Human Trafficking and Prevention
Human trafficking and prevention
Analysis of the problem
Human trafficking can be traced back from the dawn of human civilization. It has impacted the economics and social settling of the world. After the end of the Second World War, the subject of human rights violations gradually started attracting the attention of the world. More recently, the issues of poverty, inequalities and human trade have taken the stage in global policy circles. Since these issues concern human dignity, therefore academicians from various disciplines have added their insightful input about such matters. Human trafficking has remained a topic of critical debate in many academic disciplines. As human trafficking is a broad phenomenon, therefore the theoretical paradigms of many discipline address this issue. In present times, the issue of human trafficking has expanded to a very large level. It is impacting the economies, societal settings and is also raising serious health concerns. There are also the psychological and sociological impacts of human trafficking.
The Psychological, Economical and Sociological roots of human trafficking
While trafficking is a serious issue of the modern world, its ancient roots can be traced back from slavery. According to Dale Tomich, slavery was most prevalent in prehistoric times. Every ancient civilization which existed used slaves ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"y5XZ7aee","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tomich, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Tomich, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1363,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CGEKPWHX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/CGEKPWHX"],"itemData":{"id":1363,"type":"book","title":"The politics of the second slavery","publisher":"SUNY Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Tomich","given":"Dale W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tomich, 2016). Slaves were obtained after the enslavement of masses conquered in war. Other ways of obtaining slaves included self- enslavement (of families or individuals) or for the settlement of debts. Fresh slaves which included young and energetic people had always remained in demand. As Meyer notes that slave capturing was like an expedition, the notables used to visit faraway places just to get people of their own choice ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"klmxYlEo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Meyer, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Meyer, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1365,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NYGNP3B7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NYGNP3B7"],"itemData":{"id":1365,"type":"book","title":"The economics of slavery: and other studies in econometric history","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The economics of slavery","author":[{"family":"Meyer","given":"John R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Meyer, 2017). During the thirteenth century, the trans- Saharan trade was responsible for human trafficking, Meyer has stated that between the years 1620 and 1800, approximately, one million Africans were captured and sent to America for slavery ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pCBcd94t","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Meyer, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Meyer, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1365,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NYGNP3B7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NYGNP3B7"],"itemData":{"id":1365,"type":"book","title":"The economics of slavery: and other studies in econometric history","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The economics of slavery","author":[{"family":"Meyer","given":"John R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Meyer, 2017). From there onwards, a quarter of a million people from Africa were forcefully transported to the USA to work as slaves.
A survey of the past literature suggests that raison d’etre for slave transportation from the nineteenth century onwards was economic. From centuries, slaves have served as a cheap and reliable source of labor for many tasks. During these times, the slave population was used for shipping related or agricultural related tasks. Historians like Parish, argue that as the business from that times were more related to shipping or agriculture, therefore slave population was used in agriculture or shipping related tasks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PIxPGyCC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Parish, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Parish, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1367,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/BVIXKU74"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/BVIXKU74"],"itemData":{"id":1367,"type":"book","title":"Slavery: history and historians","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Slavery","author":[{"family":"Parish","given":"Peter J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Parish, 2018). Other ways in which slave population helped in adding more revenues were by making them travel to longer distances for finding natural resources, like oils and minerals. As a case in point, one may consider Roman economic values which called slavery as a natural way of life. Similarly, the southern population of America considered slavery as part and parcel of their economic life. In short, if viewed by a broad lens, slavery has provided economic charm for rulers and wealthy people throughout centuries.
In most societies of ancient times, slaves were graded as low-class citizens. This is best described by homology for slaves. Patterson writes that the favorite homology among the ancient wealthy class was woman or wife ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5RVoNh2c","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Patterson, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Patterson, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1369,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/P2HULYHM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/P2HULYHM"],"itemData":{"id":1369,"type":"book","title":"Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, With a New Preface","publisher":"Harvard University Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Slavery and Social Death","author":[{"family":"Patterson","given":"Orlando"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Patterson, 2018). Some minor children were the second most loved form of this relation. Slaves in different societies were known by different names such as pauper, harlot, felons or actors. Throughout the sociological history maintained, it has been observed that slaves were considered as lazy, childish and coward. Patterson argues that attitudes of world great religions are an interesting sociological case study about slavery ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cAO1PPsp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Patterson, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Patterson, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1369,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/P2HULYHM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/P2HULYHM"],"itemData":{"id":1369,"type":"book","title":"Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, With a New Preface","publisher":"Harvard University Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Slavery and Social Death","author":[{"family":"Patterson","given":"Orlando"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Patterson, 2018). The major religions like Islam, Judaism, and Christianity have forbidden slavery in different forms. For example, the Islamic teachings suggested that any outsider who spends a time of around six years must not be considered as an outsider. Similarly, the Judaic teachings considered slavery as a natural form. In studying the sociology of slave, it is interesting to note that the major defining feature of slave sociology was that of the race ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JcvFLZ49","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Patterson, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Patterson, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1369,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/P2HULYHM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/P2HULYHM"],"itemData":{"id":1369,"type":"book","title":"Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, With a New Preface","publisher":"Harvard University Press","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Slavery and Social Death","author":[{"family":"Patterson","given":"Orlando"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Patterson, 2018). The race of outsiders slave accounted for their categorizations. For examples, white slaves were considered better and were associated with good luck in different regions of the world. Black slaves were however considered a cause of misfortune.
The psychological impact of human trafficking is the most evident expression that can be witnessed until the day. The psychologists of the present times argue that brutalities and harsh imprisonment of the slave in history have left the worst impression about human trafficking. The studies on the psychology of trafficked people from previous times suggest that self-cursing was the most observable feature among them ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5ffuoAUv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jarrasse, Sanguineti, & Burdet, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Jarrasse, Sanguineti, & Burdet, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1371,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/BU5KI68J"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/BU5KI68J"],"itemData":{"id":1371,"type":"article-journal","title":"Slaves no longer: review on role assignment for human–robot joint motor action","container-title":"Adaptive Behavior","page":"70–82","volume":"22","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Slaves no longer","author":[{"family":"Jarrasse","given":"Nathanael"},{"family":"Sanguineti","given":"Vittorio"},{"family":"Burdet","given":"Etienne"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jarrasse, Sanguineti, & Burdet, 2014). Grief, fights, and tears, etc, have all remained associated with such humans. The most psychologically damaging aspect observed was grading the transported population as third-class citizens or their association with bad luck. These people were then forced to serve as slaves. For this reason, many of the psychologists of the present time suggest that the slave expressions on some population groups are still observable in some regions around the world. These psychologists consider human trafficking as the most recent example of ancient slave transportation.
Theoretical perceptions
An integrated theoretical framework including psychological, sociological and economic model can explain perception about human trafficking and its prevention. Concepts like rational choice, individual vulnerability, economic theories, and constitutive theory describe an integrated theoretical model about human trafficking. This model will describe the manner of events which is followed during human trafficking. It is described by Lanier that when an offense occurs as a result of different causes, an integrated approach is required to analyze the chain of events used in committing that crime ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yRqxC3HY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lanier, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Lanier, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1374,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/AVL5P23T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/AVL5P23T"],"itemData":{"id":1374,"type":"book","title":"Essential criminology","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Lanier","given":"Mark M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lanier, 2018). He argues that the purpose of an integrated theoretical approach is to find probabilities from different theoretical approaches. Another advantage of integrated theoretical study is to list the factors which contribute to the happening of that crime, which is human trafficking in this case. This integrated theoretical study finally helps in creating a strategy to respond to human trafficking which is a cause of prostitution and child sex in the present scenario.
Economic theory
Economic theory helps to explain the crimes, actions and the behaviors which define the cost and benefits of a certain offense. This theory suggests that people make decisions to create ways to appear like describing criminal activities as non- violent ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OKDZOcEb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Becker, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Becker, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1375,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3JYUB26B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3JYUB26B"],"itemData":{"id":1375,"type":"book","title":"Economic theory","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Becker","given":"Gary S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Becker, 2017). The criminals commit such crimes to gain more economic benefits that would otherwise be impossible if done in a legal way. The basic tenets of the economic theory are that criminals commit a crime in order to achieve maximum economic gains ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U2lkvcyI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Becker, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Becker, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1375,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3JYUB26B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/3JYUB26B"],"itemData":{"id":1375,"type":"book","title":"Economic theory","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Becker","given":"Gary S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Becker, 2017). In doing so they outweigh the financial benefits. It also mentions that individual or offenders use the bad way to obtain economic advantages just because they want to surpass the legal; barriers in their ways. Taking this notion of the economic theory about human trafficking, it is right to argue that human traffickers can face strict lethal barriers in implementing their plans of trafficking humans. Also, the economic theory, in this case, suggests that huge profits are way far if this offense is committed by legal channel.
Constitutive theory
The main idea of the constitutive theory is socially constructed differences are based on equality and power. The more one has the power, the more he will be assertive toward others. This theory mentions that constructed differences impose harm and a sense of deprivations among the subordinated groups. According to the theoretical notion presented in this theory, the cultural and structural similarities in different societies help to determine the type of crime which is likely to be originated in specified geographical communities’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"84h6CJsi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Henry & Milovanovic, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Henry & Milovanovic, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1377,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WV7WRE57"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WV7WRE57"],"itemData":{"id":1377,"type":"chapter","title":"Constitutive criminology","container-title":"Controversies in critical criminology","publisher":"Routledge","page":"75–88","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Henry","given":"Stuart"},{"family":"Milovanovic","given":"Dragan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Henry & Milovanovic, 2014). Constitutive criminologists perceive criminals as investors in crime. These constitutive criminals use any means to achieve the desired results. The victim, in this case, is mostly a woman, a minor or a person in need of finances. The constitutive theory, in this case, elaborates the sociology of human trafficking. Interconnectedness, lust for power, inequality and financial gain are the results of human trafficking, as suggested by this theory ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yc6GfSNx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Henry & Milovanovic, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Henry & Milovanovic, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1377,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WV7WRE57"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/WV7WRE57"],"itemData":{"id":1377,"type":"chapter","title":"Constitutive criminology","container-title":"Controversies in critical criminology","publisher":"Routledge","page":"75–88","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Henry","given":"Stuart"},{"family":"Milovanovic","given":"Dragan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Henry & Milovanovic, 2014). The social constitutive structural and cultural context in which the victims emanate are necessary to describe victim vulnerability for human traffickers.
Rational choice theory
This theory differentiates between rational and irrational choices. Rational choices, in this case, are committing the crime that can draw large financial benefits. In differentiating between the rational and irrational choices, one works on his or her psychological instincts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ro6QTHD0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Newman & Clarke, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Newman & Clarke, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1379,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T5RSNG3Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T5RSNG3Z"],"itemData":{"id":1379,"type":"book","title":"Rational choice and situational crime prevention: Theoretical foundations","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Rational choice and situational crime prevention","author":[{"family":"Newman","given":"Graeme"},{"family":"Clarke","given":"Ronald V."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Newman & Clarke, 2016). This theory suggests that criminals are rational beings which make choices based on cost-benefit analysis. Different psychological studies carried over human trafficking suggest that the decisions of human traffickers are actually rational. Their rationality is obvious from their choice of opportunities, the circumstances they work in and their successful perpetration of planned crimes. It is pointed out by Newman that rational choice decision making about committing crime also includes the choice of victims ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zwUhBOIQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Newman & Clarke, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Newman & Clarke, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1379,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T5RSNG3Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/T5RSNG3Z"],"itemData":{"id":1379,"type":"book","title":"Rational choice and situational crime prevention: Theoretical foundations","publisher":"Routledge","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Rational choice and situational crime prevention","author":[{"family":"Newman","given":"Graeme"},{"family":"Clarke","given":"Ronald V."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Newman & Clarke, 2016). Some other things criminals keep in mind before committing a crime is their choice of time and location etc. the rational choice model in human trafficking case suggest that traffickers now choose teenagers and young women as their victims. These teens whether male or female attach huge financial gains for such offenders.
Integrating theories
The structure of the integrated theory to explain human trafficking and its prevention suggest that trafficking takes the form of multiple causalities. Human trafficking is caused after the combination of multiple factors. The integration for such concepts is done at the individual level of theoretical integration. There exists a depending relationship between the variables described above in three theories. The variables described above if combined cannot work well if then studied individually. For example, decision making cannot occur without differentiation between rational and irrational choices. These choices then define the victim’s vulnerability and the way to possess more powers. The interconnection of the material factors, victim precipitation along with the certainty of punishment makes trafficker to move victims. Finally, the society expresses ambivalent attitudes for the victims. This suggests that each variable link to others at each stage of human trafficking, this is even true for its prevention also.
Identification of conflicts between insights and theories
The conceptualization of human trafficking is a hard task. The recent publications suggest that academic debates over human trafficking exist only after the second half of the twentieth century. Some scholars argue that human smuggling is the same phenomena as human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wSuqmaYB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Izcara Palacios, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Izcara Palacios, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1381,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/PVGR9FA3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/PVGR9FA3"],"itemData":{"id":1381,"type":"article-journal","title":"Coyotaje and drugs: Two different businesses","container-title":"Bulletin of Latin American Research","page":"324–339","volume":"34","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Coyotaje and drugs","author":[{"family":"Izcara Palacios","given":"Simón Pedro"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Izcara Palacios, 2015). Different from these scholars, some opine that human trafficking constitutes a major crime. They base their opinion on the facts that as it is difficult to differentiate between human smuggling and trafficking, therefore the victims of trafficking are often considered as illegal immigrants and are therefore treated badly by the authorities. Such rude behavior of the authorities than further lead to the victimization of the affected people. These conflicts of insights about human trafficking and smuggling have also impacted the theoretical literature about human trafficking ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BQ6zfXIj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Campana & Varese, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Campana & Varese, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1383,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6HK9SBFA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6HK9SBFA"],"itemData":{"id":1383,"type":"article-journal","title":"Exploitation in human trafficking and smuggling","container-title":"European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research","page":"89–105","volume":"22","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Campana","given":"Paolo"},{"family":"Varese","given":"Federico"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Campana & Varese, 2016). Different theorists argue that economic causes are the reasons for human trafficking, whereas some argue that sociological conditions are a result of such crimes. Similar to this, there are differences of opinions in its prevention ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rXF6i74E","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Campana & Varese, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Campana & Varese, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1383,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6HK9SBFA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6HK9SBFA"],"itemData":{"id":1383,"type":"article-journal","title":"Exploitation in human trafficking and smuggling","container-title":"European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research","page":"89–105","volume":"22","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Campana","given":"Paolo"},{"family":"Varese","given":"Federico"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Campana & Varese, 2016). The following paragraphs will highlight the conflict in insights and theoretical perception of human trafficking and its prevention.
Conflict in insights about human trafficking and its prevention
The major reasons for conflict in insight about human trafficking and its prevention are the changing global trends. Since the last decade, the international political situation has undergone major changes. It has ignited the security concerns and states have therefore adopted stringent mechanisms to stop such crimes. This global situation has also given birth to the debate about the difference in insights about human trafficking. Human smuggling is majorly considered as a synonym to human trafficking, which is quite wrong. Both human smuggling and human trafficking are two different phenomena and require different measures for their prevention. Human trafficking is about controlling human beings for their exploitation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"I7ajC50q","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ranjana, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Ranjana, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1388,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6EPX73DM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/6EPX73DM"],"itemData":{"id":1388,"type":"thesis","title":"Human Trafficking: A study exploring its causes, current efforts and challenges","genre":"PhD Thesis","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Human Trafficking","author":[{"family":"Ranjana","given":"Disha"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ranjana, 2015). Victims of trafficking are not permitted freedom and their rights have abstained. There are many cases reported which suggest that victims of human trafficking were sexually abused and were taken away from their homelands without their consent. The absence of consent suggests that they were forcibly moved away from the place of their residence.
Human smuggling, on the other hand, is different from human trafficking. The major difference is of the realization of will. In human smuggling, apparently, there is no victim. Smuggling occurs on the basis of some agreed statues. It is about illegally entering any country. In such cases, people from different countries make an effort to impinge the security barriers of another country. In some recent times, it has been noticed that political unrest and weekend security has resulted in human smuggling. The primary victim in this crime is the state, as the immigration laws of that country have been violated. As there is a huge difference in ways both crimes are committed, similarly, both crimes can be prevented by adopting different strategies. In order to prevent human trafficking states take strict actions against the criminals involved in human trafficking. Since trafficking business has expanded and involved people from different countries, therefore it requires a multi-pronged strategy to combat. On the other hand, human smuggling can be prevented by employing coercive measure against the smugglers involved in such acts.
Theoretical conflicts about human trafficking and its prevention
The theoretical literature related to the psychological, sociological and economic aspect about human trafficking includes many differences. Each theoretical paradigm talks about the end results based on already defined perceptions in theory. The rational choice theory which talks about psychological motives behind such crimes actually suggests that human trafficking is the rational choice one adopts to increase financial gains. The psychology, in this case, is related to rational choices. Since one finds it a rational option for increasing his income, therefore at the individual level it cannot be prevented. The sociological aspect about human trafficking which is pillared upon constitutive theory suggests that cultural similarities are actually the reason, why one adopts the most suited crime ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t1rHpXIC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Russell, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Russell, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1396,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FPE2UB75"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FPE2UB75"],"itemData":{"id":1396,"type":"article-journal","title":"Human trafficking: A research synthesis on human-trafficking literature in academic journals from 2000–2014","container-title":"Journal of human trafficking","page":"114–136","volume":"4","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Human trafficking","author":[{"family":"Russell","given":"Ashley"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Russell, 2018). The sociology of this crime suggests that since any society makes the circumstances feasible for traffickers, therefore the sociological patterns should be changed. In order to prevent such crimes from the society, social justice and equal distribution of the resources be made sure.
Different from both psychological and sociological theories, the economic theory suggests that the economic charm attached to the human trafficking business is the reason for its expansion. This theory just bases its argument on the economic perspective of the offenses, therefore one may argue that strict management of economic irregularities might be helpful in preventing this crime. The economic charm attached to the trafficking business is the main reason, the perpetrators of this crime risk their life in conducting this business. Such differences in the theoretical perceptions about human trafficking and its prevention draw the broad picture of this crime. These differences in theories suggest that human trafficking includes almost every aspect of contemporary social life.
Common perceptions in concepts and theories
This integrative model of human trafficking helps in making understand the actual causes of human trafficking. Since human trafficking has taken a form of a global issue, therefore different perspectives are needed to consider in order to find common perceptions in the concepts and theories. The psychological, economic and sociological perception are just some aspects of this large business. The common perceptions in the theoretical literature mentioned above are the economy and social differences in society. The psychological perception and its theories provide a different interpretation of this subject, while some being relevant to the economy as well. In finding the common perceptions one also need to consider the regional and global political situations. Not in every region of the world, the sociological situations are encouraging for such businesses. The concepts about human trafficking also vary from region to region. The regions where economic opportunities are too limited and social justice is not prevalent, people often find attraction in such business.
Common perceptions in concepts
The common perception about human trafficking is that it is s a modern form of slavery. As like in the pre-historical times, slaves were transported from a place to another and were forced to live in the inhumane conditions, similarly the victims of human trafficking experience the same situation. Kenyon and Schanz argue that sex trafficking often goes undetected, even when it takes apparently ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3zSCFb8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kenyon & Schanz, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Kenyon & Schanz, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1391,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/UYYT8NC8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/UYYT8NC8"],"itemData":{"id":1391,"type":"article-journal","title":"Sex trafficking: Examining links to prostitution and the routine activity theory","container-title":"International Journal of Criminology and Sociology","page":"61–76","volume":"3","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Sex trafficking","author":[{"family":"Kenyon","given":"Samuel"},{"family":"Schanz","given":"Youngyol"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kenyon & Schanz, 2014). The reason for such ignorance by masses is the expanded use of social media which has largely changed the concepts attached to this menace. The traffickers have started presented this crime in much new and attractive manner. This addition of attraction, coupled with its promotion by social media has diluted the perception about human trafficking. These changing perceptions are adding new dimensions to the perceptions related to human trafficking. The criminal experts argue that in order to limit the growing influence of traffickers, the attraction attached to this business must be needed to be discouraged.
Common perception in theories
The common perception in the theoretical literature available about human trafficking and its prevention is the economy. Each theoretical perspective excluding the rational choice model suggests that immense economic gains make this business attractive. Since it is the second largest criminal industry in the world, therefore it is often misunderstood and wrongly interpreted. Horning argues that theories about the society normally address the existing flaws, therefore the large inflows of finances are often the last resort for addressing such flaws ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ShPaDY0D","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Horning, Thomas, Henninger, & Marcus, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Horning, Thomas, Henninger, & Marcus, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1394,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/EX7V6H9J"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/EX7V6H9J"],"itemData":{"id":1394,"type":"article-journal","title":"The trafficking in persons report: A game of risk","container-title":"International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice","page":"257–280","volume":"38","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"The trafficking in persons report","author":[{"family":"Horning","given":"Amber"},{"family":"Thomas","given":"Christopher"},{"family":"Henninger","given":"Alana M."},{"family":"Marcus","given":"Anthony"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Horning, Thomas, Henninger, & Marcus, 2014). They argue that sociological differences urge the victims to opt for the activities which are often banned by their states. If viewed through the economic lens, it is right to argue that certainly many large finances are attached to this business. The theoretical perception about the society also suggests that since in many regions of the world, there exist social inequalities which creates an attractive environment for traffickers and smugglers.
In a nutshell, this can be concluded from the above discussion that human trafficking is a great social evil. Various theories and perceptions exist about this concept. Nevertheless, the world is still ambivalent about its cure. It is time that leaders take a breath of sanity and amend the situation as soon as possible.
References:
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