Gendered victimization is excessively focused on women and girls that include intimate-partner violence, sexual assault, trafficking for sexual exploitation and genital mutilation. The focused findings proclaim that it is only due to their gender. The gender-motivated victimizer who harass and punish motivated others for enforcing their approach of gendered behavior toward those who do not accept those approaches. In this regard, the National Panel on Research on Violence against Women found that there is little methodical information about the different patterns of violence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1igqv8l3hq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Fear of Victimization,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Fear of Victimization,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":415,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/4Z5VFDS6"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/4Z5VFDS6"],"itemData":{"id":415,"type":"webpage","title":"Fear of Victimization: Why Are Women and the Elderly More Afraid? - ProQuest","URL":"https://search.proquest.com/openview/2a187a230664693fe2db8505670d05c2/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816420","title-short":"Fear of Victimization","language":"en","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Fear of Victimization,” n.d.).
Some scholars, for example, have observed that there is an association between the origin of a family and spousal victimization. On the other hand, co-occurrence of different pattern of victimization such as sexual victimization and physical assault within a specific intimate partnership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cKKe6gja","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Trends and patterns in victimization to domestic and non-domestic homicide - Leiden Safety and Security Blog,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Trends and patterns in victimization to domestic and non-domestic homicide - Leiden Safety and Security Blog,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":405,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/DXYUAMP8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/DXYUAMP8"],"itemData":{"id":405,"type":"webpage","title":"Trends and patterns in victimization to domestic and non-domestic homicide - Leiden Safety and Security Blog","URL":"https://www.leidensafetyandsecurityblog.nl/articles/trends-and-patterns-in-victimization-to-domestic-and-non-domestic-homicide","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Trends and patterns in victimization to domestic and non-domestic homicide - Leiden Safety and Security Blog,” n.d.). Another study has shown some speculations that both dating violence and marital violence are associated with each other. Simply to say, victimization, across relationship and over time has not been sufficiently explored. Therefore, identification of different patterns of victimization is critical to the criminal justice theorist and victimization theorist themselves to design an approach.
Conceptualization of Victimization
The theorist, legislators, activists, and policymakers have been putting efforts to conceptualize victimization. To the criminology theorist, the words which identify the patterns of victimization based on sexual and gendered orientations have become important ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"E6Pu4u9M","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fox & Fridel, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Fox & Fridel, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":408,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/JLKQE2HR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/orkqtrjP/items/JLKQE2HR"],"itemData":{"id":408,"type":"article-journal","title":"Gender Differences in Patterns and Trends in U.S. Homicide, 1976–2015","container-title":"Violence and Gender","page":"37-43","volume":"4","issue":"2","source":"liebertpub.com (Atypon)","abstract":"In the research literature on homicide, gender has generally received less attention than other demographic characteristics, specifically the age and race of victims and offenders. To some extent, this is understandable because the overwhelming majority, almost three-quarters, of homicides in the United States involve a male killing another male. Therefore, the usual patterns of homicide mirror for the most part the patterns of male homicide. However, there are substantial differences in the trends and patterns of female offending and victimization that should not be ignored in the aggregate. In this article, we employ a national homicide database (the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports, SHR) from 1976 through 2015 with multiple imputation of missing information to examine gender differences among victims and offenders in terms of characteristics such as age, race, weapon, circumstances, and victim–offender relationship.","DOI":"10.1089/vio.2017.0016","ISSN":"2326-7836","journalAbbreviation":"Violence and Gender","author":[{"family":"Fox","given":"James Alan"},{"family":"Fridel","given":"Emma E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",5,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fox & Fridel, 2017). They have made it possible for the people who discuss patterns of victimization that were previously unspeakable and ignored. The new terms that describe the patterns of victimization include harassment, sexual abuse, stalking, emotional abuse, intimate-partner violence, wife battering, acid throwing, patriarchal terrorism, date, and marital rape and acquaintanceship. Therefore, this is the possible reason that statics present a considerable decrease in the number of females to crimes as they themselves are being victimized. On the other hand, underage marriage is coming the less developed countries of Asia result in underage pregnancy and eventually to the death of young girls. This is, however, the oldest pattern of victimization that had never been highlighted on prior the globalization. The conceptualization of the patterns of victimization is greatly discussed in many government publications.
Occurrence of Victimization
The victimization is most likely to occur from partner and parents. But the risks are highest among partner relationship. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) found that the data has an exclusive gain for highlighting an extensive pattern of victimization for men and women in the selected racial groups in the US. However, the survey findings are affected by underreporting of victimization, particularly exceedingly personal experiences such as sexual assault and intimate-partner violence. The relative rates of victimization for racial group and sex depend on crimes which happen in public places and in or around the home. Such differences highlight gendered victimization and experience of the people. Most of the incidents of victimization are of robberies, assaults, and sexual assault. The largest difference in gendered victimization include offenses in public places and the native US women have reported the same. Though, men, in general, have informed the higher level of victimization away from their homes while black women also have the same results. For the women of color, the home is a relatively dangerous place, but black women are also vulnerable.
Victimization within Relationship
There are no different patterns of victimization among strangers, acquaintances or relatives. Contrary to this, there are three different patterns of violence between the parent-child relationships. It includes various patterns of violence including injurious violence. Similarly, intimate-partner victimization includes four different patterns of violence such as stalking, sexual assault, physical violence, and more violence. Moreover, intimate-partner violence can be characterized in many different classes of violence which reflect variation in the extent and the number of violence. Whereas stranger relationship might include fewer patterns of violence, perhaps distinguishing physical and sexual violence.
The risks of a specific pattern of victimization are independent of the risk of experiencing another pattern of victimization. People in common have a dynamic pattern of violence and rarely gets out of hand to a minor pattern of victimization. Patriarchal terrorism is a pattern of victimization found traditionally in patriarchal men’s right to control women. This approach is more constant with the pattern of systematic abuse. Significantly, systematic abuse is constant with the notion of patriarchal terrorism proposes controlling the sexual and social activities of their female partners. Such patterns offer a higher rate of victimization with the people who favor violence and possess norms and values. It also offers the basis for the credentials of risk factors and concern of the basic variable consequences.
Nature of Victimization
Men and boys are mostly victimized by other men while women and girls are mostly victimized by men either. However, regardless of the race, more than 90 percent of occurrences perpetrated on men have involved a male offender. While men are rarely victimized by women, it constitutes less than 10 percent for each racial group in the US. Of the victimization of native US women, 65 percent involve a male offender, while crime against women against every racial group has above 70 percent. Moreover, women are more likely to be victimized than men having a men offender.
Domestic and Non-Domestic Homicide
Over the past few years, the number of homicide rates has been decreasing. If it studied more closely, we find different patterns of victimization. Compared to women, here the maximum number of victims are men. Indeed, around the world, men's rate of victimization is four times higher than that of women. In addition, the possibility of victimization differs from country to country and continent to continent. Veli Verkko's ‘static law' explains the differences between victimization are reproduced in the share of women victims. When there is a higher number of victimizations, then there must be fewer female victimizations.
Homicide can unevenly be categorized into domestic and non-domestic. As per Verkko’s second law on homicide, the ‘dynamic law’ explains sequential changes in homicide number are chiefly due to the changes in the number of men-to-men violence over time and gain. Domestic law includes the killing of a parent, partner, children and other family members. While in domestic setting women are the victims and this might be due to interpersonal clashes. On the other hand, the non-domestic homicide includes the killing of drug-related crimes, nightlife violence, strangers and victims of robbery. The non-domestic killings are mostly dominated by men-to-men homicides.
Global Pattern of Victimization against Women
The evaluation of gendered victimization is, however, difficult in developing world due to spotty availability of research and findings. As per some official proclamation, some patterns of victimization are higher than that of the US in few countries. Such as in Papua New Guinea, 56 percent in cities while 67 percent in rural areas had been hit by their male counterparts. On the other hand, there is a significant increase in the rape of women and girls.
Across the borders, trafficking women and young girls for sexual purposes for victimizing is a crime. They have been forced or tricked into the cross-border and are engaged in prostitution usually come rural and urban areas of the less developed countries. While selling the female children is on the rising among poor families to the traffickers. Estimates say over 1 million women have been trafficked each year. They have been taken and recruited from poor Asian countries for profits with limited risk compared to that of the arms and drugs. This notion will surely encourage an increase in traffickers from poor Asian countries.
Risk Factors of Victimization
There can many risk factors ranging from socio-political and economic factors to low education, race, age, and marital disruption are significantly associated with the patterns of victimization. The number of risk factors in a particular pattern of victimization in a specific relationship were high. Over a period of time, both victimization and its consequences would possibly have a profound implication on social relationships and attainments. In this regard, young people are at a greater risk of being victimized.
In the US, poverty has gradually been concentrated on women and children and it cannot be explained by their education and age. However, it can be ameliorated by income support programs. Moreover, the poverty rate is highest among non-whites in the US particularly with both adults and the children. They are at the risks of economic disadvantage and hence result in women’s criminal victimization.
Conclusion
The experience of victimization would likely to continue in an intimate partnership and most probably in and around the home. The difference in victimization experiences proposes the need for tailor intervention. Such as the criminal justice system, in dealing with isolated victimization could be exclusively beneficial. In such a case, a specific offender could possibly be targeted by criminal justice sanctions. While in other cases, it may improve women’s capability to quite an abusive situation. An effective response starts with considering the recognition of patterns of victimization. In addition, the extensive comorbidity of violence, psychological distress, fear, use of substance and health problems will propose the need for coordination of counseling, medical assistance, and victim services. Whereas victim-witness liaisons and justice-based advocated will remain important including the other services.
References
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Fear of Victimization: Why Are Women and the Elderly More Afraid? - ProQuest. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2019, from https://search.proquest.com/openview/2a187a230664693fe2db8505670d05c2/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816420
Fox, J. A., & Fridel, E. E. (2017). Gender Differences in Patterns and Trends in U.S. Homicide, 1976–2015. Violence and Gender, 4(2), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2017.0016
Trends and patterns in victimization to domestic and non-domestic homicide - Leiden Safety and Security Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2019, from https://www.leidensafetyandsecurityblog.nl/articles/trends-and-patterns-in-victimization-to-domestic-and-non-domestic-homicide
