Research Paper
Denise Johnson
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Abstract
As the world is moving towards technological developments in which participation and opportunities are encouraged and provided, contrary women in engineering field are not that much appreciated to be part of engineering world. There are limited job opportunities in the field of engineering, while they also have to face sexist remarks from other people. The most discouraging part is that they are not provided with maximum wages so that they will become part of engineering world
Keywords: Development, Opportunities, limitations, sexist remarks, wages, women
Research Paper
Halo Effect Examples
Halo effect may be related to the characteristic of diversity and against diversity. In halo effect, the characteristics of anti-diversity may increase with the time and it may be considered as a salient ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4JbMPbHv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vertovec, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Vertovec, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":851,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/DYFDEM7S"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/DYFDEM7S"],"itemData":{"id":851,"type":"chapter","title":"Epilogue: What’s the Matter with Rotterdam?","container-title":"Coming to Terms with Superdiversity: The Case of Rotterdam","collection-title":"IMISCOE Research Series","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"237-241","source":"Springer Link","event-place":"Cham","abstract":"What’s the matter with Rotterdam? This is a question I asked in a 2017 lecture (available to view at www.mmg.mpg.de), when trying to figure out how and why the city seems to disrupt common contemporary narratives concerning migration and cities. That is, social scientists since Simmel have postulated that cities are largely incubators of cosmopolitanism, or openness (if only indifference) to socio-cultural differences. It is often presumed that such openness goes together with an acceptance of ethnic diversity and immigration. Opinion polls and ethnographic research in cities usually bears out this presumption. Hence, it comes as surprising if not shocking to learn that in super-diverse Rotterdam – with over 50% of its population stemming from some 180 nations – the urban model of cosmopolitan incubator seems to fail. Authors in this collection have pointed to developments in Rotterdam by way of negative reactions to diversity, substantial voting for rightwing, anti-immigrant parties, and an ‘unhappy version’ of super-diversity in which the growth of a disapproving atmosphere has led to sharper ethnic boundaries, retreat into white enclaves, and low levels of white-ethnic minority social contact. Indeed, what’s the matter with Rotterdam?","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96041-8_13","ISBN":"978-3-319-96041-8","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-96041-8_13","shortTitle":"Epilogue","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Vertovec","given":"Steven"}],"editor":[{"family":"Scholten","given":"Peter"},{"family":"Crul","given":"Maurice"},{"family":"Laar","given":"Paul","non-dropping-particle":"van de"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vertovec, 2019). Halo effect is a common effect in the workplace, where either people have to deal with this, they suffer from this or they become a source of this. One of the examples may be considered as the selection of women with background of engineering when applies for a job, regardless of her qualification and her skills she gets rejected by human resource managers. There are the human biases towards gender roles of women in several fields like engineering, computer sciences, and sports, while theses biases become barriers in empowering women to choose on their own.
One can identify halo effect in income or wage gaps between women and men; there is a huge difference between the wages of men and women despite of having similar skills, same working hours, same qualifications, and better performances. There is always a wage disparity which rather than decreasing, is increasing with the time passage. Women in engineering fields get lesser wages in comparison with men and this is because of biases and discrimination against women in engineering fields.
Another example of halo effect may be linked with evaluation processes. Women sometimes are excluded from these processes may be because to show sympathy or their skills and performances are completely ignored and disregarded in their fields of work. During evaluation and performance, assessments there are more chances of halo effect to occur resulting in a bias decision by the managers or other staff or companies and organizations. It is studied that there are two outcomes of halo effect: evaluations are measured based on personal information being shared with the evaluators and another outcome is that evaluators have a general perception about subordinates or employees ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zaludgsN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yustina & Gudono, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Yustina & Gudono, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":853,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/BR8AG9HC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/BR8AG9HC"],"itemData":{"id":853,"type":"article-journal","title":"Halo Effect in Subjective Performance Evaluation Bias","container-title":"Journal of Economics, Business & Accountancy Ventura","volume":"19","source":"ResearchGate","abstract":"This study aimed not only to examine the effect of the objective measure and controllability on subjective performance evaluation but also to prove empirically the halo effect phenomenon which is present in the evaluation process when evaluators are faced with two or more different measurement dimensions. This study used a 2x2 factorial web-based experiment involving 62 undergraduate students and 77 sales managers in the Telecommunications industry. The results reveal the subjective performance evaluation manager is directly influenced by objective measurement based on sales performance. Subjective evaluation of performance evaluator will be high when the objective performance information managers showed a high score and vice versa. The level of controllability affects undergraduate students in conducting subjective performance rating. This evidence suggests that the two subjects of this research using their discretion in conducting the performance appraisal rating. Halo effect is proven to have high correlation with two different dimensions of performance measurement.","DOI":"10.14414/jebav.v19i3.621","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Economics, Business & Accountancy Ventura","author":[{"family":"Yustina","given":"Andi"},{"family":"Gudono","given":"Gudono"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,10]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Yustina & Gudono, 2017). In case of women in engineering, field may have to go through these outcomes because they are also judged based on a general impression. To avoid these outcomes of halo effect there has to be a balanced and equal decision making based on evaluations and performances by the managers or evaluators in a company. However, human biases are natural but this does not mean that bias decision-making should be encouraged.
The Social-Psychology behind the Effect
Social psychology is the field of psychology, which deals with human interactions in their society including their backgrounds and their impacts on human lives ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5QouzAE5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gross & McIlveen, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Gross & McIlveen, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":859,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/KL8HRY8F"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/KL8HRY8F"],"itemData":{"id":859,"type":"book","title":"Social Psychology","publisher":"Taylor & Francis","URL":"https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=E9-CCwAAQBAJ","ISBN":"978-1-317-79976-4","author":[{"family":"Gross","given":"R."},{"family":"McIlveen","given":"R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gross & McIlveen, 2016). In engineering fields, women are mostly ignored because they are only labeled to work within the wall of their houses and this is a traditional perspective that women have no as such role out of their families. While, women nowadays are overcoming stereotypes in society, which are limiting them from doing multiple tasks based on their skills, which they have gained and developed.
Halo effect has a greater impact on decision making in almost every sphere of life, decisions in companies, family systems, and other institutions may get impacted because of this effect. Organizations and companies try to rely on equal social evaluations but it cannot be denied that their decisions are changed because of their concerns and physical appearances of workers in the organizations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6E3txpqR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Park, Yang, Cha, & Pyeon, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Park, Yang, Cha, & Pyeon, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":860,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/H4TET9UU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/H4TET9UU"],"itemData":{"id":860,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Halo Effect and Social Evaluation: How Organizational Status Shapes Audience Perceptions on Corporate Environmental Reputation","container-title":"Organization & Environment","page":"1086026619858878","source":"SAGE Journals","abstract":"Although firms generally strive to enhance social evaluations, scholars have noted that such evaluations may not completely reflect actual performance of the firms. Extending this approach to the domain of environmental sustainability, we focus on the importance of social evaluation heuristics and explore how a firm’s status, or generalized evaluation not directly linked to environmental performance, plays a key role in shaping audience perceptions on its environmental reputation. Using multiple sources of data on 178 global companies’ green reputation, status, and environmental performance, our study shows that a firm’s status significantly enhances its environmental reputation assessed by general consumers and that the status effect varies significantly according to media frames. These findings illuminate the richness and complexity in the relations between status, reputation, and media-provided information in the area of environmental sustainability.","DOI":"10.1177/1086026619858878","ISSN":"1086-0266","shortTitle":"The Halo Effect and Social Evaluation","journalAbbreviation":"Organization & Environment","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Park","given":"Sangchan"},{"family":"Yang","given":"Daegyu"},{"family":"Cha","given":"Hyeonjin"},{"family":"Pyeon","given":"Seobin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Park, Yang, Cha, & Pyeon, 2019). Halo effect changes the perceptions and opinions of people at workplaces. The most used example for this is, it is responsible for changing decisions, which affect evaluations and performances of workers. Women get affected the most because of this social psychology behind halo effect, however an opposite opinion is that physical attractiveness may also change decisions, increases self-confidence, and may impact wages increasing.
Attributes of Diversity
Diversity at workplaces helps to enhance interactions, performances, and well-being of workers by allowing them to mark comfortable boundaries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a0hj5ozk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Guillaume, Dawson, Otaye\\uc0\\u8208{}Ebede, Woods, & West, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Guillaume, Dawson, Otaye‐Ebede, Woods, & West, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":861,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/SIZ38XIL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/SIZ38XIL"],"itemData":{"id":861,"type":"article-journal","title":"Harnessing demographic differences in organizations: What moderates the effects of workplace diversity?","container-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior","page":"276-303","volume":"38","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Guillaume","given":"Yves RF"},{"family":"Dawson","given":"Jeremy F."},{"family":"Otaye‐Ebede","given":"Lilian"},{"family":"Woods","given":"Stephen A."},{"family":"West","given":"Michael A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Guillaume, Dawson, Otaye‐Ebede, Woods, & West, 2017). Workplaces, which accept diversity may succeed in effective outcomes, likewise in engineering field, if women can have the same space as men, then they all together work for the achievement of company’s goals. The main attribute of diversity is that it allows workers to create an understanding of other market segments, importantly global market. Employees and workers coming from diverse communities and backgrounds develop an understanding of tolerance and quality performances by sharing their skills, experiences and varying methodologies regarding their fields.
Over these past decades, diversity in societies including organizations, companies, and industries has improved due to transformations in politics, socio-economic conditions, technology, and environmental factors ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"X8rwUGrQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cletus, Mahmood, Umar, & Ibrahim, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Cletus, Mahmood, Umar, & Ibrahim, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":865,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/DPQRQWVQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/DPQRQWVQ"],"itemData":{"id":865,"type":"article-journal","title":"Prospects and Challenges of Workplace Diversity in Modern Day Organizations: A Critical Review","container-title":"Holistica","page":"35-52","volume":"9","source":"ResearchGate","abstract":"Workplace diversity (WPD) is a holistic concept that denotes the differences that exist between people working within an organisation. It describes the complex physical, sociological or psychological attributes such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religious or political beliefs that define an individual or group. Therefore, WPD transcends the recruitment, representation or preferential treatment of people within an organisation. The complexity of WPD has become one of the most challenging issues currently of critical importance in business and organisational management. Therefore, the paper presents the critical issues currently impacting on WPD in modern day organisations. It identified and highlighted the various prospects and challenges of WPD. The results revealed that diversity in the workplace enhances the critical thinking, problem-solving, and employee professional skills. Furthermore, it enables organisations to attract talent, improve corporate attractiveness, productivity. However, it is currently hampered by the hostility, disrespect and discrimination people with diverse background encounter in the workplace. Such behavioural attitudes as ascribed to prejudices and biases towards people with varied lifestyle choices, ethnic and cultural differences, disabilities, and generational gaps. These factors can stifle morale, teamwork, profitability and the attractiveness of the organisation. Consequently, modern day organisations need to address the causes of these issues to exploit the benefits of WPD. These can be addressed strategies that foster an empowerment culture, build communication and team spirit with organisations. These efforts will promote acceptance, productivity, and profits in future organisations.","DOI":"10.2478/hjbpa-2018-0011","shortTitle":"Prospects and Challenges of Workplace Diversity in Modern Day Organizations","journalAbbreviation":"Holistica","author":[{"family":"Cletus","given":"Helen"},{"family":"Mahmood","given":"Nor"},{"family":"Umar","given":"Abubakar"},{"family":"Ibrahim","given":"Ahmed"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",8,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Cletus, Mahmood, Umar, & Ibrahim, 2018). Diversity has allowed people to learn from each other and find different sources to improve their living standards. When it comes to diversity in engineering fields specifically allowing women in this field, the trends are changing slowly, people have now started to accept women in engineering fields, however, and they still lack equal wages. There is an inconsistency in wages of workers, while women are considered to have lower wages in all sectors, not only engineering fields. Diverse societies are not limited to only specific culture, ethnicity, geography, and any gender, diversity means a variety and diverse societies give place to all people regardless of being judged on their gender, and their backgrounds. Diversity in engineering sector allows women to work without any fear of discrimination and biases.
Ethics and Values
Ethics and values are considered an integral part of a society and a place, which has to be followed by people; otherwise, they will be considered deviants. In the world of science and technology, ethics and values play a vital role in allowing researchers and other people associated with it. Ethical values vary from place-to-place and organization-to-organization. Policies of organizations and companies are made based on these ethical values, which bounds workers to take care of boundaries and limitations being set by them. Sometimes, traditional and typical ethical values of workplaces do not let women be part of global market and do not allow them to earn an appropriate amount for their living. In engineering sector, policies being implemented are violated which have contributed to woman engineers in the past and this has resulted in resignations from their jobs in their field ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rcFYI4mT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fouad, Chang, Wan, & Singh, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Fouad, Chang, Wan, & Singh, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":867,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/6FBTNXF7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/6FBTNXF7"],"itemData":{"id":867,"type":"article-journal","title":"Women’s Reasons for Leaving the Engineering Field","container-title":"Frontiers in Psychology","volume":"8","source":"Frontiers","abstract":"Among the different Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields, engineering continues to have one of the highest rates of attrition (Hewlett, et al., 2008). The turnover rate for women engineers from engineering fields is even higher than for men (Frehill, 2010). Despite increased efforts from researchers, there are still large gaps in our understanding of the reasons that women leave engineering. This study aims to address this gap by examining the reasons why women leave engineering. Specifically, we analyze the reasons for departure given by national sample of 1,464 women engineers who left the profession after having worked in the engineering field. We applied a person-environment fit theoretical lens, in particular, the Theory of Work Adjustment (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984) to understand and categorize the reasons for leaving the engineering field. According to the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA), occupations have different “reinforcer patterns,” reflected in six occupational values, and a mismatch between the reinforcers provided by the work environment and individuals’ needs may trigger departure from the environment. Given the paucity of literature in this area, we posed research questions to explore the reinforcer pattern of values implicated in women’s decisions to leave the engineering field. We used qualitative analyses to understand, categorize, and code the 1,863 statements that offered a glimpse into the myriad reasons that women offered in describing their decisions to leave the engineering profession. Our results revealed the top three sets of reasons underlying women’s decision to leave the jobs and engineering field were related to: first, poor and/or inequitable compensation, poor working conditions, inflexible and demanding work environment that made work-family balance difficult; second, unmet achievement needs that reflected a dissatisfaction with effective utilization of their math and science skills, and third, unmet needs with regard to lack of recognition at work and adequate opportunities for advancement. Implications of these results for future research as well as the design of effective intervention programs aimed at women engineers’ retention and engagement in engineering are discussed.","URL":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00875/full","DOI":"10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00875","ISSN":"1664-1078","journalAbbreviation":"Front. Psychol.","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Fouad","given":"Nadya A."},{"family":"Chang","given":"Wen-Hsin"},{"family":"Wan","given":"Min"},{"family":"Singh","given":"Romila"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fouad, Chang, Wan, & Singh, 2017) . The issues is that their ethical values and concerns are not addressed appropriately, while few companies lack the ability to finding solutions rather they only keep papering these issues and concerns.
Organization and Evaluation Policies
Every organization follows a policy to make improvements and to carry reliable evaluation processes so that workers show better performances. Policies regarding evaluation in organizations are a process to develop and enhance capacities of employees working in organizations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"z5YrJ4E8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Todera\\uc0\\u351{} & St\\uc0\\u259{}varu, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Toderaş & Stăvaru, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":869,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/EX4MBP4S"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/EX4MBP4S"],"itemData":{"id":869,"type":"chapter","title":"Evaluation Capacity Building as a Means to Improving Policy Making and Public Service in Higher Education","container-title":"Higher Education Reforms in Romania: Between the Bologna Process and National Challenges","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"87-104","source":"Springer Link","event-place":"Cham","abstract":"The aim of this paper is to present a logical framework for evaluation capacity building in higher education agencies, which can be used as an instrument both for grounding future educational policies, and for improving the policies’ implementation process. The logical framework will focus on four main stages that will examine the link between organizational evaluation capacity building and the process of organizational learning. Thus, we discuss the way in which evaluation practice is becoming a routine at the micro level (within the organization) through expert team learning and organizational learning processes and diffuses at macro level (within the system) through system learning and interactions at the system level. These learning processes facilitate the development of institutional characteristics such as evaluation capacity, policy implementation and leadership. The organizational learning process is seen as being founded on a cyclic model of shaping evaluation priorities and developing evaluation structures, selecting evaluation models, training evaluation skills, transforming evaluation into routine and reshaping evaluation priorities once again. To this end, several uses of evaluation practice in the Romanian higher education system are analysed.","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08054-3_5","ISBN":"978-3-319-08054-3","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-08054-3_5","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Toderaş","given":"Nicolae"},{"family":"Stăvaru","given":"Ana-Maria"}],"editor":[{"family":"Curaj","given":"Adrian"},{"family":"Deca","given":"Ligia"},{"family":"Egron-Polak","given":"Eva"},{"family":"Salmi","given":"Jamil"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Toderaş & Stăvaru, 2015). Evaluations in organizations are meant to develop and improve skills of individuals and their performances to be efficient in attaining the organizational goals. Unfortunately, in some sectors like engineering, lacks better evaluation processes, this means that the policy planning, formulation and planning is not appropriate. Engineering fields have to improve evaluation policies and processes, while women in this field can be discussed to make a clear understanding of these processes.
There has to be proper policy making by engineering companies to encourage participation of women in engineering fields. Policies regarding evaluation process have to be improved because performances by women in such companies are not taken into consideration. They are ignored based on their gender and their emotional statuses. While woman is also able to perform better and apply maximum knowledge and skills to show efficiency in their fields.
Organizations have to re-revise their policies regarding evaluations from the beginning to improve efficiency and quality of organizations. During evaluation processes, efficiency and quality are the main factors responsible for the success of organizations in global market where their performances are appreciated ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"npsVHnhs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Steiss, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Steiss, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":871,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8U6ZBY4T"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/8U6ZBY4T"],"itemData":{"id":871,"type":"book","title":"Strategic management for public and nonprofit organizations","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1-4822-7586-4","author":[{"family":"Steiss","given":"Alan W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Steiss, 2019). Fair and balanced processes of evaluation are important to encourage participation of all people in the development of organizations, while it is important to be neutral during process of evolution because they change decision-making behaviors of people as well as evaluators. To avoid any biases in evaluation policies there have to be some experts who would make appropriate policies considering all genders as their concerns and important actors in the development of organization. Another option may be anonymity of workers during their evaluation; evaluations should only include their performances, capacity building, skills, and their wages, which are being provided by the organization. Leniency and consistency in evaluation processes results in efficiency and development of organizations. While it may also encourage participation of all genders especially women in the engineering sector for which they are, being discriminated and they have to suffer from biases from other workers and managers in organizations.
Job Distribution for Women (Unequal job distribution)
Job distribution is important in every organization to encourage diversity and to have positive outcomes. Job distribution is the distribution of jobs by following certain procedures including tests, demonstrations, and interviews. There is an unequal job distribution for men and women, particularly women are discriminated when it comes to job distribution. Participation of women in workforce is lower as compared to men, which means that women are less likely to have human capital to improve their living standards ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4lstZPeq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}WDR-Report, 2019}, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(WDR-Report, 2019, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":873,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/YYI5FBU5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/YYI5FBU5"],"itemData":{"id":873,"type":"article","title":"WDR-Report, 2019","URL":"http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/2019-WDR-Report.pdf","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (WDR-Report, 2019) . There is a need of proper policymaking and implementation, which will decrease this job distribution gap between men and women.
Equal distributions in jobs have to be made sure to encourage women participation in the job market and as well in the engineering in particular to this case. Women in engineering field are discriminated because of their gender roles, which are limited to certain roles traditionally. However, women have capacity and they have skills to work in every field, the main thing required for their encouragement in job market is to provide equal opportunities of employment and equal wages. Unfortunately, women are sometimes discouraged to participate in the job market because they are considered as weaker and it is said that they lack skills as compared to men, who are working in the global market.
Encouraging women to participate in global market may benefit in several ways, such as there will be no burden of roles limited to a specific gender, there will be more opportunities to all to work. Adding more, there will be more diverse group, which will enhance skill development and learning processes in the organizations resulting in efficiency.
Work Habits
Work habits develop capacities and learning openness of individuals in the organizations. Work habits are the tasks, which are followed in the organization to complete the given tasks. Working habits vary from people-to-people and organization-to-organization because nature of individuals and work, both are different. Individuals adopt different habits to complete their tasks in organizations. Men and women have also different working habits; they have different methodologies for time management and relation with their nature of work when it comes to organizations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fOvvk2fB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Adams & Blair, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Adams & Blair, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":879,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/PQZ5ME34"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/PQZ5ME34"],"itemData":{"id":879,"type":"article-journal","title":"Impact of Time Management Behaviors on Undergraduate Engineering Students’ Performance","container-title":"SAGE Open","page":"215824401882450","volume":"9","source":"ResearchGate","abstract":"Effective time management is associated with greater academic performance and lower levels of anxiety in students; however many students find it hard to find a balance between their studies and their day-to-day lives. This article examines the self reported time management behaviors of undergraduate engineering students using the Time Management Behavior Scale. Correlation analysis, regression analysis, and model reduction are used to attempt to determine which aspects of time management the students practiced, which time management behaviors were more strongly associated with higher grades within the program, and whether or not those students who self-identified with specific time management behaviors achieved better grades in the program. It was found that students’ perceived control of time was the factor that correlated significantly with cumulative grade point average. On average, it was found that time management behaviors were not significantly different across gender, age, entry qualification, and time already spent in the program.","DOI":"10.1177/2158244018824506","journalAbbreviation":"SAGE Open","author":[{"family":"Adams","given":"Richelle"},{"family":"Blair","given":"Erik"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",1,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Adams & Blair, 2019). Individuals have adopt different attitudes towards a particular behavior, which reflects their perceptions of being positive, negative and evaluation.
Work habit also includes time management, while people associated with engineering may follow different plans to manage their time, so as others. Working habits of women may be are based on emotions and they make decisions in organizations according to their concerns, sometime they may avoid rational decision-making.
Discrimination on Job Assignments
In this case of women in engineering fields face some discriminatory behaviors when it comes to job assignments. Engineering activities demand a greater input for their completion; therefore, women are also expected to put more energy to complete their tasks. Apart from these expectations, the issues rise when it comes to task distribution; women are limited to certain tasks in the field of engineering. They are supposed to handle and manage official work rather than going for fieldwork and work using heavy machineries. These heavy work tasks are only given to men because of their physical appearances. Discrimination in job assignments may also lead to a higher turnover ratio of women in their fields. It was studies that, 39 percent of women in engineering have quit their jobs because of their job nature, tasks, and discrimination in wages, while 56 percent of women in technological occupations left their jobs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"R369fjPn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ashcraft, McLain, & Eger, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Ashcraft, McLain, & Eger, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":883,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/CATUNR6A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/CATUNR6A"],"itemData":{"id":883,"type":"book","title":"Women in tech: The facts","publisher":"National Center for Women & Technology (NCWIT)","author":[{"family":"Ashcraft","given":"Catherine"},{"family":"McLain","given":"Brad"},{"family":"Eger","given":"Elizabeth"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ashcraft, McLain, & Eger, 2016).
Intrinsic Comparable to Extrinsic Values
Intrinsic values are those which are based self and that are said to be, “for ones’ own sake.” Philosophers relate intrinsic values as crucial judgments leading to results of right and wrong decisions. It is quite difficult to judge whether a decision is wrong or right when performing some tasks under certain circumstances. While, extrinsic values are the opposite of intrinsic and these are not the intrinsic values, and these values make individuals able to judge and decide about the outcomes of their work. People performing different tasks are followed having some motivations in their background and it depends on these backgrounds whether people perform it in a better way of not ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yDfvfcAu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Benedetti, Diefendorff, Gabriel, & Chandler, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Benedetti, Diefendorff, Gabriel, & Chandler, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":885,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/Q36FY3QW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/Q36FY3QW"],"itemData":{"id":885,"type":"article-journal","title":"The effects of intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation on well-being depend on time of day: The moderating effects of workday accumulation","container-title":"Journal of Vocational Behavior","page":"38-46","volume":"88","author":[{"family":"Benedetti","given":"Alison A."},{"family":"Diefendorff","given":"James M."},{"family":"Gabriel","given":"Allison S."},{"family":"Chandler","given":"Megan M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Benedetti, Diefendorff, Gabriel, & Chandler, 2015) .
World Vantage Point
World Vantage Point is a concept, which encourages making differences in the society and helps to follow a unique perspective ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5YPtO99i","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van Dyke \\uc0\\u33539{}\\uc0\\u23729{}\\uc0\\u20811{} & Mok, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Van Dyke 范岱克 & Mok, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":891,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/FZ6QLBME"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/FZ6QLBME"],"itemData":{"id":891,"type":"chapter","title":"Vantage Points, Perspectives and Artistic Presentation","page":"43-56","source":"ResearchGate","ISBN":"978-988-8208-55-5","note":"DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888208555.003.0005","author":[{"family":"Van Dyke 范岱克","given":"Paul"},{"family":"Mok","given":"Maria"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",9,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Van Dyke 范岱克 & Mok, 2015). Women in engineering field have to follow this because it is motivated to break the stereotypes in the society, which limits women from working in multiple disciplines.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy is another name for motivation and this is highly effective when it comes to completion of tasks in varying disciplines ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"otUt3wcu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kohli et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Kohli et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":886,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/BM55V4YZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/BM55V4YZ"],"itemData":{"id":886,"type":"article-journal","title":"Using Expectancy Theory to quantitatively dissociate the neural representation of motivation from its influential factors in the human brain: An fMRI study","container-title":"NeuroImage","page":"552-561","volume":"178","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Researchers have yet to apply a formal operationalized theory of motivation to neurobiology that would more accurately and precisely define neural activity underlying motivation. We overcome this challenge with the novel application of the Expectancy Theory of Motivation to human fMRI to identify brain activity that explicitly reflects motivation. Expectancy Theory quantitatively describes how individual constructs determine motivation by defining motivation force as the product of three variables: expectancy – belief that effort will better performance; instrumentality – belief that successful performance leads to particular outcome, and valence – outcome desirability. Here, we manipulated information conveyed by reward-predicting cues such that relative cue-evoked activity patterns could be statistically mapped to individual Expectancy Theory variables. The variable associated with activity in any voxel is only reported if it replicated between two groups of healthy participants. We found signals in midbrain, ventral striatum, sensorimotor cortex, and visual cortex that specifically map to motivation itself, rather than other factors. This is important because, for the first time, it empirically clarifies approach motivation neural signals during reward anticipation. It also highlights the effectiveness of the application of Expectancy Theory to neurobiology to more precisely and accurately probe motivation neural correlates than has been achievable previously.","DOI":"10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.05.021","ISSN":"1053-8119","shortTitle":"Using Expectancy Theory to quantitatively dissociate the neural representation of motivation from its influential factors in the human brain","journalAbbreviation":"NeuroImage","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Kohli","given":"Akshay"},{"family":"Blitzer","given":"David N."},{"family":"Lefco","given":"Ray W."},{"family":"Barter","given":"Joseph W."},{"family":"Haynes","given":"M. Ryan"},{"family":"Colalillo","given":"Sam A."},{"family":"Ly","given":"Martina"},{"family":"Zink","given":"Caroline F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",9,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kohli et al., 2018). Women in engineering field who are already working there follow expectancy theory to avoid any discouraging factors coming from their external environment and which leads to stress them. However, women leaving their jobs because of discrimination and unequal wages have to become a role model for other women and they have to challenge problems to motivate other women in engineering fields.
Physiological Contract
This is the contract and set of promises between people and different parties to fulfil their needs and expectations, while these parties may include workers, employees and their managers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VkIspo38","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rousseau, Hansen, & Tomprou, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Rousseau, Hansen, & Tomprou, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":888,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/7EYSA9SV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/7EYSA9SV"],"itemData":{"id":888,"type":"article-journal","title":"A dynamic phase model of psychological contract processes","container-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior","source":"ResearchGate","abstract":"In formulating a dynamic model of psychological contract (PC) phases, this paper offers new insights by incorporating a temporal perspective into the study of the PC. Although conceptualized as a dynamic construct, little empirical attention has been directed at how PCs evolve and change over time. Moreover, conceptualization of the PC and its processes has undergone limited revision since the 1990s despite challenges to some of its tenets and advances in related fields that suggest the importance of time to such processes. In this article, we address limitations in existing theory, clarify the conceptualization of the PC, and bring dynamism to the forefront of PC theory building by emphasizing dynamic processes. We propose a phase‐based model of PC processes (intraphase and interphase) wherein the functions of key variables (e.g., promises, inducements, contributions, and obligations) change over time and context. These phases include creation, maintenance, renegotiation, and repair. This model directs attention to the dynamic nature of the PC, drawing on contemporary evidence regarding self‐regulatory mechanisms. Finally, we present the implications of this dynamic phase model for theory and research.","DOI":"10.1002/job.2284","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Organizational Behavior","author":[{"family":"Rousseau","given":"Denise"},{"family":"Hansen","given":"Samantha"},{"family":"Tomprou","given":"Maria"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Rousseau, Hansen, & Tomprou, 2016). Physiological contracts demands full attention to fulfill them to meet a desired result, whether they are organizational or individuals’ desires.
Is Disparity Absent
In the global market, women in engineering have been suffering from job disparities, which include unequal wages, tasks, job opportunities, and exposures. We can say that there are disparities in the job market and in the wages being offered for women in engineering field that is the reason they are leaving their jobs
Workforce Impact of Equality in Engineering
There is an imbalance in job opportunities between men and women, which has led to disparities of jobs in the global market. Women are underpresented in the global market and there is a huge gap in the roles related to engineering field. In order to avoid workforce inequalities, there has to be elimination of gender inequalities. Gender inequalities are the reasons, which limit women participation in multiple disciplines, and they lack equal amounts of wages. The key role can be played by the policy makers in the organizations who may help all to have equal opportunities of jobs and wages so that they may live a quality life and improve well-beings ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"whmTT5B0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Grimson & Grimson, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Grimson & Grimson, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":897,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/RA4WIKGK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/RA4WIKGK"],"itemData":{"id":897,"type":"chapter","title":"Eliminating Gender Inequality in Engineering, Industry, and Academia","container-title":"The Engineering-Business Nexus: Symbiosis, Tension and Co-Evolution","collection-title":"Philosophy of Engineering and Technology","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"315-339","source":"Springer Link","event-place":"Cham","abstract":"Gender equality in the workplace with its many facets is a current topic of great interest in many societies and across virtually all sectors. Women are seriously under-represented in senior positions within organizations and there is evidence of a continuing pay gap between women and men. Industry, commerce, business, law, medicine, engineering, academia all have responded to or are responding to the challenges of eliminating gender inequality. There are three specific reasons for this. The first is based on the principle that there is or should be a prevailing environment guaranteeing social justice and human rights for all. The second is in effect a question of parsimony by which talent should not be wasted. Finally, and the imperative for the elimination of gender inequality which is receiving the most attention today, is that of diversity. The diversity argument adds to the ‘not being wasteful’ by virtue of the range of different skills, perspectives and experiences that are brought to bear on whatever challenge is being faced. Tackling gender equality is a complex task requiring many interventions but what is clear is that there is broad agreement across the different sectors, including engineering, as to what is required. The key interventions include committed and determined leadership from the top of the organization over a sustained period of time, supports to ensure better work-life balance, developing future women leaders, and tackling unconscious bias. The evidence is unequivocal – gender balance will not be achieved automatically without a range of such interventions and failure to take action will have a major impact on the engineering profession’s ability to meet the needs of society today and tomorrow.","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99636-3_15","ISBN":"978-3-319-99636-3","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-99636-3_15","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Grimson","given":"Jane"},{"family":"Grimson","given":"William"}],"editor":[{"family":"Christensen","given":"Steen Hyldgaard"},{"family":"Delahousse","given":"Bernard"},{"family":"Didier","given":"Christelle"},{"family":"Meganck","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Murphy","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Grimson & Grimson, 2019).
Stress at work
Work stress is one major organizational concern because it eventually affects individual and organizational performance. It is noteworthy to mention that the risk of stress at work is greatly high in case of engineering sector. Workforce working in engineering-based organizations have potential high hazard to face the challenge of work stress due to complex nature of work ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Vy9M8GoP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":898,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/FRXYHYS3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/FRXYHYS3"],"itemData":{"id":898,"type":"article-journal","title":"The experience of work-related stress across occupations","container-title":"Journal of managerial psychology","page":"178-187","volume":"20","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Johnson","given":"Sheena"},{"family":"Cooper","given":"Cary"},{"family":"Cartwright","given":"Sue"},{"family":"Donald","given":"Ian"},{"family":"Taylor","given":"Paul"},{"family":"Millet","given":"Clare"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Johnson et al., 2005). The high workload is characterized as major reason for advancing issue of work stress for the ones who are working as engineers. Moreover, imbalance domain between profession and personal life also negatively influence overall well-being of employees. This particular concern eventually turned as the issue of work stress that negatively impact performance of potential workforce.
Effects of Tension
The effects of tension in the case of the workforce can be immensely detrimental for both workers and for the organization. The major consequence of this issue is appeared as incompetence of employees to perform their daily work tasks according to organizational requirements ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Q1I2Q2Vl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Satpathy, Litt, Patnaik, & Mohapatra, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Satpathy, Litt, Patnaik, & Mohapatra, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":899,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/9CTH7DA7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/9CTH7DA7"],"itemData":{"id":899,"type":"article-journal","title":"WORK-LIFE BALANCE AS A PARAMETER OF JOB SATISFACTION IN THE MANUFACTURING SECTOR","author":[{"family":"Satpathy","given":"Ipseeta"},{"family":"Litt","given":"D."},{"family":"Patnaik","given":"B. C. M."},{"family":"Mohapatra","given":"Mitali Das"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Satpathy, Litt, Patnaik, & Mohapatra, 2019). The higher chances of errors are another implication of existence of tension in case of workers. It is observed that growing tension eventually increase the hazard of employees’ turnover that adversely affects organization’s approach to meet potential targets in both short-run and long run.
Ways to control Stress on the Job
There are several ways and methodologies, which may help in stress management at workplaces. one of the traditional ways to control stress levels is the meditation, this method helps to work effectively and decrease higher level of stress caused by overburden in work related roles and conditions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2umrVezk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sulistiyono & Narsa, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Sulistiyono & Narsa, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":894,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/T34SBTE2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/T34SBTE2"],"itemData":{"id":894,"type":"article-journal","title":"THE MEDIATION EFFECT OF WORK STRESS ON WORKLOAD, WORK CONDITION, AND LOAN COLLECTION PERFORMANCE","container-title":"Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences","page":"288-296","volume":"86","source":"ResearchGate","abstract":"This study aims to prove ability the mediation effect of work stress on workload, work condition, and loan collection performance. This is a descriptive quantitative with an explanatory approach type of study. Samples are collected from Bank Mandiri CCR Surabaya and consist of 121 people from a total of 157. Data analysis technique used was path analysis technique. Results indicate that hypothesis are accepted and can mediate. This means that high workload caused increased work stress and impacted on loan collection performance decrease. Meanwhile good work environment condition caused decreased work stress and impacted on increasing loan collection performance.","DOI":"10.18551/rjoas.2019-02.36","journalAbbreviation":"Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences","author":[{"family":"Sulistiyono","given":"A.A."},{"family":"Narsa","given":"I Made"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",2,26]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sulistiyono & Narsa, 2019). Another method is the distribution of workload at workplace, dividing equal amount of work may be helpful to decrease higher levels of stress. Dividing roles also gives opportunities to all to work equally without being discriminated.
Conclusion
There are number of fields in which women are being underrepresented especially in the frilled of engineering. In this field, women participation is discouraged rather than empowering women to participate and be part of these fields. The wage gap is the main problem, which hinders women participation in engineering fields. In order to over come these gender inequalities there has to be appropriate policy making by the organizational leadership because they implement these policies. While, there is also a need of focus on increasing sexist remarks, discrimination and biases.
References
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