COPD
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COPD
1.COPD is a characterized by an airflow limitation which is poorly reversible. The main factors that play an important role in the pathophysiology of COPD is chronic inflammation. As a result of smoking and other irritants the T cells, neutrophils, and other such irritants accumulate in the airways. Some of the common symptoms of COPD are a chronic cough, fatigue, chest tightness, wheezing and shortness of breath while doing daily activities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Eh5MYKRM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Pathophysiology of COPD,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Pathophysiology of COPD,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":971,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/I8KWFR42"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/I8KWFR42"],"itemData":{"id":971,"type":"webpage","title":"Pathophysiology of COPD: What happens in the lungs, causes, and symptoms","container-title":"Medical News Today","abstract":"Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a serious and chronic lung condition that affects breathing. It can be life-threatening. The process known as gas exchange is compromised as lung tissue becomes damaged and loses its elasticity. Find out what happens in the lungs when COPD develops.","URL":"https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/315687.php","shortTitle":"Pathophysiology of COPD","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Pathophysiology of COPD,” n.d.).
2. There are various risk factors of COPD, and the most common factors are smoking, people who have asthma but they continue smoking are at higher risk of COPD, long term exposure to irritants like dust and fume, and also age is one of the main risk factors for this disease ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"B0c5vS9W","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Physician, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Physician, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":969,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/2YPEIN4A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/2YPEIN4A"],"itemData":{"id":969,"type":"webpage","title":"Who COPD Affects—and Why","container-title":"Verywell Health","abstract":"Learn what causes COPD include smoking, exposure to pollution and chemicals, and certain illnesses and genetic diseases.","URL":"https://www.verywellhealth.com/copd-causes-risk-factors-914865","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Physician","given":"A. Board-Certified"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Physician, n.d.).
3. Some of the most recent advances in the treatment of COPD involves the improvement of long-acting bronchodilators, benefits of ICS recognition and also the formation of pulmonary rehabilitation programs. Another effective treatment is oxygen therapy in which if there is not enough oxygen in the blood then it is supplemented ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xfETfJ0d","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sciurba, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Sciurba, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":973,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/Y3S65WIX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/Y3S65WIX"],"itemData":{"id":973,"type":"article-journal","title":"Medical management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","container-title":"Chest Surgery Clinics of North America","page":"615-629","volume":"13","issue":"4","source":"PubMed","abstract":"Recent advances in the treatment of patients who have COPD include the development of long-acting bronchodilators, recognition of the benefits of ICS, and development of effective initiation and maintenance pulmonary rehabilitation programs. The focus on outcome parameters other than expiratory flow rates, such as symptoms, quality of life, exercise tolerance, and exacerbation frequency, might also allow effective development of novel disease-modifying agents.","ISSN":"1052-3359","note":"PMID: 14682598","journalAbbreviation":"Chest Surg. Clin. N. Am.","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Sciurba","given":"Frank C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sciurba, 2003).
4. To diagnose COPD the doctor will look at the signs and symptoms of the disease and the various tests are used for diagnosis including the lung function test, chest X-ray, CT-scan and other lab tests in which various genetic and blood tests are done to know if the patient has COPD or not ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8isK7O7B","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}COPD - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“COPD - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":975,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/9M6XHG9B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/9M6XHG9B"],"itemData":{"id":975,"type":"webpage","title":"COPD - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic","URL":"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/copd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353685","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",3,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“COPD - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic,” n.d.).
5. The exact anti-inflammatory mechanism of drug Solu-Medrol is unknown; however, it is said that it inhibits various inflammatory cytokines and produces multiple glucocorticoid effects while the drug Albuterol is a receptor-selective drug which soothes the airway smooth muscle. It is used for those patients who have asthma and breathing problems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Z8QkBhhS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ahrens & Smith, 1984)","plainCitation":"(Ahrens & Smith, 1984)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":977,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/FV9C6ITK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/FV9C6ITK"],"itemData":{"id":977,"type":"article-journal","title":"Albuterol: an adrenergic agent for use in the treatment of asthma pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and clinical use","container-title":"Pharmacotherapy","page":"105-121","volume":"4","issue":"3","source":"PubMed","abstract":"Albuterol is a long-acting beta 2-adrenergic receptor-selective drug that relaxes airway smooth muscle. It is currently available in the United States in oral and metered-dose inhaler forms. Nebulizer solutions and parenteral preparations are likely to be marketed here in the future. The chemical modifications that make albuterol beta 2-selective also promote oral bioavailability and increased duration of action by decreasing sensitivity to degradative enzymes. Albuterol can also produce undesirable dose-related effects: metabolic effects including decreased levels of plasma potassium, phosphate, calcium and magnesium; increased levels of plasma glucose, insulin, renin, lactate and ketones; peripheral vasodilation and perhaps some direct cardiac stimulation resulting in decreased systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance, increased pulse pressure and tachycardia; and skeletal muscle tremor. These side effects are most common with parenteral administration and much less prominent with aerosol administration, which yields lower systemic concentrations. Limited pharmacokinetic data suggest a long distribution phase, a terminal half-life of 3-8 hours, and 10-20% oral bioavailability. Aerosolization of albuterol or a similar agent with a compressed-air nebulizer appears to be best first-line management of the patient with acute dyspneic asthma, but appropriate preparations for this kind of therapy are currently missing from the United States market. Intravenous albuterol has also been employed in acutely dyspneic patients, but produces more side effects than carefully administered intravenous theophylline, is impaired by lack of sufficient pharmacokinetic information to guide dosing, and is of uncertain efficacy in the asthmatic with respiratory failure. However, it appears to lack the potentially life-threatening side effects that can result when theophylline is used carelessly . In the ambulatory patient, aerosolized albuterol (or a similar agent) administered by metered-dose inhaler is an excellent agent for treatment as needed and/or for prevention of acute bronchospasm triggered by exercise or other predictable cause. Advantages include a high degree of efficacy, rapid onset and long duration of effect, and minimal side effects. Regularly scheduled administration of albuterol by metered-dose inhaler is a widely used and effective maintenance medication for patients requiring long-term prophylactic therapy. However comparisons of the ability of this regimen and the other common maintenance regimens (cromolyn and theophylline) to control chronic symptoms of asthma are needed.","ISSN":"0277-0008","note":"PMID: 6739311","shortTitle":"Albuterol","journalAbbreviation":"Pharmacotherapy","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Ahrens","given":"R. C."},{"family":"Smith","given":"G. D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1984",6]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ahrens & Smith, 1984)
6. The nurse intervention in case of COPD is essential both in physical and psychological perspective. As smoking is detrimental for patients with COPD, therefore, they must encourage the patients to abandon it. The role of nurses is important in this case to control the patient’s symptoms and also to improve their life quality better ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Jmfz8y6a","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barnett, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Barnett, 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":979,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5YRX58HQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5YRX58HQ"],"itemData":{"id":979,"type":"article-journal","title":"Nursing management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","container-title":"British Journal of Nursing (Mark Allen Publishing)","page":"1314-1318","volume":"17","issue":"21","source":"PubMed","abstract":"Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a major cause of chronic morbidity and mortality, which imposes a major burden on both society and the health service. It is a common condition that is on the increase and predominantly caused by smoking. Progressive damage to the lung tissue renders the patient increasingly breathless resulting in a frightening existence causing varying degrees of disability and handicap. It is therefore essential that healthcare professionals understand how this condition affects patients not only from a physical perspective, but also from a psychological and social perspective to provide effective nursing management. Nursing management of patients suffering from this disease is aimed at helping to control individual patient's symptoms and improve their quality of life.","DOI":"10.12968/bjon.2008.17.21.31730","ISSN":"0966-0461","note":"PMID: 19060812","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Nurs","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Barnett","given":"Margaret"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",12,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Barnett, 2008)
References
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahrens, R. C., & Smith, G. D. (1984). Albuterol: an adrenergic agent for use in the treatment of asthma pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and clinical use. Pharmacotherapy, 4(3), 105–121.
Barnett, M. (2008). Nursing management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. British Journal of Nursing (Mark Allen Publishing), 17(21), 1314–1318. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2008.17.21.31730
COPD - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2019, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/copd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353685
Pathophysiology of COPD: What happens in the lungs, causes, and symptoms. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2019, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/315687.php
Physician, A. B.-C. (n.d.). Who COPD Affects—and Why. Retrieved March 19, 2019, from https://www.verywellhealth.com/copd-causes-risk-factors-914865
Sciurba, F. C. (2003). Medical management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest Surgery Clinics of North America, 13(4), 615–629.
