Obesity

Child Obesity

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[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Child Obesity

Child obesity became a serious social and medical issue all over the world, especially in the United States. This public health issue is affecting over 12 million children in the United States, which is approximately 17% of children. This issue is associated with several reasons, such as lack of physical activities, spending more time in front of the screen, and a high caloric diet. Overweight and obese children are more at the risk of developing psychological and physical complications. Children with severe obesity are mostly resistant to Mellitus type 2 diabetes, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and ovarian syndrome. Adolescents and obese children often visit general physicians for their diet management. As it will later play a significant role in obesity treatment and prevention as it required entire family lifestyle modification.

Recently, childhood obesity increased drastically all over the world but specifically in developed countries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mE2kP4cP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan, Akhtar-Danesh, & Merchant, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan, Akhtar-Danesh, & Merchant, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan, Akhtar-Danesh, & Merchant, 2005). In the United States, more than 25% of children are overweight, while 11% considered obese ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"z0YbuevX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pratt et al., 2013)","plainCitation":"(Pratt et al., 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":830,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BYNCAI4W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BYNCAI4W"],"itemData":{"id":830,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Obesity is a major public health problem affecting more than 12 million (~17%)U.S. children. The scientific community agrees that tackling this problem must begin in childhood to reduce risk of subsequent development of cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR) Consortium, initiated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), is conducting intervention studies to prevent obesity in pre-schoolers and treat overweight or obese 7–13 year olds. Four randomized controlled trials plan to enroll a total of 1,700 children and adolescents (~ 50% female, 70% minorities), and are testing innovative multi-level and multi-component interventions in multiple settings involving primary care physicians, parks and recreational centers, family advocates, and schools. For all the studies, the primary outcome measure is body mass index; secondary outcomes, moderators and mediators of intervention include diet, physical activity, home and neighborhood influences, and psychosocial factors. COPTR is being conducted collaboratively among four participating field centers, a coordinating center, and NIH project offices.","container-title":"Contemporary clinical trials","DOI":"10.1016/j.cct.2013.08.010","ISSN":"1551-7144","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Contemp Clin Trials","note":"PMID: 23999502\nPMCID: PMC5782806","page":"406-413","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR): Interventions Addressing Multiple Influences in Childhood and Adolescent Obesity","title-short":"Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR)","volume":"36","author":[{"family":"Pratt","given":"Charlotte A."},{"family":"Boyington","given":"Josephine"},{"family":"Esposito","given":"Layla"},{"family":"Pemberton","given":"Victoria L."},{"family":"Bonds","given":"Denise"},{"family":"Kelley","given":"Melinda"},{"family":"Yang","given":"Song"},{"family":"Murray","given":"David"},{"family":"Stevens","given":"June"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pratt et al., 2013). It is noticed that in childhood, both obesity and overweight have a remarkable effect on psychological and physical health ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mKgi0ebn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rogers et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Rogers et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":833,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/67IE3TTJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/67IE3TTJ"],"itemData":{"id":833,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Background: \nPrevious studies have shown race/ethnicity, particularly African American and/or Hispanic status, to be a predictor of overweight/obese status in children. However, these studies have failed to adjust for low socioeconomic status (SES). This study assessed whether race/ethnicity remained an independent predictor of childhood obesity when accounting for variations in SES (low-income) among communities in Massachusetts.\n\nMethods:\nThis study was based on 2009 summarized data from 68 Massachusetts school districts with 111,799 students in grades 1, 4, 7, and 10. We studied the relationship between the rate of overweight/obese students (mean = 0.32; range = 0.10-0.46), the rate of African American and Hispanic students (mean = 0.17; range = 0.00-0.90), and the rate of low-income students (mean = 0.27; range = 0.02-0.87) in two and three dimensions. The main effect of the race/ethnicity rate, the low-income rate, and their interaction on the overweight and obese rate was investigated by multiple regression modeling.\n\nResults:\nLow-income was highly associated with overweight/obese status (p < 0.0001), whereas the effect of race/ethnicity (p = 0.27) and its interaction (p = 0.23) with low-income were not statistically significant. For every 1% increase in low-income, there was a 1.17% increase in overweight/obese status. This pattern was observed across all African American and Hispanic rates in the communities studied.\n\nConclusions:\nOverweight/obese status was highly prevalent among Massachusetts students, varying from 10% to 46% across communities. Although there were higher rates of overweight/obese status among African American and Hispanic students, the relationship disappeared when controlling for family income. Our findings suggest low SES plays a more significant role in the nation's childhood obesity epidemic than race/ethnicity.","container-title":"Childhood obesity (Print)","DOI":"10.1089/chi.2015.0029","journalAbbreviation":"Childhood obesity (Print)","source":"ResearchGate","title":"The Relationship between Childhood Obesity, Low Socioeconomic Status, and Race/Ethnicity: Lessons from Massachusetts","title-short":"The Relationship between Childhood Obesity, Low Socioeconomic Status, and Race/Ethnicity","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Rogers","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Eagle","given":"Taylor"},{"family":"Sheetz","given":"Anne"},{"family":"Woodward","given":"Alan"},{"family":"Leibowitz","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Song","given":"Minkyoung"},{"family":"Sylvester","given":"Rachel"},{"family":"Corriveau","given":"Nicole"},{"family":"Kline-Rogers","given":"Eva"},{"family":"Jiang","given":"Qingmei"},{"family":"Jackson","given":"Elizabeth"},{"family":"Eagle","given":"Kim"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",11,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rogers et al., 2015). The mechanism which is involved in the development of obesity is still not fully understood. It is believed as the disorder with several causes. It involved various factors, such as environment, culture, and lifestyle preferences ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ey5rK8RG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). These factors are playing a central role in obesity regularity all over the globe. Generally, obesity and overweight are considered as the result of the increased fat intake and caloric diet. However, there is some supporting evidence that provides evidence that excessive intake of sugar is also contributing to the development of obesity. The sugar intake is increased globally in the form of soft drinks. The lack of physical activities is also playing the main role in obesity increasing rates ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nIOm4gV0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). Therefore, both calories over consumptions and lack of physical exercise are contributing to childhood obesity.

It is agreed by all the researchers that prevention can be an important strategy for controlling obesity. The primary prevention includes controlling obesity and overweight at the initial stage. Secondary, through the prevention of weight gain after weight loss and avoiding more weight ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"skzP0pUa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Seth & Sharma, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Seth & Sharma, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":836,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/JDGR9W82"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/JDGR9W82"],"itemData":{"id":836,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The Indian Journal of Pediatrics","DOI":"10.1007/s12098-012-0931-5","ISSN":"0019-5456, 0973-7693","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Indian J Pediatr","language":"en","page":"309-317","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","title":"Childhood Obesity","volume":"80","author":[{"family":"Seth","given":"Anju"},{"family":"Sharma","given":"Rajni"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Seth & Sharma, 2013). When an obese person gains weight, it becomes hard for him to reduce it. Till now, most of the approaches focused solely on the individuals' behavioral changes through exercise and diet. Although such strategies have the least impact on the obesity increasing rate ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NULp6tFu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rogers et al., 2015)","plainCitation":"(Rogers et al., 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":833,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/67IE3TTJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/67IE3TTJ"],"itemData":{"id":833,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Background: \nPrevious studies have shown race/ethnicity, particularly African American and/or Hispanic status, to be a predictor of overweight/obese status in children. However, these studies have failed to adjust for low socioeconomic status (SES). This study assessed whether race/ethnicity remained an independent predictor of childhood obesity when accounting for variations in SES (low-income) among communities in Massachusetts.\n\nMethods:\nThis study was based on 2009 summarized data from 68 Massachusetts school districts with 111,799 students in grades 1, 4, 7, and 10. We studied the relationship between the rate of overweight/obese students (mean = 0.32; range = 0.10-0.46), the rate of African American and Hispanic students (mean = 0.17; range = 0.00-0.90), and the rate of low-income students (mean = 0.27; range = 0.02-0.87) in two and three dimensions. The main effect of the race/ethnicity rate, the low-income rate, and their interaction on the overweight and obese rate was investigated by multiple regression modeling.\n\nResults:\nLow-income was highly associated with overweight/obese status (p < 0.0001), whereas the effect of race/ethnicity (p = 0.27) and its interaction (p = 0.23) with low-income were not statistically significant. For every 1% increase in low-income, there was a 1.17% increase in overweight/obese status. This pattern was observed across all African American and Hispanic rates in the communities studied.\n\nConclusions:\nOverweight/obese status was highly prevalent among Massachusetts students, varying from 10% to 46% across communities. Although there were higher rates of overweight/obese status among African American and Hispanic students, the relationship disappeared when controlling for family income. Our findings suggest low SES plays a more significant role in the nation's childhood obesity epidemic than race/ethnicity.","container-title":"Childhood obesity (Print)","DOI":"10.1089/chi.2015.0029","journalAbbreviation":"Childhood obesity (Print)","source":"ResearchGate","title":"The Relationship between Childhood Obesity, Low Socioeconomic Status, and Race/Ethnicity: Lessons from Massachusetts","title-short":"The Relationship between Childhood Obesity, Low Socioeconomic Status, and Race/Ethnicity","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Rogers","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Eagle","given":"Taylor"},{"family":"Sheetz","given":"Anne"},{"family":"Woodward","given":"Alan"},{"family":"Leibowitz","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Song","given":"Minkyoung"},{"family":"Sylvester","given":"Rachel"},{"family":"Corriveau","given":"Nicole"},{"family":"Kline-Rogers","given":"Eva"},{"family":"Jiang","given":"Qingmei"},{"family":"Jackson","given":"Elizabeth"},{"family":"Eagle","given":"Kim"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",11,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rogers et al., 2015), it is reported that almost 50% of the adult population is obese because once the excessive weight is gained, it becomes difficult to lose it ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pB2DNhlx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005).

The obesity in adolescents an even childhood is linked with health complications, which include type 2 diabetes, hypertension, orthopedic issues, sleep disorders, metabolic syndrome, and ovarian syndrome ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qnFg15mh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pratt et al., 2013)","plainCitation":"(Pratt et al., 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":830,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BYNCAI4W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BYNCAI4W"],"itemData":{"id":830,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Obesity is a major public health problem affecting more than 12 million (~17%)U.S. children. The scientific community agrees that tackling this problem must begin in childhood to reduce risk of subsequent development of cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR) Consortium, initiated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), is conducting intervention studies to prevent obesity in pre-schoolers and treat overweight or obese 7–13 year olds. Four randomized controlled trials plan to enroll a total of 1,700 children and adolescents (~ 50% female, 70% minorities), and are testing innovative multi-level and multi-component interventions in multiple settings involving primary care physicians, parks and recreational centers, family advocates, and schools. For all the studies, the primary outcome measure is body mass index; secondary outcomes, moderators and mediators of intervention include diet, physical activity, home and neighborhood influences, and psychosocial factors. COPTR is being conducted collaboratively among four participating field centers, a coordinating center, and NIH project offices.","container-title":"Contemporary clinical trials","DOI":"10.1016/j.cct.2013.08.010","ISSN":"1551-7144","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Contemp Clin Trials","note":"PMID: 23999502\nPMCID: PMC5782806","page":"406-413","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR): Interventions Addressing Multiple Influences in Childhood and Adolescent Obesity","title-short":"Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR)","volume":"36","author":[{"family":"Pratt","given":"Charlotte A."},{"family":"Boyington","given":"Josephine"},{"family":"Esposito","given":"Layla"},{"family":"Pemberton","given":"Victoria L."},{"family":"Bonds","given":"Denise"},{"family":"Kelley","given":"Melinda"},{"family":"Yang","given":"Song"},{"family":"Murray","given":"David"},{"family":"Stevens","given":"June"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pratt et al., 2013). The psychological issues associated with obesity include low-self-esteem, depression, stigmatization, and discrimination ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JIMceHxv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Segni, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Segni, 2000)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":852,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98FF78Z5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/98FF78Z5"],"itemData":{"id":852,"type":"chapter","abstract":"Thyroid disorders in infancy, childhood and adolescence represent common and usually treatable endocrine disorders. Thyroid hormones are essential for normal development and growth of many target tissues, including the brain and the skeleton. Thyroid hormone action on critical genes for neurodevelopment is limited to specific time window, and even a short period of deficiency of TH can cause irreversible brain damage. During the first trimester of pregnancy fetal brain development is totally dependent on maternal thyroid function. Congenital hypothyroidism is one of the most preventable causes of mental retardation, but early diagnosis is needed in order to prevent irreversible SNC damage. Today more than 70% of the babies worldwide are born in areas without an organized screening program. New insights about genetic causes, screening strategies and treatment of congenital hypothyroidism are reported. Hyperthyroidism in newborns is usually a transient consequence of transplacental passage of TSH receptor stimulating antibodies. Hypothyroidism can be detected in infants born to hyperthyroid mothers, due to transplacental passage of TSH receptor antibodies or hypothalamic-pituitary suppression. In childhood and adolescence autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis and Graves’ disease account for the main cause of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, respectively. Incidence of AITD increase from infancy to adolescence. Other autoimmune disorders are frequently associated. An increased risk of thyroid nodules and cancer is suggested. Differentiated thyroid cancer and medullary thyroid carcinoma in childhood and adolescence require specific expertise. Follow up programs are advised for high risk patients as long term survivors of childhood cancer. For complete coverage of this and related areas of Endocrinology, please visit our free online textbook, WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG.","call-number":"NBK279032","container-title":"Endotext","event-place":"South Dartmouth (MA)","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 25905261","publisher":"MDText.com, Inc.","publisher-place":"South Dartmouth (MA)","source":"PubMed","title":"Disorders of the Thyroid Gland in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence","URL":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279032/","author":[{"family":"Segni","given":"Maria"}],"editor":[{"family":"Feingold","given":"Kenneth R."},{"family":"Anawalt","given":"Bradley"},{"family":"Boyce","given":"Alison"},{"family":"Chrousos","given":"George"},{"family":"Dungan","given":"Kathleen"},{"family":"Grossman","given":"Ashley"},{"family":"Hershman","given":"Jerome M."},{"family":"Kaltsas","given":"Gregory"},{"family":"Koch","given":"Christian"},{"family":"Kopp","given":"Peter"},{"family":"Korbonits","given":"Márta"},{"family":"McLachlan","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Morley","given":"John E."},{"family":"New","given":"Maria"},{"family":"Perreault","given":"Leigh"},{"family":"Purnell","given":"Jonathan"},{"family":"Rebar","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Singer","given":"Frederick"},{"family":"Trence","given":"Dace L."},{"family":"Vinik","given":"Aaron"},{"family":"Wilson","given":"Don P."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Segni, 2000). The obesity in childhood increased the chances that the person will remain obese in adulthood as well. Recently, it is analyzed that 30 to 40% of childhood obesity eventually transformed into type2 diabetes, which will further increase the risks associated with cardiovascular diseases and various other health complications ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ZMpMFghC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). In turn, it will potentially reduce a person's life expectancy. It is observed significantly that obese children have more frequency to become depressed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qvjlz6b8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). The maximum age limit for overweight children is 40 to 55 years, as they are more likely to develop digestive and cardiovascular diseases. They die because of any reason as compared to healthy and lean people.

However, the overweight and obesity definition has been changed with time. It can be defined as body fat (BF) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CvZPPgwG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). However, there is no cut-off point for overweight and obesity excessive fatness in adolescents and children. Similarly, there is no particular mechanism understood for the development of obesity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vqHHgalu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pratt et al., 2013)","plainCitation":"(Pratt et al., 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":830,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BYNCAI4W"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BYNCAI4W"],"itemData":{"id":830,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Obesity is a major public health problem affecting more than 12 million (~17%)U.S. children. The scientific community agrees that tackling this problem must begin in childhood to reduce risk of subsequent development of cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR) Consortium, initiated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), is conducting intervention studies to prevent obesity in pre-schoolers and treat overweight or obese 7–13 year olds. Four randomized controlled trials plan to enroll a total of 1,700 children and adolescents (~ 50% female, 70% minorities), and are testing innovative multi-level and multi-component interventions in multiple settings involving primary care physicians, parks and recreational centers, family advocates, and schools. For all the studies, the primary outcome measure is body mass index; secondary outcomes, moderators and mediators of intervention include diet, physical activity, home and neighborhood influences, and psychosocial factors. COPTR is being conducted collaboratively among four participating field centers, a coordinating center, and NIH project offices.","container-title":"Contemporary clinical trials","DOI":"10.1016/j.cct.2013.08.010","ISSN":"1551-7144","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Contemp Clin Trials","note":"PMID: 23999502\nPMCID: PMC5782806","page":"406-413","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR): Interventions Addressing Multiple Influences in Childhood and Adolescent Obesity","title-short":"Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR)","volume":"36","author":[{"family":"Pratt","given":"Charlotte A."},{"family":"Boyington","given":"Josephine"},{"family":"Esposito","given":"Layla"},{"family":"Pemberton","given":"Victoria L."},{"family":"Bonds","given":"Denise"},{"family":"Kelley","given":"Melinda"},{"family":"Yang","given":"Song"},{"family":"Murray","given":"David"},{"family":"Stevens","given":"June"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Pratt et al., 2013). Obesity occurs when energy intake exceeds the amount of energy expenditure. However, several etiologies cause this imbalance, so; nobody can link one etiology with obesity. The genetic factor that influences the particular child's susceptibility to be in the obesity conducive circumstances. Although the cultural environment, lifestyle preferences, and environmental factors also play a crucial role in the obesity prevalence at a global scale. In the least cases, child obesity is because of the genes such as the deficiency of leptin, and some medial causes such as the increase in hormone deficiency and hypothyroidism or through any drug side effect ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"s4YqEJOt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005).

It has been observed that in recent year’s food become easily available and affordable at a large scale ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wBRZlrHA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}(PDF) Current Trends in Childhood Obesity Research,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“(PDF) Current Trends in Childhood Obesity Research,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":837,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XKXRX86D"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XKXRX86D"],"itemData":{"id":837,"type":"webpage","abstract":"PDF | Childhood obesity is a global health issue. To identify research trends and gaps of childhood obesity research, we reviewed MEDLINE publications... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate","container-title":"ResearchGate","language":"en","note":"DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13668-012-0025-z","title":"(PDF) Current Trends in Childhood Obesity Research","URL":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239522352_Current_Trends_in_Childhood_Obesity_Research","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“(PDF) Current Trends in Childhood Obesity Research,” n.d.). The food prices are decreased about the amount of income ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CQszmNFU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Journal of obesity,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Journal of obesity,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":850,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BM2AN9YE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/BM2AN9YE"],"itemData":{"id":850,"type":"webpage","abstract":"Journal of obesity | Read 272 articles with impact on ResearchGate, the professional network for scientists.","container-title":"ResearchGate","language":"en","title":"Journal of obesity","URL":"https://www.researchgate.net/journal/2090-0708_Journal_of_obesity","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Journal of obesity,” n.d.). The food concept changed significantly as the lifestyle marker and the source of pleasure. Nowadays, children developed terrible eating habits, and nutrition is no longer considered a necessity. Children eat more sweets and candies all the time with no exercise ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OnOI0O4f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}Childhood obesity\\uc0\\u8212{}Symptoms and causes,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“Childhood obesity—Symptoms and causes,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":838,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/AGVY7HQ3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/AGVY7HQ3"],"itemData":{"id":838,"type":"webpage","container-title":"Mayo Clinic","language":"en","title":"Childhood obesity - Symptoms and causes","URL":"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/childhood-obesity/symptoms-causes/syc-20354827","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,19]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Childhood obesity—Symptoms and causes,” n.d.). However, exercise is a crucial thing that keeps the body healthy. However, it is not the only thing that makes the person healthy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PCaMSIV6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Seth & Sharma, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Seth & Sharma, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":836,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/JDGR9W82"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/JDGR9W82"],"itemData":{"id":836,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The Indian Journal of Pediatrics","DOI":"10.1007/s12098-012-0931-5","ISSN":"0019-5456, 0973-7693","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Indian J Pediatr","language":"en","page":"309-317","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","title":"Childhood Obesity","volume":"80","author":[{"family":"Seth","given":"Anju"},{"family":"Sharma","given":"Rajni"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Seth & Sharma, 2013).

Obesity is harmfully associated with both adolescents and children, which is continuously increasing morbidity in the region. It is also contributing to the risks of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uzl33HFR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Han, Lawlor, & Kimm, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Han, Lawlor, & Kimm, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":847,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/7WLMRTEL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/7WLMRTEL"],"itemData":{"id":847,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Worldwide prevalence of childhood obesity has increased greatly during the past three decades. The increasing occurrence in children of disorders such as type 2 diabetes is believed to be a consequence of this obesity epidemic. Much progress has been made in understanding of the genetics and physiology of appetite control and from these advances, elucidation of the causes of some rare obesity syndromes. However, these rare disorders have so far taught us few lessons about prevention or reversal of obesity in most children. Calorie intake and activity recommendations need reassessment and improved quantification at a population level because of sedentary lifestyles of children nowadays. For individual treatment, currently recommended calorie prescriptions might be too conservative in view of evolving insight into the so-called energy gap. Although quality of research into both prevention and treatment has improved, high-quality multicentre trials with long-term follow-up are needed. Meanwhile, prevention and treatment approaches to increase energy expenditure and decrease intake should continue. Recent data suggest that the spiralling increase in childhood obesity prevalence might be abating; increased efforts should be made on all fronts to continue this potentially exciting trend.","container-title":"The Lancet","DOI":"10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60171-7","ISSN":"0140-6736","issue":"9727","journalAbbreviation":"The Lancet","language":"en","page":"1737-1748","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"Childhood obesity","volume":"375","author":[{"family":"Han","given":"Joan C"},{"family":"Lawlor","given":"Debbie A"},{"family":"Kimm","given":"Sue YS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",5,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Han, Lawlor, & Kimm, 2010). Also, childhood obesity is associated with asthma, fatty liver, chronic kidney diseases, sleeping disorder, inflammation, and hyperglycemia ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wt8mwBEj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). Through the children's standpoint, the significant consequences of obesity might be associated with psychosocial issues such as poor performance at school, poor self-image, and social isolation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Jbe4iWa9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Caprio et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Caprio et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":841,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XTVN87L8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XTVN87L8"],"itemData":{"id":841,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Diabetes Care","DOI":"10.2337/dc08-9024","ISSN":"0149-5992","issue":"11","journalAbbreviation":"Diabetes Care","note":"PMID: 18955718\nPMCID: PMC2571048","page":"2211-2221","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity: Implications for Prevention and Treatment","title-short":"Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity","volume":"31","author":[{"family":"Caprio","given":"Sonia"},{"family":"Daniels","given":"Stephen R."},{"family":"Drewnowski","given":"Adam"},{"family":"Kaufman","given":"Francine R."},{"family":"Palinkas","given":"Lawrence A."},{"family":"Rosenbloom","given":"Arlan L."},{"family":"Schwimmer","given":"Jeffrey B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Caprio et al., 2008).

Children are mostly considered as the main population for the intervention of obesity control strategies. There are several reasons behind it, firstly because once the excessive weight established, it becomes difficult to reduce it ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uGFJnfYv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Caprio et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Caprio et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":841,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XTVN87L8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XTVN87L8"],"itemData":{"id":841,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Diabetes Care","DOI":"10.2337/dc08-9024","ISSN":"0149-5992","issue":"11","journalAbbreviation":"Diabetes Care","note":"PMID: 18955718\nPMCID: PMC2571048","page":"2211-2221","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity: Implications for Prevention and Treatment","title-short":"Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity","volume":"31","author":[{"family":"Caprio","given":"Sonia"},{"family":"Daniels","given":"Stephen R."},{"family":"Drewnowski","given":"Adam"},{"family":"Kaufman","given":"Francine R."},{"family":"Palinkas","given":"Lawrence A."},{"family":"Rosenbloom","given":"Arlan L."},{"family":"Schwimmer","given":"Jeffrey B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Caprio et al., 2008). Secondly, there are potential interventions present for children as compared to adults such as schools. Schools are considered as natural settings that can easily influence the children's physical activity and food environment ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"apuONtZw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Dehghan et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":827,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/FC9VZ8FV"],"itemData":{"id":827,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries. Twenty five percent of children in the US are overweight and 11% are obese. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. In general, overweight and obesity are assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Consequently, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity.","container-title":"Nutrition Journal","DOI":"10.1186/1475-2891-4-24","ISSN":"1475-2891","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Nutrition Journal","page":"24","source":"BioMed Central","title":"Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention","volume":"4","author":[{"family":"Dehghan","given":"Mahshid"},{"family":"Akhtar-Danesh","given":"Noori"},{"family":"Merchant","given":"Anwar T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",9,2]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dehghan et al., 2005). Similarly, the other care services after school and preschool institutions also provide similar opportunities. Henceforth, it is more sensible to develop obesity treatment and initials preventions during childhood. So, the preventions might be achieved by several interventions by targeting the already developed environment, diet, and physical activity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cXZkBRdX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Seth & Sharma, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Seth & Sharma, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":836,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/JDGR9W82"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/JDGR9W82"],"itemData":{"id":836,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The Indian Journal of Pediatrics","DOI":"10.1007/s12098-012-0931-5","ISSN":"0019-5456, 0973-7693","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Indian J Pediatr","language":"en","page":"309-317","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","title":"Childhood Obesity","volume":"80","author":[{"family":"Seth","given":"Anju"},{"family":"Sharma","given":"Rajni"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Seth & Sharma, 2013). For obesity control, the challenge is to identify the obese environment and then influence them. So, they will make healthier choices in life and contribute to the betterment of society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RJ4fDsEx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Caprio et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Caprio et al., 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":841,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XTVN87L8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/vDOrLj7p/items/XTVN87L8"],"itemData":{"id":841,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Diabetes Care","DOI":"10.2337/dc08-9024","ISSN":"0149-5992","issue":"11","journalAbbreviation":"Diabetes Care","note":"PMID: 18955718\nPMCID: PMC2571048","page":"2211-2221","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity: Implications for Prevention and Treatment","title-short":"Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity","volume":"31","author":[{"family":"Caprio","given":"Sonia"},{"family":"Daniels","given":"Stephen R."},{"family":"Drewnowski","given":"Adam"},{"family":"Kaufman","given":"Francine R."},{"family":"Palinkas","given":"Lawrence A."},{"family":"Rosenbloom","given":"Arlan L."},{"family":"Schwimmer","given":"Jeffrey B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Caprio et al., 2008).

Obesity is referred to as a chronic disorder, which has several causes. In childhood, obesity and overweight produce a significant impact on psychological and physical health. Furthermore, psychological disorders, particularly depression, occur in obese children with greater frequency. Hence, it is believed that both lack of physical exercise and calories over consumptions more specifically involved in childhood obesity. There are some ways through which obesity can be controlled. However, further research is required for the examination for the intervention of effective strategies for obesity prevention and treatment. Such strategies could be specific to culture, ethnicity, and economic aspects based on the targeted population.

References

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Dehghan, M., Akhtar-Danesh, N., & Merchant, A. T. (2005). Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention. Nutrition Journal, 4(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-4-24

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Seth, A., & Sharma, R. (2013). Childhood Obesity. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 80(4), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-012-0931-5