Schizophrenia is defined as a chronic and complex mental health disorder that is characterized by an array of different symptoms such as hallucinations, impaired cognitive ability, delusion and disorganized behavior, and speech ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ap4udp8l7b","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hallford & Sharma, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Hallford & Sharma, 2019)"},"citationItems":[{"id":896,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/RK4SDZ9Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/RK4SDZ9Q"],"itemData":{"id":896,"type":"article-journal","title":"Anticipatory pleasure for future experiences in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and major depression: A systematic review and meta‐analysis","container-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology","author":[{"family":"Hallford","given":"David J."},{"family":"Sharma","given":"Manoj K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hallford & Sharma, 2019). Schizophrenia interferes with the ability of a person to manage, think and make decisions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). It is estimated that the prevalence of schizophrenia ranges from 0.25-0.7% in the United States.
Development of Schizophrenia
Different types of phenotypes of this disease arise from multiple factors such as environmental influences and genetic susceptibility. One of the explanations for schizophrenia development is that this disorder develops in utero ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). Different obstetric complications including gestational diabetes, bleeding during pregnancy, asphyxia, low birth weight, and emergency cesarean sections have been associated with schizophrenia later in life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uHpx4rkQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hallford & Sharma, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Hallford & Sharma, 2019)"},"citationItems":[{"id":896,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/RK4SDZ9Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/RK4SDZ9Q"],"itemData":{"id":896,"type":"article-journal","title":"Anticipatory pleasure for future experiences in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and major depression: A systematic review and meta‐analysis","container-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology","author":[{"family":"Hallford","given":"David J."},{"family":"Sharma","given":"Manoj K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hallford & Sharma, 2019). Stress and infection level during the second trimester increases the risk of development of schizophrenia twice as much ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). Genetic factors also play an important part in the development of schizophrenia. Different studies have shown that the risk of development of schizophrenia is almost 11% for first degree relatives and 4% for second-degree relatives.
Social and environmental factors also play an important role in schizophrenia development especially in those who are vulnerable to this disease ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). Environmental stressors that are associated with schizophrenia development include minority, ethnicity, social isolation, childhood trauma, and residence in an urban area ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a289dhe1gs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hor & Taylor, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Hor & Taylor, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":892,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/B2G34EH7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/B2G34EH7"],"itemData":{"id":892,"type":"article-journal","title":"Suicide and schizophrenia: a systematic review of rates and risk factors","container-title":"Journal of psychopharmacology","page":"81-90","volume":"24","issue":"4_suppl","author":[{"family":"Hor","given":"Kahyee"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Mark"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hor & Taylor, 2010). Social stressors such as economic adversity and discrimination may influence individuals towards paranoid and delusional thinking. Studies have also shown that different psychotropic and psychoactive drugs such as methamphetamine also increase the risk of schizophrenia development.
Progression of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenic conditions and related disorders have been amplified in recent years. The suicides associated with schizophrenia and other related spectrum disorders have been increasing and reported to be approximately 10% of the mortalities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). The disorder usually arises at the age of 16 and 30. It has been reported through various studies that men usually develop symptoms of schizophrenia in earlier ages as compared to women ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7qhEBiLe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hallford & Sharma, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Hallford & Sharma, 2019)"},"citationItems":[{"id":896,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/RK4SDZ9Q"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/RK4SDZ9Q"],"itemData":{"id":896,"type":"article-journal","title":"Anticipatory pleasure for future experiences in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and major depression: A systematic review and meta‐analysis","container-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology","author":[{"family":"Hallford","given":"David J."},{"family":"Sharma","given":"Manoj K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hallford & Sharma, 2019). The progression of the disease and related disorders aggregates with other environmental and genetic factors such as depression and social isolation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). Earlier symptoms of schizophrenia are hallucinations that develop into more complications in later years. Poor concentration, depression, anxiety, and stress along with social isolation and genetic factors aggregate the condition and the disease becomes complicated with time.
Physiology of Symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia involve limited speech and inability to enjoy and participate in social activities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). Related symptoms of schizophrenia along with hallucinations are delusions, disorganized behaviors, and poor self-care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2jia6gpqkv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Alanen, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Alanen, 2018)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1011,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/3KHV4MHA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/3KHV4MHA"],"itemData":{"id":1011,"type":"book","title":"Schizophrenia: Its origins and need-adapted treatment","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"0-429-47973-5","author":[{"family":"Alanen","given":"Yrjo O."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Alanen, 2018). Genetic factors along with environmental factors are responsible for the progression and development of schizophrenia.
Behavioral Features
Behaviors of patients suffering from schizophrenia include isolation and less participation in social activities ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). They prefer to stay alone and isolated from communities and gatherings. They usually develop a sense of suicides and negative thoughts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). Many studies have shown that collective therapies improve the behavioral conduct of patients with schizophrenia. Emotional flatness and limited speech are the major symptoms of the behaviors specifically designated with the patient suffering from schizophrenia.
Conclusion
Schizophrenia and related spectrum of the disease have been observed to be rising among communities in recent years ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aetv09bv8l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/HL6XV654"],"itemData":{"id":1012,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","container-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience","page":"620-631","volume":"16","issue":"10","author":[{"family":"Green","given":"Michael F."},{"family":"Horan","given":"William P."},{"family":"Lee","given":"Junghee"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Green, Horan, & Lee, 2015). The suicides associated with schizophrenia are also increasing. The major symptoms associated with schizophrenia are isolation from social activities, depression, and stress along with other particular symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations and delusions.
References
ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Alanen, Y. O. (2018). Schizophrenia: Its origins and need-adapted treatment. Routledge.
Green, M. F., Horan, W. P., & Lee, J. (2015). Social cognition in schizophrenia. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(10), 620–631.
Hallford, D. J., & Sharma, M. K. (2019). Anticipatory pleasure for future experiences in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and major depression: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Hor, K., & Taylor, M. (2010). Suicide and schizophrenia: a systematic review of rates and risk factors. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 24(4_suppl), 81–90.
