views expressed on these sites mirror, in more prosaic language, sentiments that are expressed in sections of the old media and among a number of ultra-right politicians and groups. Further these sites do little to question the broader ideological and political frameworks that present crime and disorder divorced from structural and historical conditions. There is, then, an assumed social consensus around what is being presented on the Facebook sites: that overt racism and calls to vigilante violence are socially and politically acceptable. While in some cases there appears to be a direct link between the Facebook groups and incidents of violence, at a broader level it is the constant reinforcement of an environment of racist violence that is most troubling.","URL":"https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3094091","number":"ID 3094091","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"},{"family":"Russell","given":"Sophie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",9,1]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen and Russell, 2017). Many people have already become a victim to the crime committed by the online world, but many others are at risk of becoming victim to this crime if they are not able to understand the techniques used by the offenders. The online security awareness should be provided to every citizen so that he gets to know about the good security practices for online systems. This would make them avoid using pirated software that can be gained by the criminals for accessing and exploiting personal devices and data. The Cybercrime Response Strategy (CRS) is an important area where investment and attention are required as it greatly depends on the technology for communication and maintenance of cybercrime detection and prevention. The rise in public awareness about these crimes will be helpful but it will not be able to prevent all the crime. Other effective ways should be implemented to avoid the crimes related to the online world. Stronger domestic legislative frameworks should be used to respond to these crimes. Further strategies should be planned to combat the transnational cybercrime that is spoiling the lives of many people. A common understanding between the country and its other collaborative partners should be developed to fight against the online world criminals and ensuring that they do not get enough opportunities to commit such crimes or use the online sources for negative and malicious purposes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6VvAMHXA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Doerr and Sant\\uc0\\u237{}n, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Doerr and Santín, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":421,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/RJKB7XET"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/RJKB7XET"],"itemData":{"id":421,"type":"article-journal","title":"Global trends in wildfire and its impacts: perceptions versus realities in a changing world","container-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences","page":"20150345","volume":"371","issue":"1696","source":"royalsocietypublishing.org (Atypon)","abstract":"Wildfire has been an important process affecting the Earth's surface and atmosphere for over 350 million years and human societies have coexisted with fire since their emergence. Yet many consider wildfire as an accelerating problem, with widely held perceptions both in the media and scientific papers of increasing fire occurrence, severity and resulting losses. However, important exceptions aside, the quantitative evidence available does not support these perceived overall trends. Instead, global area burned appears to have overall declined over past decades, and there is increasing evidence that there is less fire in the global landscape today than centuries ago. Regarding fire severity, limited data are available. For the western USA, they indicate little change overall, and also that area burned at high severity has overall declined compared to pre-European settlement. Direct fatalities from fire and economic losses also show no clear trends over the past three decades. Trends in indirect impacts, such as health problems from smoke or disruption to social functioning, remain insufficiently quantified to be examined. Global predictions for increased fire under a warming climate highlight the already urgent need for a more sustainable coexistence with fire. The data evaluation presented here aims to contribute to this by reducing misconceptions and facilitating a more informed understanding of the realities of global fire.This article is part of themed issue ‘The interaction of fire and mankind’.","DOI":"10.1098/rstb.2015.0345","shortTitle":"Global trends in wildfire and its impacts","journalAbbreviation":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences","author":[{"family":"Doerr","given":"Stefan H."},{"family":"Santín","given":"Cristina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",6,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Doerr and Santín, 2016).

Conclusion

The online world is impacting and will continue to impact the crime and criminal justice system as the advancement in technology is also increasing with every passing day. When a person is affected by the negativities of online crimes, his personality is destroyed. The financial losses due to online thefts also make people suffer a lot. The growing dependence of people on technology and the online world has created many opportunities for the criminals to commit offences. Therefore, it is necessary for people to be careful while using the online services and sources. The government needs to create proper awareness and training for the people to save them from getting involved in any such offences or becoming victims to online world crimes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pMku61Gc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rice et al., 2016)","plainCitation":"(Rice et al., 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":328,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/ZPLKZ7NG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/ZPLKZ7NG"],"itemData":{"id":328,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social media and digital technology use among Indigenous young people in Australia: a literature review","container-title":"International Journal for Equity in Health","volume":"15","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"Introduction\nThe use of social media and digital technologies has grown rapidly in Australia and around the world, including among Indigenous young people who face social disadvantage. Given the potential to use social media for communication, providing information and as part of creating and responding to social change, this paper explores published literature to understand how Indigenous Australian youth use digital technologies and social media, and its positive and negative impacts.\n\nMethods\nOnline literature searches were conducted in three databases: PubMed, Google Scholar and Informit in August 2014; with further searches of additional relevant databases (Engineering Village; Communication & mass media complete; Computers & applied sciences complete; Web of Science) undertaken in May 2015. In addition, relevant literature was gathered using citation snowballing so that additional peer-reviewed and grey literature was included. Articles were deemed relevant if they discussed social media and/or digital technologies and Indigenous Australians. After reading and reviewing all relevant articles, a thematic analysis was used to identify overall themes and identify specific examples.\n\nResults\nA total of 22 papers were included in the review. Several major themes were identified about how and why Indigenous young people use social media: identity, power and control, cultural compatibility and community and family connections. Examples of marketing for health and health promotion approaches that utilize social media and digital technologies were identified. Negative uses of social media such as cyber bullying, cyber racism and the exchange of sexually explicit content between minors are common with limited approaches to dealing with this at the community level.\n\nDiscussion\nStrong cultural identity and community and family connections, which can be enhanced through social media, are linked to improved educational and health outcomes. The confidence that Indigenous young people demonstrate when approaching the use of social media invites its further use, including in arenas where this group may not usually participate, such as in research.\n\nConclusions\nFuture research could examine ways to minimise the misuse of social media while maximising its positive potential in the lives of Indigenous young people. Future research should also focus on the positive application of social media and showing evidence in health promotion interventions in order to reduce health inequities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous young people.","URL":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4881203/","DOI":"10.1186/s12939-016-0366-0","ISSN":"1475-9276","note":"PMID: 27225519\nPMCID: PMC4881203","shortTitle":"Social media and digital technology use among Indigenous young people in Australia","journalAbbreviation":"Int J Equity Health","author":[{"family":"Rice","given":"Emma S."},{"family":"Haynes","given":"Emma"},{"family":"Royce","given":"Paul"},{"family":"Thompson","given":"Sandra C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",5,25]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rice et al., 2016).

Challenges faced by Indigenous Communities in Australia

Introduction

Many indigenous people still find it hard to merge completely through cultural connections because of the negative effects that they have faced in the colonial era. People that were in power refused to recognize the local people as humans and the colonial era set foundation for events that are still affecting Aboriginal people. In many cases, the people in power showed unimaginable cruelty towards the local people. This mindset lay the foundation of a system that will continue to haunt Aboriginal people even today despite their utmost effort to accept this diversity that was imposed on them. The forceful implementation of laws has further given rise to complications injustice system and an increase in crime rates ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Dr5o8HXx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Davis, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Davis, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":401,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/77S5DKMK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/77S5DKMK"],"itemData":{"id":401,"type":"article-journal","title":"The inappropriateness of the criminal justice system - Indigenous Australian criminological perspective","page":"17","source":"Zotero","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Davis","given":"Byron"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Davis, n.d.).

The very initial settlement of the British in Australia is traced to be in 1606. An explorer named Willem Janszoon lead the journey starting to travel along the West Coast of Peninsula. He was followed by many Europeans who were travelling for the purpose of trade. On their arrival in Australia, many Aboriginals were killed and forced to leave their property and houses by the European settlers. As a result, most of these Aboriginals had to live in the tribal settlements. The main purpose of the settlement of the British in Australia was to establish and develop a penal colony. Australia was a land of opportunities, full of agricultural wealth and activities such as trade, mining, and farming for the Europeans ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ZC4lF8GO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen and Tauri, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen and Tauri, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":383,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/ZKRS84ZD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/ZKRS84ZD"],"itemData":{"id":383,"type":"article-journal","title":"Indigenous Peoples, Criminology, and Criminal Justice","container-title":"Annual Review of Criminology","page":"359-381","volume":"2","issue":"1","source":"annualreviews.org (Atypon)","abstract":"This review provides a critical overview of Indigenous peoples’ interactions with criminal justice systems. It focuses on the experiences of Indigenous peoples residing in the four major Anglo-settler-colonial jurisdictions of Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States. The review is built around a number of key arguments, including that centuries of colonization have left Indigenous peoples across all four jurisdictions in a position of profound social, economic, and political marginalization; that the colonial project, especially the socioeconomic marginalization resulting from it, plays a significant role in the contemporary over-representation of Indigenous peoples in settler-colonial criminal justice systems; and that a key failure of both governments and the academy has been to disregard Indigenous peoples responses to social harm and to rely too heavily on Western theorizing, policy, and practice to solve the problem of Indigenous over-representation. Finally, we argue that little will change to reduce the negative nature of Indigenous–criminal justice interactions until the settler-colonial state and the discipline of criminology show a willingness to support Indigenous peoples’ desire for self-determination and for leadership in the response to the social harms that impact their communities.","DOI":"10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024630","ISSN":"2572-4568","journalAbbreviation":"Annu. Rev. Criminol.","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"},{"family":"Tauri","given":"Juan Marcellus"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",1,13]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen and Tauri, 2019).

The first battle of law and legalization started with the “Terra Nullius", which was a legal term used for the claim that the Land of Australia belong to no one. Since Australia was a land of the indigenous people living there, this statement deliberately denounced Aboriginal Australians from being human beings. Many people are still affected by the dispossessions that happened almost two centuries ago. They are still feeling the agony of lack of recognition and disrespect that was shown towards them. A lack of recognition means that there was less interaction between indigenous and non-indigenous people which further created criminal justice problems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"f8Ps3uz3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":385,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/DPGKK3DP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/DPGKK3DP"],"itemData":{"id":385,"type":"report","title":"The Place of Indigenous People: Locating Crime and Criminal Justice in a Colonising World","publisher":"Social Science Research Network","publisher-place":"Rochester, NY","genre":"SSRN Scholarly Paper","source":"papers.ssrn.com","event-place":"Rochester, NY","abstract":"Since British colonisation began at the end of the eighteenth century, the history of Australia has been a struggle between Indigenous peoples and the colonisers over place. This is often represented as a struggle over land - it's control and use. Yet for Indigenous people, land was never simply an economic commodity to be exploited. It was 'place' in a deeper sense of the word, a fundamental part of Indigenous cosmology and a necessary foundation to a person's and group's ontology or being in the world. Place, then, can be conceptualised as both a physical and metaphysical domain. Indeed both domains are intertwined, perhaps inseparable.","URL":"https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2655433","number":"ID 2655433","shortTitle":"The Place of Indigenous People","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen, 2015).

The laws and policies of the government at that time purposely excluded Aboriginal people from participation as normal citizens by removing them their homes and sending them away at cattle stations and hard missions where they lacked opportunity as equal citizens and a freedom of their own. The settlement of English influenced the system of law and justice in Australia. The Indigenous people in Australia were considered uncivilized who had their laws and systems. The law followed in Indigenous Australia was seen to be customary and essentially imperialist one. The criminal justice system in Australia during colonization was characterized by military acts and repressiveness. The colonial communities and governments continued to discriminate against the Aboriginal people until the early 19th century.

There were three significant and prominent events that took place concerning this issue. “The Day of Mourning, 1938,” “The Freedom Ride, 1965,” and the “Aboriginal Tent Embassy, 1972,” are the three events that focus on this. The Day of Mourning was the first event that took place along with the 150th anniversary of the Australian settlement by the British. The second event involved a students’ group involved in a journey through bus with the purpose of gathering information about the conditions and discrimination of Aboriginals living in the towns surrounding the South Wales. The third event focused on protesting against the court decision about the mining operations on the land of Aboriginals.

By the end of the nineteenth century and during the beginning of the twentieth century, the criminal justice system by the British colonizers was introduced for the government protection of the Aboriginals. Although it was declared that the system is introduced for the protection of Aboriginals, essentially it was for taking control over the Aboriginals in the name of law and justice. The criminal justice officers such as police and prison officers attempted much physical violence on Aboriginal Australians. This violence by the officers had many different forms such as harassment, physical abuse, torture, provocation, verbal abuse, and physical assault. The people were sentenced to lengthy periods of imprisonment and many of them were killed in custody by the in-charge officers. The prisoners had to face physical assault and intimidation before making any record of interview by the police. In many cases, the prisoners were violently killed by the police and prison officers or the correctional authorities. It was observed that lack of care, negligence, and cruelty were a part of the routine of the custodial authorities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"f1FgftO7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Marchetti and Ransley, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Marchetti and Ransley, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":398,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/US43ZPSC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/US43ZPSC"],"itemData":{"id":398,"type":"article-journal","title":"Applying the Critical Lens to Judicial Officers and Legal Practitioners Involved in Sentencing Indigenous Offenders: Will Anyone or Anything Do","container-title":"University of New South Wales Law Journal","page":"1","volume":"37","shortTitle":"Applying the Critical Lens to Judicial Officers and Legal Practitioners Involved in Sentencing Indigenous Offenders","journalAbbreviation":"U.N.S.W.L.J.","author":[{"family":"Marchetti","given":"Elena"},{"family":"Ransley","given":"Janet"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marchetti and Ransley, 2014). A young boy committed suicide in prison after being subject to the violence and cruelty of the officers. The boy’s name was Trent Lantry and he was 19 years old. He committed suicide by hanging himself using a bedsheet that was fixed to a hanging point at the top of the cell door. The boy had a long history of self-harm and suicide attempts previously while being held in prison under the correctional facilities. The colonisers dehumanised the Indigenous Australians and their populations for the justification of their horrific and terrible actions. The events resulted in the loss of identities of people and their entire generations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0mCCcB8d","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":389,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/MQ5FDYC2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/MQ5FDYC2"],"itemData":{"id":389,"type":"article-journal","title":"Colonialism and Historical Injustice: Reparations for Indigenous Peoples","container-title":"Social Semiotics","page":"59-80","volume":"15","issue":"1","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"This article is concerned with the issue of reparations for Indigenous peoples for the harms caused by colonial law, policy and practice. I argue that many of the harms against Aboriginal peoples in Australia and north America relied on law for their legitimacy. Law was essentially aimed at facilitating the destruction of Indigenous cultures. An underlying thread to these human rights abuses were colonial assumptions about the racial inferiority of Aboriginal peoples. For an in-depth discussion of guardianship duties, state obligations and parental rights, and their relationship to the removal of Aboriginal children, see Buti (2004). The article questions whether law can now provide justice for Indigenous peoples for these historical wrongs. It discusses the limitations of attempts to seek redress and compensation through the courts. It considers the arguments for a Reparations Tribunal or Commission as an alternative to the failure of the legal system to provide a just response to injustice. Reparations are seen as a bridge between law and justice – a way of overcoming the limitations of the law of the coloniser and its inability to meet the demands for justice from the colonised. I argue there can be no reconciliation between the colonised and the coloniser without a reparations process.","DOI":"10.1080/10350330500059130","ISSN":"1035-0330","shortTitle":"Colonialism and Historical Injustice","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",4,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen, 2005). The Aboriginals had to suffer an ongoing pain for many years and it still has an impact on the generations today. When the Aboriginals were removed from their homes, they were sent to the cattle stations and other missions where they had to work day and night. They had to live under the surveillance control and they did not have any liberty as other equal citizens. The people had to spend their lives in trauma under the abusive environments. They had poor nutrition, inadequate health care and education, lack of assets, lack of opportunities and other sources of healthy survival ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WIDU2lme","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hunter, 2004)","plainCitation":"(Hunter, 2004)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":395,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/DJZSR8JU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/DJZSR8JU"],"itemData":{"id":395,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social exclusion, social capital, and Indigenous Australians: measuring the social costs of unemployment","source":"openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au","abstract":"In a purely economic sense, unemployment in the Australian community is extremely costly. The costs of unemployment will be particularly pronounced if its social, psychological, and economic impacts are concentrated among long-term unemployed and if its effects spill over onto other family or community members. This paper analyses evidence from the 1994 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey (NATSIS) to illustrate the point that such effects are potentially very large in Indigenous households with a substantial concentration of unemployed residents. In spite of the fact that NATSIS is now somewhat dated, it provides a range of social, cultural and economic data that are not available from other sources. This paper uses the international literature on social exclusion and social capital to analyse and interpret NATSIS data on several social indicators, including arrest rates, police harassment and being a victim of assault; being a member of the 'stolen generation'; civic engagement; the loss of motivation; and ill-health. The unprecedented range of social indicators included in the NATSIS allows the analysis to provide an insight into the likely social costs of unemployment in the population at large, not just among the Indigenous population. While the meaning of the term social exclusion appears to be intuitively fairly obvious, being closely related to its literal interpretation, 'social capital' it needs to be carefully defined. The recent McClure Report on the direction of welfare reform provides a rudimentary definition: 'the reciprocal relationships, shared values and trust, which help to keep societies together and enable collective action' (McClure 2000: 32). Before uncritically importing terms such as these into an analysis of the costs of Indigenous unemployment, it is necessary to discuss how useful they are in a cross-cultural context. For example, not having any employment in the Australian labour market may actually empower many traditional Indigenous peoples to hunt, fish, paint, and live on the country. Indeed, the extra hours of 'spare' time may facilitate more extensive participation in ceremonial activities, thus increasing what may be defined in the Indigenous context as 'social capital'. Nor should employment be viewed as automatically contributing to social capital. Some forms of employment actually diminish the extent of shared values and trust referred to above. Work which involves or leads to frequent movement of the workforce, such as some types of casual or seasonal work, could uproot the worker's family and thus weaken their links to the local community. Clearly then, the relationship between social capital and unemployment is not simple, even in a mono-cultural context.","URL":"https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/41388","ISSN":"1036 1774","shortTitle":"Social exclusion, social capital, and Indigenous Australians","language":"en_AU","author":[{"family":"Hunter","given":"Boyd"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004",5,19]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hunter, 2004).

The worst effect of colonisation on the Aboriginals was due to the Stolen Generations. The Indigenous people were not considered as civilized people; therefore, it was decided that the children of the Aboriginal families should be removed. This forcible removal was known as the Stolen Generations and it was made a part of the policy of Assimilation. It was based on the white superiority and black inferiority according to which the people belonging to the Indigenous community should be allowed either to “die out” or should be assimilated into the community of whites ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yeJb1gxt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Behrendt, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Behrendt, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":387,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/9L7RWWVX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/9L7RWWVX"],"itemData":{"id":387,"type":"article-journal","title":"Law Stories and Life Stories: Aboriginal Women, the Law and Australian Society","container-title":"Australian Feminist Studies","page":"245-254","volume":"20","issue":"47","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","DOI":"10.1080/08164640500090434","ISSN":"0816-4649","shortTitle":"Law Stories and Life Stories","author":[{"family":"Behrendt","given":"Larissa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",7,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Behrendt, 2005). The children who were taken away from their families were trained and taught in such a way that they rejected their Indigenous heritage and adopted the white culture. They were forbidden to use or speak their traditional languages and their names were also changed. Many white families adopted the children and placed them in institutions where they learnt neglect and abuse commonly. Many communities and families faced a lot of trauma due to this policy of Stolen Generations. The people who experienced the trauma were engaged in several self-destructive behaviours, developed the diseases related to lifestyle, and entered the criminal justice system. Several members of the Stolen Generations never learned the necessary parenting skills and never experienced healthy and happy family situations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"K8K1EZHe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Paradies, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Paradies, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":379,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/6VG2NKBT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/6VG2NKBT"],"itemData":{"id":379,"type":"article-journal","title":"Colonisation, racism and indigenous health","container-title":"Journal of Population Research","page":"83-96","volume":"33","issue":"1","source":"Springer Link","abstract":"In settler-colonies such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States, the historical impacts of colonisation on the health, social, economic and cultural experiences of Indigenous peoples are well documented. However, despite being a commonly deployed trope, there has been scant attention paid to precisely how colonial processes contribute to contemporary disparities in health between indigenous and non-indigenous peoples in these nation-states. After considering pertinent issues in defining indigeneity, this paper focuses on operationalising colonisation as a driver of indigenous health, with reference to emerging concepts such as historical trauma. Conceptualisations of coloniality vis-à-vis health and their critiques are then examined alongside the role of racism as an intersecting and overlapping phenomenon. To conclude, approaches to understanding and explaining Indigenous disadvantage are considered alongside the potential of decolonisation, before exploring ramifications for the future of settler-indigenous relations.","DOI":"10.1007/s12546-016-9159-y","ISSN":"1835-9469","journalAbbreviation":"J Pop Research","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Paradies","given":"Yin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Paradies, 2016).

The state government issued many exemption certificates to the people of Australia. These exemption certificates included many privileges such as attending schools, being allowed for voting, entering the hotels, and become free of the restrictions of the state protection laws by Aboriginals. The privileges were enjoyed by the non-Indigenous Australian society rather than the Indigenous ones. Many people had to sacrifice their original identities in order to obtain the basic level of freedom that was enjoyed by the non-Aboriginal people ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"B8OcbsQy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen and Rowe, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen and Rowe, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":382,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/SPFNP2RF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/SPFNP2RF"],"itemData":{"id":382,"type":"chapter","title":"Decolonising Indigenous Victimisation","container-title":"Crime, Victims and Policy: International Contexts, Local Experiences","collection-title":"Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology","publisher":"Palgrave Macmillan UK","publisher-place":"London","page":"10-32","source":"Springer Link","event-place":"London","abstract":"This chapter is part of a broader project we refer to as the ‘penal/colonial complex’ — a project that seeks to delineate, decentre and challenge the dominant mechanisms through which law, policy and practice continue to subjugate Indigenous peoples, their cultures and their knowledges (Cunneen et al. 2013, pp. 186–187; Cunneen and Rowe 2014). We see the need to decentre victimology at both a theoretical and policy level as an important component of the broader project. Our intentions in this chapter are fivefold: to consider the current status of the victimisation (and, we argue, concomitant criminalisation) of Indigenous peoples in postcolonial Western settler societies; to establish the limitations of Eurocentric victimological approaches to understanding this phenomenon; to clarify how an alternative critical Indigenous analytic framework can transgress these limitations; to contrast Indigenous and state policy responses to Indigenous victimisation; and thereby to establish the analytical and decolonising1 significance of critical Indigenous approaches.","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137383938_2","ISBN":"978-1-137-38393-8","note":"DOI: 10.1057/9781137383938_2","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"},{"family":"Rowe","given":"Simone"}],"editor":[{"family":"Wilson","given":"Dean"},{"family":"Ross","given":"Stuart"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen and Rowe, 2015). The Indigenous Australians who were being used for their labour on cattle stations, reserves and missions, and as the domestic helpers to non-Indigenous houses were being exploited. They were never paid the wages over a long time and were forced to do hard labour. This non-payment of wages contributed to a high level of mistrust and lack of understanding between the public and the authorities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"swy05ywx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen and Porter, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen and Porter, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":381,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/IFM8Z9BB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/IFM8Z9BB"],"itemData":{"id":381,"type":"chapter","title":"Indigenous Peoples and Criminal Justice in Australia","container-title":"The Palgrave Handbook of Australian and New Zealand Criminology, Crime and Justice","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"667-682","source":"Springer Link","event-place":"Cham","abstract":"The authors of this chapter contextualise crime and criminal justice within Australian colonial history. They map the development of Aboriginal criminology in Australia and cover key themes that have disproportionately affected Indigenous peoples such as over-policing, lack of access to justice in the neoliberal context, incarceration, and deaths in custody. Finally, the authors reflect on Indigenous experiences of criminal justice, and various processes that challenge contemporary justice interventions, including Indigenous courts, night patrols, and community justice initiatives. The authors conclude by considering the possibilities of an Indigenous criminology.","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55747-2_44","ISBN":"978-3-319-55747-2","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55747-2_44","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"},{"family":"Porter","given":"Amanda"}],"editor":[{"family":"Deckert","given":"Antje"},{"family":"Sarre","given":"Rick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen and Porter, 2017).

The Indigenous Australians were denied participation in the social system and were denied the privileges and rights of that system. They were not allowed to access several public spaces and were not included in the national census. On the basis of their race, they were not allowed to avail the facilities of basic education, healthcare, and employment. This social exclusion had such negative effects that have still resulted in unemployment, poor health, homelessness, incarceration, high rates of poverty, and lack of education. The people experienced this systematic discrimination and it resulted in anger, mistrust, and resentment towards the government and authorities by the Indigenous people. The Indigenous people were deeply influenced by colonisation. Their sense of personal identity and belonging was destroyed. They developed a cultural disconnection, weakened identity, and other language barriers in their society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3usq96Zg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Crook et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Crook et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":380,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/Q2FZLE6F"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/Q2FZLE6F"],"itemData":{"id":380,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ecocide, genocide, capitalism and colonialism: Consequences for indigenous peoples and glocal ecosystems environments","container-title":"Theoretical Criminology","page":"298-317","volume":"22","issue":"3","source":"SAGE Journals","abstract":"Continuing injustices and denial of rights of indigenous peoples are part of the long legacy of colonialism. Parallel processes of exploitation and injustice can be identified in relation to non-human species and/or aspects of the natural environment. International law can address some extreme examples of the crimes and harms of colonialism through the idea and legal definition of genocide, but the intimately related notion of ecocide that applies to nature and the environment is not yet formally accepted within the body of international law. In the context of this special issue reflecting on the development of green criminology, the article argues that the concept of ecocide provides a powerful tool. To illustrate this, the article explores connections between ecocide, genocide, capitalism and colonialism and discusses impacts on indigenous peoples and on local and global (glocal) ecosystems.","DOI":"10.1177/1362480618787176","ISSN":"1362-4806","shortTitle":"Ecocide, genocide, capitalism and colonialism","journalAbbreviation":"Theoretical Criminology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Crook","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Short","given":"Damien"},{"family":"South","given":"Nigel"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",8,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Crook et al., 2018).

When the Indigenous people stood against all this or questioned this, they had to face physical violence and their children or lands used to get stolen by the colonisers. Before the colonisation of the British in 1788, they had occupied the continent for more than 65000 years. They were food gatherers and hunters who survived on wild foods and did not possess permanent habitats or settlements. They were dependent on the availability of natural food resources and water. No domestic animals were kept except dogs. The Indigenous men were experts at the tracking and stalking game and they kept and used weapons such as shields, boomerangs, stone axe, throwing sticks or clubs, and hunting spears. The Indigenous women collected honey, vegetable foods, insects, shellfish, and other small creatures. They dug up the food resources such as roots, grubs, edible ants, and other burrowing animals using digging sticks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"73Q3eTmt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wahlquist, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Wahlquist, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":377,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/WF7IL2YL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/WF7IL2YL"],"itemData":{"id":377,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"Indigenous incarceration: turning the tide on colonisation's cruel third act","container-title":"The Guardian","section":"Australia news","source":"www.theguardian.com","abstract":"In a new Guardian series, we explore what can and is being done to change the statistics that shame Australia","URL":"https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/feb/20/indigenous-incarceration-turning-the-tide-on-colonisations-cruel-third-act","ISSN":"0261-3077","shortTitle":"Indigenous incarceration","language":"en-GB","author":[{"family":"Wahlquist","given":"Calla"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",2,20]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wahlquist, 2017). They were living in the tribal system and were divided into 600 to 700 cultural-linguistic groups when the European settlers arrived and rejected the tribal system calling it a modernist concept. John Mulvaney in 1981 said, “They were organized around small social units, families and clans, which coalesced on occasions when seasonal conditions permitted or when kinship obligations required. Hundreds of individuals often congregated for ceremonial activities such as initiation rituals, and for reciprocal gifts or marriage exchange. These larger social groupings are termed tribes.” Mulvaney further described the Indigenous Australians as simple, “Their approach to life was minimalist yet nurturing of members of the group. Clothing was either not worn or minimal, shelter was easily assembled or non-permanent structures, tools were made from materials readily available on the land, there was no written language, [and] children were cared for by the extended family group and Elders were treated as respected purveyors of important spiritual and cultural formation.”

The English settlers expropriated the land of Australians and destroyed their means of survival to a large extent. Michael Cannon in 1993 said, “The white newcomers were determined that the whole continent of Australia should belong to them—the soil, the beasts and birds, the rivers and fish, the minerals and trees. A dream of total possession had taken hold of normally stolid men. Such lust for new lands ran through the whole British race that monarch and lowliest laborers alike glowed with the glory of creating a new empire.” For the colonizers, the Aboriginals were inferior and backward. They created a racial boundary between the Aboriginals and the whites and dehumanized them in every possible way. The Australian continent was full of opportunities for the English settlers. For them, it was, "a paradise on earth, for here laid one of the fairest domains ever created by nature. Permanent life-giving rivers meandered through its extensive plains; lush grasslands and forests flourished on its rich soil.”

The Indigenous people were shot down like animals while sleeping in their settlements. Their women were taken away and were used to gratify the lust of the white men, and the children were taken away from their families. Richard Broome said in 2002, “The violence took sexual forms as well . . . Reverend Threlkeld . . . in 1825 wrote that he was tormented “at night [by] the shrieks of girls, about 8 or 9 years of age, taken by force by the vile men of Newcastle. One man came to see me with his head broken by the butt-end of a musket because he would not give up his wife.” Some of the worst abuses occurred in Tasmania, where Aborigines were allegedly flogged, branded, castrated and mutilated by convicts.” A Native Police Force was created by the English Settlers to encourage some Indigenous people to fight and kill their own people. The colonizers used to provide these people with money, food, uniforms, guns, and horses and motivated them to victimize their own people. According to Jan Kociumbas, 2004, “The British had at their disposal “variolus matter in bottles,” but though written accounts from the period describe with wonder and sometimes horror the number of corpses strewn around the harbor, none mention the use of the variola, even for the purposes of inoculating the newly-born white children who, though particularly susceptible to the disease, nevertheless appeared to have survived.” He further said, “The settlers had never wanted much from Aboriginal people except their women and their land; for labour the settlers mainly depended on convict labour and imported coolies.” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"A3ncZYGZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jalata, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Jalata, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":375,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/NQGABD8S"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/NQGABD8S"],"itemData":{"id":375,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Impacts of English Colonial Terrorism and Genocide on Indigenous/Black Australians","container-title":"SAGE Open","page":"2158244013499143","volume":"3","issue":"3","source":"SAGE Journals","abstract":"This article critically explores the essence of colonial terrorism and its consequences on the indigenous people of Australia during their colonization and incorporation into the European-dominated racialized capitalist world system in the late 18th century. It uses multidimensional, comparative methods, and critical approaches to explain the dynamic interplay among social structures, human agency, and terror to explain the connection between terrorism and the emergence of the capitalist world system or globalization. Raising complex moral, intellectual, philosophical, ethical, and political questions, this article explores the essence, roles, and impacts of colonial terrorism on the indigenous Australians. First, the article provides background historical and cultural information. Second, it conceptualizes and theorizes colonial terrorism as an integral part of the capitalist world system. Specifically, it links capitalist incorporation and colonialism and various forms of violence to terrorism. Third, the article examines the structural aspects of colonial terrorism by connecting it to some specific colonial policies and practices. Finally, it identifies and explains different kinds of ideological justifications that the English colonial settlers and their descendants used in committing crimes against humanity.","DOI":"10.1177/2158244013499143","ISSN":"2158-2440","journalAbbreviation":"SAGE Open","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Jalata","given":"Asafa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jalata, 2013) Catherine MacKinnon further explained these abuses, “It is . . . rape unto death, rape as massacre, rape to kill and to make the victims wish they were dead. It is rape as an instrument of forced exile, rape to make you leave your home and never want to go back. It is rape to be seen and heard and watched and told to others: rape as spectacle. It is rape to drive a wedge through a community, to shatter a society, to destroy a people. It is rape as genocide.”

Conclusion

The English settlers and their descendants engaged in violent crimes against humanity by using the social organization and capitalist technology. They preferred their cruel law and justice systems against the Indigenous Australians and provided benefits to the white community. They enjoyed all the political and economic benefits that resulted in the destruction and exploitation of the Indigenous communities. The effects of that colonization are still there in the Australian society and the Europeans do not accept any economic, moral, or political responsibility of the crimes that were committed against humanity in Australia and made the Aboriginals suffer a lot ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GzbfDBSV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cox et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Cox et al., 2009)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":393,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/LV8WRDMF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/LV8WRDMF"],"itemData":{"id":393,"type":"article-journal","title":"No Justice Without Healing: Australian Aboriginal People and Family Violence","container-title":"Australian Feminist Law Journal","page":"151-161","volume":"30","issue":"1","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","DOI":"10.1080/13200968.2009.10854421","ISSN":"1320-0968","shortTitle":"No Justice Without Healing","author":[{"family":"Cox","given":"Dorinda"},{"family":"Young","given":"Mandy"},{"family":"Bairnsfather-Scott","given":"Alison"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",6,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cox et al., 2009). Bruce Elder in 1988 said. “The blood of tens of thousands of Aborigines killed since 1788, and the sense of despair and hopelessness which informs so much modern-today Aborigine society, is a moral responsibility all white Australians share. Our wealth and lifestyle are a direct consequence of Aboriginal dispossession. We should bow our heads in shame.” The colonization in Australia had many negative effects on the lives of the Indigenous Australians that have destroyed the lifestyle of Aboriginals in such a way that it still has an impact on the present generations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fOJSbps9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cunneen, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Cunneen, 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":391,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/8J3P5KCJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/zQiT8c1c/items/8J3P5KCJ"],"itemData":{"id":391,"type":"report","title":"State Crime, the Colonial Question and Indigenous Peoples","publisher":"Social Science Research Network","publisher-place":"Rochester, NY","genre":"SSRN Scholarly Paper","source":"papers.ssrn.com","event-place":"Rochester, NY","abstract":"The purpose of this chapter is to consider how our understanding of state crime needs to be mediated through an appreciation of colonial processes. The chapter explores a number of inter-related issues around the question of colonialism, state crime and Indigenous peoples. The historical relationship between Indigenous people and the development of modern nation states raises the problem of the extent to which contemporary liberal democracies like Australia, Canada or the US were founded on processes we would now regard as state crime, and indeed engaged in activities which at the time could have been regarded as unlawful. Further, while there has been considerable literature on transitional justice and processes for reparations in post-conflict societies, this body of scholarship has tended to ignore the extent to which liberal democracies themselves might be considered in need of ‘post-conflict’ reconciliation and restorative justice. This chapter explores these questions through a discussion of Australia, Canada and the US, although the primary focus is on Australia and its relationship with the continent’s Indigenous peoples.","URL":"https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1739348","number":"ID 1739348","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Cunneen","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",1,6]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cunneen, 2011).

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