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College Essay

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College Essay

When I was a kid, I used to have a solid bonding with nature and everything in it. This particularly enabled me to question everything, about human body and most specifically about the organs in our body that help us to survive. Around this time I chose to take great interest in biology. Because this particular subject addresses every question that I had in mind, like the existence of human beings, their body organs and most specifically about the function of all these organs. In high school, I took part in different activities like making models of the human body and then to explain it in front of an audience. This further proved to be a plus point that I chose to focus more on this particular subject. Being an introvert student this subject is the best for me because what I believe is, although it polishes your skills but the communication skills are not a mandatory part of this one. Which will help me as an introvert person to polish my communication skills without any pressure. Along with that my main interest is in dentistry I chose this subject or field because in my childhood I used to have cavities every now and then. So it made me wonder why my teeth are hurting so badly and once my dad used to visit the hospital then by the doctor's medicines I used to feel fine. I suppose that this is a great way of satisfying your inner self. When someone is in severe pain and approaches you, and then you treat the person and all of a sudden he/she feels great. This is the main reason that I am going for this field because for me it is also a great way of serving humanity. As a kid, I participated a lot in different activities like raising funds for different hospital patients and other needy people. So for me, this is another way to serve humanity. As a child, my parents inculcated this particular trait in me to help people who are in pain, so this subject is great in helping people who are in pain.

I also have a small garden where I plant different vegetables and fruits at the end when they grow in size; I distribute them among the needy people. The smile that such people give you and the prayers that they give you, are a push towards being a better human being. So I think that biological science is one such subject which provides you with an opportunity to look into nature and then different ways to help people or any other living thing. Therefore among all the subjects, this one is closer to my heart and due to these reasons I feel that I am going to be a great addition in this college and particularly in this subject. In addition to this subject, I am also fond of knowing about different cultures and people. In my childhood, I used to have a collection of different culture's traditional clothes so by taking admission in this college I will be able to know more about the culture of different people by interacting with them which will also help me to become more friendly and it will enable me to control my shyness.

In the end, I would like to say that this college will help me to nurture my love for dentistry and in future I will be able to serve people more with the help of my profession which I believe is an inborn trait in me. I hope that that the selection committee will consider my application and will provide me an opportunity to become a part of this prestigious college.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Complication In Diabetic Person

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Complication in diabetic person

Introduction

Diabetes is a disease that occurs when the blood glucose level increases in blood or the blood sugar is too high. Also, blood sugar is one of the sources of energy and it is retrieved from the food that is consumed by a human being. The food is converted into sugar with the help of insulin a hormone that is made by pancreases, this glucose is absorbed by cells and used by the body to get energy. Sometimes, the body does not make enough insulin as a result, glucose stays in the blood and it is not absorbed in the body (Singlaet al, pp. 873-881). It is also highlighted that having a large amount of glucose in the blood can lead to health problems, taking into account that diabetes has no cure however there are ways through which it can be managed. According to the American Psychological Association, there are 30.3 million people who suffer from diabetes, about 9.4 people in the United States’ suffer from diabetes. However, about 90-95% of cases in adults are of type II diabetes. There are two types of diabetes type I and type II (Bruce et al. pp. 1452-1456).

Type I Diabetes

Patients that suffer from type I diabetes have a body that does not make insulin, which attacks the immune system and destroys the cells preset in pancreases that can make insulin. Type I diabetes can be diagnosed in both young adults at any stage of life.

Type II Diabetes

Type II diabetes body does not make insulin well. An individual can develop type II diabetes at any stage of life but the major group of occurrences is middle-aged and older people (Bruce et al. pp. 1452-1456). It is one of the most common types of diabetes.

Other types of diabetes

There are other types of diabetes as well, such as monogenetic diabetes, which is also called as an inverted form of diabetes. Gestational diabetes, that develops in some women when they are pregnant. Usually, this type of diabetes occurs after the birth of a baby. Another major type of diabetes is cystic fibrosis-related diabetes (Singlaet al, pp. 873-881).

Complications

Every disease has its complications. These complications are either a byproduct of the disease from which a patient is suffering or it is the measure of carelessness because the individual suffers from some disease. There are two major categories of complication, long term, and short term. Both the types of complication go side by side or develop over time. There are a lot of complications associated with diabetes

Skin Complications

There are a lot of skin complications that are associated with diabetes. Skin complications can be fungal, bacterial infection or some kind of itching. Other kinds of skin problems that can happen are diabetic dermopathy, diabetic blisters, necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum, and eruptive xanthomatosis. Bacterial infection can include, boils and, folliculitis also called the infection of hair, infection around nails and carbuncles which is also called infection of skin and underneath. The fungal infection associated with diabetes is caused by Candida Albicans (McIntyre et al). This infection occurs in warm and moist folds of skin. Diabetic dermopathy is another complication of skin that is the product of diabetes. It can also cause changes in the small blood vessels and these changes can cause skin problems (Kocher et al., pp. 59-97).

Eye Complications

Diabetes can also cause eye compositions taking into account that the patients suffering from Type I diabetes are at the greatest risk of eye complications or peripheral neuropathy. Glaucoma is one of the complications that the people suffering from diabetes my face. It occurs when the blood pressure builds up in the eyes and this pressure results in the pinching of the blood vessels that carry blood to optic nerve and retina (Kocher et al., pp. 59-97). As a result of this disorder, complete vision is lost. Cataract is another major complication that is associated with diabetes. The disorders of retina are associated with diabetes such as no proliferative retinopathy. Muscular edema and proliferative retinal-therapy (McIntyre et al).

Neuropathy

Neuropathy is another complication that is associated with diabetes, it is also called nerve damage that occurs in almost half of the people who suffer from diabetes. It is most commonly found in those people who have diabetes for a longer period of time and it can further lead to different problems. One of the aspects or features of this type of complication is peripheral neuropathy that can cause pain, tingling, weakness or numbness in the hands and feet. Other types of neuropathy are autonomic empathy, Charcot's joint, cranial neuropathy and compression mononeuropathy. Other major types are focal neuropathy, femoral neuropathy, and thoracic radiculopathy (Chung et al).

Foot Complications

There are a lot of foot problems that are a result of complications of diabetes and these problems can get worse with the passage of time. Foot problems are the result of nerve damage which can cause some kind of weakness and pain in the foot. There are a lot of cases in which one has to get its foot cut which can be accompanied by the changes in the shape of the foot and the toes as well. Foot ulcer is also included in the category of complications that are caused by diabetes which is localized under the foot, on the ball of the foot or the bottom of the biggest toe. As a result of ulcer, feet are not able to fit in shoes and patient faces problem in walking, there are a lot of cases in which ulcers do not hurt people. Another condition that is associated with the complication of the foot is poor circulation which can cause the foot less able to fight the infection and recover from it (Singlaet al, pp. 873-881).

High Blood pressure

High blood pressure is another condition that is associated with diabetes. It is highlighted that about 1 in 3 American adults have high blood pressure and about 2 out of 3 people have high blood pressure who have to take, medications so as to lower blood pressure. There are different complications associated with high blood pressure. High blood pressure is also one of the major symptoms of diabetes because the amount of sugar in the blood is the causative agent of diabetes (Bruce et al. pp. 1452-1456).

Kidney Disease

Kidney disease is also one of the complications of diabetes. It is one of the diseases that is not directly associated with diabetes but it is a side complication to diabetes. Kidneys are the major target of diabetes because blood is filtered through the kidneys and any issues in blood filtration can lead to further issues in the human body. The reason is, a high level of glucose can cause kidneys to filter a large quantity of blood which can put a lot of pressure on the kidneys. As a result, the waste material or waste products can make the kidneys shun their work. There are different effects of this action, such as a shiny in the arm for dialysis (Singlaet al, pp. 873-881).

Heart Disease

Heart is one of the most affected organs by diabetes. It is said, diabetes kills from the heart where the majority of patients will end up in having atherosclerosis-related events. High glucose level in the blood can lead to a high cholesterol level as well (Chung et al).

Stroke

Stroke is one of the major and common complications that is associated with diabetes. According to research results, average patients suffering from diabetes can suffer from stroke about two to four times. Large amounts of glucose in the body can lead to a large number of fatty deposits and blood clots in the walls of the blood vessels. These clots can cause the blockage and narrowing of the blood vessel which can stop and obstruct the flow of oxygen to the brain, causing a stroke (McIntyre et al).

Low Testosterone level

It is a common observation that testosterone is a reproductive hormone and medical sciences have confirmed that if the human body is engaged in other functions that are related to bodily issues reproductive issues will not be given attention (Kocher et al., pp. 59-97).

Gastroparesis

Gastroparesis is defined as a condition when there is a slow down or the movement of food is lessened to the small intestine. There are several symptoms of Gastroparesis, such as stomach pain, nausea, feeling full after a few bites and vomiting (Kocher et al., pp. 59-97).

Sleep Apnea

Sleep Apnea is a major problem that is associated with patients who are suffering from Type II diabetes, as well as patients who are obese and overweight. It is also highlighted that the treatment of sleep apnea can help people recover from diabetes (Kocher et al., pp. 59-97).

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemia Non-ketonic Syndrome

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic Syndrome is a rare syndrome but one should be aware of the techniques through which it can be controlled. This syndrome occurs when the blood glucose level is high and little attention is given to its treatment. It is one of the alarms that should be taken into consideration in the beginning else it may cast a risk to life (Tecilazich et al. pp. 95-104).

Conclusion

All these complications are the driving forces that cause serious threats to the lives of people. The point to note is, any consideration or timely attention to these complications can help to overcome larger complications in the long run. It is highlighted that the range of complications varies with the stage of diabetes and the progression towards diabetes.

Work Cited

Bruce, MS Praythiesh, and MC Vasantha Mallika. "Prevalence of complications of diabetes among patients with diabetes mellitus attending a tertiary care centre in Tamil Nadu." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 6.4 (2019): 1452-1456.

Chung, Sei Y., et al. "Thyroidectomy complications in patients with diabetes mellitus." Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery (2019): 0194599819835793.

Kocher, Thomas, et al. "Periodontal complications of hyperglycemia/diabetes mellitus: Epidemiologic complexity and clinical challenge." Periodontology 2000 78.1 (2018): 59-97.

McIntyre, H. David, et al. "Gestational diabetes mellitus." Nature Reviews Disease Primers 5.1 (2019): 1-19.

Singla, Rajiv, et al. "Musculoskeletal Complications of Diabetes Mellitus." The Diabetes Textbook. Springer, Cham, 2019. 873-881.

Tecilazich, Francesco, and Aristidis Veves. "Role of peripheral neuropathy in the development of foot ulceration and impaired wound healing in diabetes mellitus." Nutritional and Therapeutic Interventions for Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. Academic Press, 2018. 95-104.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Conservation/Preservation Of Our Environment

Preservation of Our Environment

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School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Preservation of Our Environment

The chosen article highlights the objectives and strategies pursued by the United Nations (UN) to preserve the environment and combat climate change. The critical thoughts of the Deputy Secretary General of the UN, Amina Mohammed, called for putting an end to the detrimental practices which are enhancing the influence and intensity of the climate change. The current economic competition has manifested in the take, make and dispose model which is causing the adverse health and environment impacts including plastic waste in oceans, extraction of metals utilized in cell phones and the tremendous amount of electronic waste generated each year. Moreover, the positive changes are occurring as the civil and private sector including several hotel chains are committed to reducing consumption of water by 50%, state as Costa Rica and India are advancing to eliminate the single-use plastics ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ATd5vVSK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mar 15, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Mar 15, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":372,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/2AIDHLA5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/yvjivw9i/items/2AIDHLA5"],"itemData":{"id":372,"type":"webpage","title":"UN Official Calls for Urgent Action on Climate Change -","container-title":"Environmental Protection","abstract":"United Nations Deputy Secretary-General Amina Mohammed decried what she called the negative consequences of the current 'take, make, and dispose' global economic model, citing harmful environmental and health impacts associated with the extraction of metals used in mobile phones, plastic waste flowing into the oceans, and the huge amount of electronic waste generated every year.","URL":"https://eponline.com/articles/2019/03/15/un-official-calls-for-action-on-climate-change.aspx","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Mar 15","given":"2019"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",5,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mar 15, n.d.).

A critical appraisal of the article underpins the need to curb the menace of climate change in the contemporary era. Irrefutably, the concerns raised by the Deputy Secretary General of the UN are plausible and the onus relies on the international organizations and the states to regulate their emissions and strengthen the means of harnessing green energy. It makes the article resonate with the widespread movements launched by the environmentalists which call for the abrogation of the incessant consumption and emission of toxic gases and keeping a stringent check on dumping the waste and plastic. The contemporary tragic events as droughts, floods, weather anomalies and predicaments have accelerated and it is an explicit illustration of the adverse consequences of not preserving the earth. Thus, it is imperative to utilize green energy and preserve the environment form further adversities.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Mar 15, 2019. (n.d.). UN Official Calls for Urgent Action on Climate Change -. Retrieved May 17, 2019, from Environmental Protection website: https://eponline.com/articles/2019/03/15/un-official-calls-for-action-on-climate-change.aspx

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Critique-paper

Critique-Acetylation of p53 Activates Transcription through Recruitment of

Coactivators/Histone Acetyltransferases

Fabbiha Bakth

11 November 2019

P53 is a tumor suppressor that works and functions in the cell cycle arrest. One of the significant suppressor p53 in individuals is predominantly involved in stopping and restricting the production of tumors. Different studies have shown that persons receiving only one copy of p53 from their parents are susceptible to malignancies and tumors. The reversible cycle that is acetylation of p53 resulted because of DNA damage. This study observed that the acetylation of p53 affects the action and roles of p53. The acetylation declines the p53-dependent transcription and it also declines G1 cell cycle arrest. The study identifies that endogenous p21 promoter have been perceived to intensify its association and bond with p53 by the examination of chromatin immunoprecipitation. CBP, acetylated histones and TRRAP are the coactivators that increase association with p21. This study significantly evaluated the acetylation of p53, it's working, function, and role in the activity of p53. It was suggested that the acetylation of p53 is not to improve the binding of DNA but is to endorse the recruitment of coactivator and histone acetylation. In this paper, acetylation of p53 activates transcription through recruitment of coactivators/histone acetyltransferases conducted by Nickolai and the colleagues in the year 2001 was analyzed and assessed.

Article Summary

The damage to cellular DNA resulted in the activation of suppressors particularly tumor suppressors. One of the important suppressor p53 in humans works by stopping and restricting the production of tumors. The acetylation of p53 is a reversible process that happens because of damage to DNA. The acetylation of p53 affects the activity and functions of p53. The acetylation decreases p53-dependent transcription and it also decreases G1 cell cycle arrest. The endogenous p21 promoter has been observed to amplify its association and link with p53 by the analysis of chromatin immunoprecipitation. CBP, acetylated histones and TRRAP are the coactivators that are also have amplified association with p21. The major function of the acetylation of p53 is not to upsurge the binding of DNA but is to endorse the recruitment of coactivator and histone acetylation. In this article, the acetylation of p53 and the recruitment of coactivators is significant for the functioning of p53 was observed.

P53 is important for cell proliferation and to halt the cell division before replication. It is also important for monitoring DNA damage. If the repair is not recovered, cellular apoptotic death occurs which is also encouraged by p53. p53 action is controlled from side to side numerous posttranslational alterations that mainly arise in the amino side of the protein and also in the carboxyl-terminal areas. With the consequences of DNA impairment reaction, p53 converts into strongly phosphorylated. Numerous kinases counting Chk2 and Cdk-stimulated kinase phosphorylated in the amino portion of the protein and resulted in p53 stabilization. The stabilization also needs CAK, ATR, and the phosphoinositol 3 kinase-related members ATM. The carboxyl-terminal also required phosphorylation and it stimulates binding of DNA in vitro. The outcomes existing in the study specify that acetylation is a precarious alteration of p53 required significantly for its working in vivo. It is required for p53's working in stimulating transcription. Acetylation is required for the endogenous gene p21. It is also important for p53 active reporter plasmid. Significantly, the major role of acetylation of p53 was in p53-mediated detention of the cell cycle at G1. It requires p53 associated with multiple transcription genes. This study significantly recognizes an acknowledged mechanism that is responsible for the acetylation. That mechanism is the coactivators or HATs recruitment by physical communication. The initiator and essential element in the acetylation progression was histone acetyltransferase.

Article Critique

The study has identified that p53 acetylation is important for the physiological functions of p53. These functions involve the cell cycle arrest when there is an occurrence of DNA damage. The acetylation of the p53 strongly activates the coactivators which are involved in the association of phosphorylation. The study evaluated that a large number of activators are acetylated for the transcription process. It is required for the DNA sequence-specific elements that is the coactivator's recruitment. The study approach to identify how the acetylation process creates transmission of signals to represent mechanisms for the activation of transcription was significant. The other covalent alteration processes were identified successfully particularly in p53 that occurs in acetylation as posttranslational. This posttranslational modification resulted in the reaction of damage to DNA. P53 is acetylated in the regions of carboxyl-terminal specifically in the areas where regulatory tetramerization domain is located. P53 acetylation is assumed to be required for the regulatory functions of p53. In the case of histone deacetylase-linked protein, p53 deacetylation conceded in its capability to encourage cell cycle detention and apoptosis. The study conducted competently and experimentally proven as elaborate in the study, the function of acetylation of p53 was observed in vivo. Acetylation places in p53 were replaced, and histones bound to the p21 promoter in cells. To observe the function and status of p53, chromatin immunoprecipitation was castoff. The study indicated that acetylation is important for the functioning of p53. It was also observed that coactivators were recruited to promote p53 genes.

The outcomes showed in the study specify that acetylation is an unjustified alteration of p53 compulsory meaningfully for its working in vivo. It is required for p53's functioning in stimulating transcription. Acetylation is mandatory for the endogenous gene p21. It is also significant for p53 active reporter plasmid. Suggestively, the major role of acetylation was observed in the study. It is suggested that the function of p53 was in p53-mediated detention of the cell cycle at G1. It needs p53 related to multiple transcription genes. This research significantly recognizes an acknowledged mechanism that is accountable for the acetylation. The mechanism is the coactivators or HATs recruitment by physical interrelation. The research showed that acetylation transpires in the cells and also the p53 acetylation causes acetylation of histones. Examination identifies that an acetylation cascade exists in cells, where acetylation of p53 may lead to acetylation of histones. The major and essential element in the acetylation mechanism is histone acetyltransferase.

The study was performed experimentally, a methodology chosen was effective in identifying the role of acetylation of p53. The expression and purification of p53 was performed by utilizing amino-terminal 6His-tagged p53 and transformed BL21 E. coli was grown induced by 1mM isopropyl-D-thiogalactopyranoside at OD600 of 0.8. The gel filtration and binding analysis was performed by utilizing superdex 200 HR10/30 column. Acetylation of the p53 was observed by taking equal amounts of purified wild type p53 and mutant p53 (acetylation site was substituted). Other experimental methods such as protein-protein interactions, PCR and indirect immunofluorescence were performed according to prescribed procedures. The acetylation of p53 where arginine substituted by lysine residues were performed. All these substituted processes in p53 showed that it does not affect structural reliability. Modern studies have indicated that effective binding of DNA does not need acetylation on longer binding sites in vitro. However, this study indicates that acetylation of p53 is not mandatory for the transcription in vitro but activates transcription. This study was also performed on chromatin templates. In vivo, it may be required because of overcoming actions of DNA linked repressors which usually overlap p53 binding sites. Previous studies have suggested that p53 acetylation is involved in the actions of apoptosis and controlling the growth. However, acetylation is a significant event for the upregulation of p53 functions.

Conclusion

The acetylation of p53 is essential for the activities and functioning of p53. It is significantly evaluated by the study that the acetylation of p53 is involved in the activation of the transcription process. The transcription was activated by the recruitment of coactivators. These coactivators were essentially required by the acetylation of p53. The DNA damage causes acetylation of p53 and ultimately it affects the transcription. Certain coactivators and their immense phosphorylation processes with the help of histone acetyltransferases activates the transcriptional process in the cells. The research conducted experimentally proved and elaborate on the function and role of acetylation of p53. Experimentally, acetylation placed in p53 was substituted, and histones bound to the p21 promoter in the cells. To detect the function and status of p53, chromatin immunoprecipitation was utilized. After analysis, it was indicated that acetylation is important for the functioning and activities of p53. It was successfully suggested that coactivators were recruited to promote p53 genes. The results presented in the research by Nickolai and the colleagues stipulate that acetylation is a compulsory modification of p53 required significantly for its working in vivo that is activation of transcription by recruitment of coactivators.

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Barlev, Nickolai A., Lin Liu, Nabil H. Chehab, Kyle Mansfield, Kimberly G. Harris, Thanos D. Halazonetis, and Shelley L. Berger. “Acetylation of P53 Activates Transcription through Recruitment of Coactivators/Histone Acetyltransferases.” Molecular Cell 8, no. 6 (December 1, 2001): 1243–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1097-2765(01)00414-2.

Kaypee, Stephanie, Smitha Asoka Sahadevan, Shilpa Patil, Piya Ghosh, Neeladri Sekhar Roy, Siddhartha Roy, and Tapas K. Kundu. “Mutant and Wild-Type Tumor Suppressor P53 Induces P300 Autoacetylation.” IScience 4 (2018): 260–72.

Pfister, Neil T., and Carol Prives. “Transcriptional Regulation by Wild-Type and Cancer-Related Mutant Forms of P53.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 7, no. 2 (2017): a026054.

Reed, Sara M., and Dawn E. Quelle. “P53 Acetylation: Regulation and Consequences.” Cancers 7, no. 1 (2015): 30–69.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 5 Words: 1500

Current Event Assignment

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Date

“Plastic-Eating Bacteria”

Summary

Christopher Johnson is a molecular biologist and is involved in research at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. He works on plastics degradation. He talks with a woman in a party about his research, who is concerned about the environmental pollution caused by plastic materials. However, Johnson is quite hopeful about the future because he thinks he and his team would find an effective solution to the problem. Last year, they created an enzyme that could decompose plastics used in soap containers and water bottles. The team is hopeful for the future of their research as they plan to develop certain microorganisms that would degenerate plastics as their natural job. The recycling processes developed until now with the use of chemicals do not break down plastics to the micro-level, instead they only break down plastics into smaller pieces, which are used to make lower quality plastic again. The use of synthetic material began to substitute ivory gained from elephants. However, this innovation has made us suffer the hazardous consequences. An interesting thing to be noted is that humans produce more than three hundred million tons of plastic materials every year, which equals five times the weight of all people. More than nine million tons of plastic trash end up in the outer suburbs of populated areas and near the ocean. It is estimated that the high sea would abound in more plastic than fish. Johnson thinks that our civilization is not doing a good job to deal with this problem. The industries do not bother recycling waste materials due to lack of any economic incentive. He suggests that pollution and waste problem can be minimized to a substantial extent if industries begin converting those materials into useable and more valuable products. Johnson and his team work in Colorado and they have more colleagues in Florida, Brazil, and England. All work on their dream bio-based research project (“Plastic-Eating Bacteria”). The team members demonstrate distinguished expertise. Their activities include studying breakdown of cellulose by bacterial and fungal chemicals, mechanism of polymer-eating enzymes, engineering of cells that secrete polymer-eating enzymes, and similar other things. The research is being carried out extensively, and strong hope exists that the scientists would eventually succeed in finding an effective solution.

Response

The article is very interesting as it discusses a major concern of the corporate world of this age in a hopeful and amusing way. It indicates concern of a common woman about the serious issue of waste management. It depicts the confident thinking of a scientist about providing an adequate solution. The article describes in detail how appropriate research centers have been set up and the best brains employed to make progress in this field. It explores the scientific research to the degree that common people can understand the science behind the efforts made in the way of coping with waste management problems. The writer gives a description of many microorganisms, enzymes, and chemical reactions useful in the recycling of plastic materials. The article creates awareness in people of the important environmental issue of pollution. It highlights the opportunities available in the field of research. These opportunities can be utilized by other researchers as well. People get an insight into the severity of the problem, and avoid increasing pollution. The concepts of waste management, pollution hazards, engineering of useful degenerating chemicals and micro-organisms, the context of synthetic materials production, and future threats of environmental pollution have been discussed effectively.

Vocabulary

Environmental Pollution: Disruption of normal environmental processes due to contamination of earth systems.

Recycling: Converting waste materials into new usable materials.

Biodegradation: Decay of organic materials by microorganisms like bacteria.

Cellulose: A chemical found in plants’ cell walls, which keeps plants stiff.

Ideonella sakaiensis: A microorganism that releases a PETase enzyme capable of degrading plastic chemicals (Trivedi et al.).

Works Cited

“Plastic-Eating Bacteria: The Scientists Improving Our Recycling.” Popular Science, https://www.popsci.com/plastic-eating-bacteria/. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.

Trivedi, Priya, et al. “Role of Microbes in Degradation of Synthetic Plastics and Manufacture of Bioplastics.” Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, vol. 8, no. 3, 2016, pp. 211–16.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Depends On You

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Contraception

Introduction

Birth control which is also known as contraception is designed to prevent pregnancy in women. Contraception or birth control methods are used all over the world in order to prevent any unexpected pregnancy. This can be done in a variety of ways by using different types of drugs, devices, sexual practices, agents and also by using any agents along with surgical methods. All these methods have been proved quite beneficial in order to prevent unwanted pregnancy in individuals. Contraception or birth control methods enable people to choose that when they want to have kids. There are various methods of contraception and each method varies from the other in their effectiveness. Among all the methods two of the main types of contraception are the most effective which are hormonal and barrier methods. In case of the hormonal method of contraception, there are certain types of hormones which are introduced in the body in order to make it act differently some of these hormones stop the woman to release egg completely while other hormones make it difficult for the sperms to reach the egg which is released. In case of the barrier methods, the sperms are prohibited to reach the egg that is released by stopping the sperms as soon as they are released. Although there are different other methods of contraception but these two methods are commonly used and effective (Mosher and Jones).

Critique

In the recent era the high use of contraception techniques has cut down the number of total maternal deaths by 40% over the past 20 years and it is done by reducing the unintended pregnancies by 20%. With the advancement in technology, there are now many various methods of contraception that are used widely used by couples in order to prevent pregnancy. Having said that there are many elements that should be considered by young couples in order to decide that which contraceptive methods they are going to adopt because there are fair chances that if one method suits one person it may not be effective for another person. These elements which should be considered by couples include safety, effectiveness acceptability and also the availability of the method. The second most important thing which should be kept in mind by the couples while choosing the available methods of contraception is the protection against the simultaneous risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. Although the hormonal method of contraception is effective against pregnancy prevention they are not effective against protecting STDs which also includes HIV.

As discussed earlier the hormonal methods are the ones which are the most effective and also readily available method of pregnancy prevention. There are various methods of hormonal contraception. Which include

Implant

The implant is mainly a thin rod which is majorly inserted under the skin of the woman's upper arm. This rod contains progestin which is basically released in the body for a time period of 3 years. It is a highly effective method and the failure rate of this method is 0.01%. However, Mosher and Jones reported that in most of the people it causes severe allergic reactions inside the body which affects the overall menstrual cycle and also the reproduction system of the individual.

Injection/Shots

In this particular method of contraception, women are basically injected in their buttocks or arms after three months from their doctors. In this method once the hormone is injected in the body it prevents the chances of pregnancy either by preventing the sperm to the egg or by preventing the egg to be released in either way this is the most effective and safe method of contraception and it is used widely among the individuals of every age and till date there is no particular health risk that is reported because of injection or shots (Cooper and Rotimi)

Combined Oral Contraceptives

This is also called as the pill; this method is a combined contraceptive method which contains the hormone estrogen and progesterone. The pills are mainly prescribed by a doctor and these pills must be taken at the same time each day. However in some exceptional cases such as when the mother or woman is addicted to smoking and also she has a history of blood clots and breast cancer then the doctor can ask the woman not to take any pills. There are some drawbacks of taking pills on a woman but it is also true that the cases are not similar in all, these pills result in swollen body and also high blood pressure is also reported in some women. Cooper and Rotimi, reported that pills should only be taken by the women after serious consultation with the doctor because these pills may cause some reactions inside the body of the individuals (Cooper and Rotimi).

Most of the women reported many health hazards in the body after taking pills and other hormonal methods of contraception and various healthcare providers also reported that these methods are not very safe due to the reaction that takes place inside the body after taking these hormonal shots. Therefore the barrier methods were presented as an alternative to hormonal methods. Because these barrier methods only present barrier they do not make any changes inside the body of the individuals. There are various barrier methods that include

Cervical Cap or Diaphragm

These barrier methods are placed inside the female reproductive organ in order to cover the overall lining of the cervix so that the sperms are blocked and they are unable to reach the egg. It is shaped like a shallow cup. Before any sexual intercourse, these are inserted with a spermicidal in order to completely block or kills the sperms. Meeting doctor is mandatory in this case because these cervical caps come in various sizes. However, there is some 17% failure rate of this method because in many cases even after using diaphragm pregnancy was reported as compared to hormonal methods.

Sponge

The sponge contains spermicidal and it is placed inside the vagina where this sponge fits better on the cervix. It can work better up to 24 hours and it must be left inside the female reproductive organ for a period of 6 hours after the last sexual activity. However Clieland et al., reported that although the hormonal methods of contraception offer many health risks as compared to these barrier methods they are one of the most effective methods of birth control when they used by a proper discussion with the doctors.

Although it is legally allowed to control the birth rate because the population is increasing and the resources are getting limited but there are some ethical concerns that revolve around this topic. There are many religious scholars who think that it is a sin to control birth as it is more like playing with God. Therefore this topic is not vastly discussed among the individuals and there are many women who feel shy and face many health problems because they are not allowed to discuss this topic openly.

Conclusion

Birth control is now trending all over the world in order to control the population of the world. Although there are some ethical issues that revolve around this method but having said that this is one of the most widely used methods in order to control unexpected pregnancies. There are various methods of birth control which are discussed in this paper and every method has its own pros and cons and it should be kept in mind that these methods should be used after discussing them in detail with the doctor because if one method is effective in one woman it is not necessary that the same method is effective in others as well therefore before using any of the methods they should be discussed with the doctors.

Work Cited

Cleland, Kelly, et al. "Emergency contraception review: evidence-based recommendations for clinicians." Clinical obstetrics and gynecology 57.4 (2014): 741.

Cooper, Danielle B., and Rotimi Adigun. "Oral Contraceptive Pills." StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, 2017.

Hohmann, Heather, and Mitchell D. Creinin. "The contraceptive implant." Clinical obstetrics and gynecology 50.4 (2007): 907-917.

Mosher, William D., and Jo Jones. "Use of contraception in the United States: 1982-2008." Vital and health statistics. Series 23, Data from the National Survey of Family Growth 29 (2010): 1-44.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

DESCRIBE THE COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA

Composition and Function of Saliva [Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Composition and Function of Saliva

Do you know that saliva has a critical role to play in the human body, yet it is taken for granted? It is evident from various studies that saliva is involved in oral tissue maintenance and preservation. However, it is not paid much attention because of its involvement in the small amount. Saliva is a slightly acidic liquid secretion produced by the salivary glands present in the mouth. These glands are present in three regions inside a mouth cavity: behind the ears (parotid glands), under the tongue (sublingual glands), and at the base of the mouth (submandibular glands).

Cellular composition of saliva suggests the presence of three types of cells: duct system cells present in huge amounts, myoepithelial cells, and acinar cells. Chemical composition of saliva suggests the presence of various electrolytes such as magnesium, calcium, bicarbonate, potassium, sodium, and phosphate (Humphrey & Williamson, 2001). Other major components present in the saliva are proteins, including immunoglobulins, enzymes, mucins, and various nitrogenous substances, including ammonia and urea. All of these components have specific roles to play, which in turn help saliva perform its function. PH and buffer capacity of saliva is maintained by the presence of bicarbonates, phosphates, and urea. Mucus and proteins serve to adhere to the surface of microorganisms and trap them. Antimicrobial action is provided with the help of Immunoglobulins and other enzymes. The combined action of proteins, phosphate, and calcium serves to give anti-solubility factors to regulate remineralization and demineralization (Almeida et al., 2008).

Saliva serves five major functions in the body that are mainly related to the maintenance of oral health. Besides the major function of taste and digestion that you are already familiar with, saliva serves to protect the body with its antimicrobial activity. Moreover, it is involved in maintaining tissue integrity. According to a few studies, certain medications are thought to have side effects on the production of saliva, consequently resulting in saliva dysfunction (Humphrey & Williamson, 2001).

References

Humphrey, S. P., & Williamson, R. T. (2001). A review of saliva: normal composition, flow, and function. The Journal of prosthetic dentistry, 85(2), 162-169.

de Almeida, P. D. V., Gregio, A. M., Machado, M. A., De Lima, A. A., & Azevedo, L. R. (2008). Saliva composition and functions: a comprehensive review. J Contemp Dent Pract, 9(3), 72-80.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Describe The Process By Which The Kidney Filters The Blood Plasma, Including The Relevant Cellular Structure Of The Glomerulus

Glomerular Filtration

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Glomerular Filtration

The kidney is a vital organ of the human excretory system, involved in the filtration of blood and the formation of urine ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eOItvpd0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Field, Harris, & Pollock, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Field, Harris, & Pollock, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":511,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"itemData":{"id":511,"type":"chapter","container-title":"The Renal System (Second Edition)","ISBN":"978-0-7020-3371-1","language":"en","note":"DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-3371-1.00002-6","page":"15-31","publisher":"Churchill Livingstone","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"2 - BODY FLUIDS, NEPHRON FUNCTION AND DIURETICS","URL":"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702033711000026","author":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"editor":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,11]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Field, Harris, & Pollock, 2010). It comprises of special internal structures which help it perform these function. These structures are called nephrons which consist of several components such as glomerulus, proximal and distal convoluted tubule, a loop of Henle, collecting duct, and associated capillaries. The glomerulus is the main part involved in the filtration of blood plasma ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"y7QiND8a","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tryggvason & Wartiovaara, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Tryggvason & Wartiovaara, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":508,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DJM379CX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DJM379CX"],"itemData":{"id":508,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The kidneys filter the plasma in special filtration units-glomeruli-and thereby excrete low-molecular-weight waste products into the urine. The mechanisms of glomerular filtration have been a matter of controversy for several decades, but recent data have revealed new details about the molecular nature of the filter and have demonstrated a central role for the podocyte slit diaphragm in the filtration process.","container-title":"Physiology (Bethesda, Md.)","DOI":"10.1152/physiol.00045.2004","ISSN":"1548-9213","journalAbbreviation":"Physiology (Bethesda)","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 15772298","page":"96-101","source":"PubMed","title":"How does the kidney filter plasma?","volume":"20","author":[{"family":"Tryggvason","given":"Karl"},{"family":"Wartiovaara","given":"Jorma"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tryggvason & Wartiovaara, 2005). Now the question is, how is it achieved? It is achieved through the process of Glomerular Filtration which is a first step in the formation of urine ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TuNfVghO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tryggvason & Wartiovaara, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Tryggvason & Wartiovaara, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":508,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DJM379CX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DJM379CX"],"itemData":{"id":508,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The kidneys filter the plasma in special filtration units-glomeruli-and thereby excrete low-molecular-weight waste products into the urine. The mechanisms of glomerular filtration have been a matter of controversy for several decades, but recent data have revealed new details about the molecular nature of the filter and have demonstrated a central role for the podocyte slit diaphragm in the filtration process.","container-title":"Physiology (Bethesda, Md.)","DOI":"10.1152/physiol.00045.2004","ISSN":"1548-9213","journalAbbreviation":"Physiology (Bethesda)","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 15772298","page":"96-101","source":"PubMed","title":"How does the kidney filter plasma?","volume":"20","author":[{"family":"Tryggvason","given":"Karl"},{"family":"Wartiovaara","given":"Jorma"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",4]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tryggvason & Wartiovaara, 2005). To know the process, we first have to understand the structure of Glomerulus.

Various capillaries are intertwined in a cluster to form the structure of glomerulus ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TuSRLsQx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Field et al., 2010)","plainCitation":"(Field et al., 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":511,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"itemData":{"id":511,"type":"chapter","container-title":"The Renal System (Second Edition)","ISBN":"978-0-7020-3371-1","language":"en","note":"DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-3371-1.00002-6","page":"15-31","publisher":"Churchill Livingstone","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"2 - BODY FLUIDS, NEPHRON FUNCTION AND DIURETICS","URL":"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702033711000026","author":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"editor":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,11]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Field et al., 2010). Blood enters into the capillaries via efferent arterioles. The glomerulus is surrounded by the cup-shaped structure called Glomerulus capsule which is composed of two layers of squamous epithelial cells: inner visceral and outer parietal. The outer visceral layer is made up of podocytes that act as a slit allowing the filtrate to pass through. This slit is highly specialized and allows the transport of selective molecules such as mineral ions and inhibits the movement of large molecules and cells such as albumin, red blood cells, and platelets. At the other end of the glomerulus, efferent arterioles are present through which the glomerular filtrate leaves and enters into the proximal convoluted tubules where it is reabsorbed into the blood.

Now, let me tell you about the mechanism through which this glomerular filtration occurs. It takes place via the process of renal ultrafiltration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bRGLUKAQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Field et al., 2010)","plainCitation":"(Field et al., 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":511,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"itemData":{"id":511,"type":"chapter","container-title":"The Renal System (Second Edition)","ISBN":"978-0-7020-3371-1","language":"en","note":"DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-3371-1.00002-6","page":"15-31","publisher":"Churchill Livingstone","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"2 - BODY FLUIDS, NEPHRON FUNCTION AND DIURETICS","URL":"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702033711000026","author":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"editor":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,11]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Field et al., 2010). The blood vessels present in the glomerulus exert hydrostatic pressure which acts as a force to drive the movement of filtrate out of capillaries into the slits. The difference between the hydrostatic pressure and Osmotic pressure determines the glomerular filtration rate which is a rate at which the filtration occurs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WJzXW1TI","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Field et al., 2010)","plainCitation":"(Field et al., 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":511,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/WCV59MMN"],"itemData":{"id":511,"type":"chapter","container-title":"The Renal System (Second Edition)","ISBN":"978-0-7020-3371-1","language":"en","note":"DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-3371-1.00002-6","page":"15-31","publisher":"Churchill Livingstone","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"2 - BODY FLUIDS, NEPHRON FUNCTION AND DIURETICS","URL":"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702033711000026","author":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"editor":[{"family":"Field","given":"Michael J."},{"family":"Harris","given":"David C."},{"family":"Pollock","given":"Carol A."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,11]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Field et al., 2010).

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Field, M. J., Harris, D. C., & Pollock, C. A. (2010). 2—BODY FLUIDS, NEPHRON FUNCTION AND DIURETICS. In M. J. Field, D. C. Harris, & C. A. Pollock (Eds.), The Renal System (Second Edition) (pp. 15–31). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-3371-1.00002-6

Tryggvason, K., & Wartiovaara, J. (2005). How does the kidney filter plasma? Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 20, 96–101. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00045.2004

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Discussion 1

Is it is legal to teach creationism within a school system

Student’s Name

Institution

Date

Is it is legal to teach creationism within a school system

In schools in America, creationism has been taught to illustrate the origin of universal. Several states have enacted the creationism act to teach creation anytime evolution is being taught in schools. However, the school does not compel students to learn creations but it a free choice of students to decide whether to study creationism or not. Creationism is taught in school not to advance the religious believe of certain religion to students but to offer students advance knowledge and appreciate the role, which our religious heritage has contributed in the cultural, social and historical growth of civilization.

As a school, the purpose of teaching creationism is to provide a different perspective regarding the genesis of the universal but not to force certain beliefs to students. The school curriculum is designed flexible and considers every aspect of live and therefore, teaching creation does not violates the constitution of the United States CITATION Mic17 \l 1033 (Petterson, 2017). Previously, the Supreme Court made a landmark ruling regarding teaching creationism. And in the ruling it pointed that Louisiana law violates the separation of power and therefore, it is not illegal to teach creationism.

It is also important to note that the school understands that there are people, who believe in evolution, fossil and genetic mutation as the genesis of universe and mankind CITATION Eri14 \l 1033 (Hovind, 2014). And therefore, teaching creationism is a way of advancing knowledge but not to force belief to students. However, the evolution is also being taught as well and this therefore, offer students a broader knowledge rather a singular perspective regarding the universal and mankind.

In conclusion, the creationism students are taught creationism to help them advance their knowledge and understand the world around them but not to force certain religious beliefs. The curriculum is also design to cover all believers and non believers with clear picture of the reparation of state and religion and therefore, the school creationism teaching does not violates the First Amendment of the U.S. constitution.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Hovind, E. (2014). Teaching of Creationsim in Public School. Journal of religious Studies , 2-14.

Petterson, M. (2017). Fighting Over Darwin, State by State. Pew Research Center religion and Public Life , 2-15.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Disease And Technology

Biology and Life Sciences

Question 1

Part a

SARS was appeared to be the first severe pandemic that emerged in the 21st century. Some of the personal physical barriers such as isolation of patient were done and they managed according to the infection control strict procedures. Infection control practices were enhanced such as frequent washing of hands, awareness regarding not touching nose, mouth an eyes with unclean hands, people start using face masks in public places. People start wearing disposable gloves before touching any infected bodily fluids.

As SARS is spread by close person to person contact. This virus is usually spread by a respiratory droplet that is produced when the person with this disease sneeze or cough. Use of the face mask in the public places played a very important role in the spread of this disease. This virus is also spread when the person touches an infected surface and then touches his mouth eyes and nose. Hand washing strategy played a very important role in the prevention of this disease. Secondly health care professionals and other used gloves which also prevent the spread of this disease.

Spanish flu epidemic occurs in 1918-1919. At that time no vaccine present can protect against this infection. Secondly, there were no antibiotics that can be used to treat the secondary infections associated with the Spanish flu.

The Spanish flu virus is caused by the H1N1 virus whereas SARS is caused by a coronavirus. Currently, there is no vaccine available to treat SARS infection

Part b

The flu shot is an inactive vaccine and is made by using a dead virus, the vaccine protects against whereas the nasal spray flu vaccine is made up of live but weakened virus.

Part c

Life expectancy in America has been declined from 78.7 to 78.6. The reason for this decline can be due to increased suicide rate, drug overdose and chronic liver diseases.

Part d

Cell replacement therapy is defined as transplantation of human cells to repair or replace damaged cells.

Part d: 1

Two types of cell therapy such as neuroprotection and cellular replacement are used to treat the neurodegenerative disorder. Different types of cells such as mesenchymal stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells, skeletal muscle stem cells, dendritic cells, lymphocytes, and pancreatic islet cells are used in cell replacement therapy. In cell replacement cell is grafted into a damaged neuronal subtype whereas in neuroprotection support is given to the residual neuron.

Part d: 2

No, these methods are not commonly used now as exact neurodegeneration mechanism is highly complicated to treat the neurodegenerative disorder.

Question 2

Scaffold: It is a framework that holds tissue and cells together. The scaffold should be biocompatible and have nontoxic properties.

It should be a three-dimensional structure with interconnected porous networks that helps in the growth of cell and transport of metabolic waste and nutrient.The scaffold should be biodegradable and have appropriate degradation rate so that it can mimic the growth of cell and tissue in vivo and invitro.

Question 3

Transgenic bacteria are bacteria that are genetically altered to produce a necessary and specific gene. These types of alteration involve the insertion of required genes in the DNA. A specific gene is selected by using the restriction enzymes they are extracted from. Then this gene is inserted into a bacteria. As these bacteria are single-celled organism the gene is only inserted once and because bacteria multiply very fast.

The process that is involved with mycobacterium spegmatis is gene cloning. It is a process of isolating and then making many copies of a gene. It is useful for many purposes such as to isolate and then make many copies of a normal gene in the process of gene therapy. It involves four steps:

Isolation: In this step, a restriction enzyme is used to break the DNA at a specific sequence of the base. This process is done to isolate the gene. The restriction enzymes are isolated from bacteria and cut DNA at a specific sequence.

Ligation: In this step DNA ligase combine plasmid DNA with isolated genes.

Transformation: In this process, the recombinant DNA is inserted in a living cell that is mostly a bacterial cell.

Selection: In this step, it is made sure that the growing transformational bacteria have recombinant DNA. This is a very important step as a transformation step is not always successful.

Biotechnology has a wide range of application in medicine and agriculture. It is used in gene therapy to treat a genetic disorder. It is used in transforming bacteria so that it can be used to make human proteins. Insulin which was the first human protein was prepared by this technology. This also helps in creating transgenic crops.

Question 4

Gene therapy is a process of introduction of normal genes in the cells to replace the defective and missing to treat a genetic disorder.

The Human Genome Project was started around 1986. The main purpose of this project was to locate and sequence all genes that are found in the DNA of humans. The main objective was to know about the disease hereditary and to discover those genes that can be helpful in gene therapy. As currently there is no cure for the cystic fibrosis. Gene therapy can be found effective. In this process, the faulty CFTR gene is replaced with a working one. The treatment uses a lentivirus to deliver a healthy copy of a CFTR gene.

Yes, this treatment is a logical one as it helps in increasing both quality of life as well as life expectancy.

In 1993 the earliest clinical trials in CF patients were conducted. These trials used viral and non-viral gene transfer agents. These agents were introduced in both the nasal and bronchial airway epithelium. Mostly Engineered adenoviruses were used in these trials. But some of these have been associated with significant inflammatory responses and toxicity that was unacceptable.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Disease Or Disorder Affecting The Reproductive System

Disease or Disorder affecting the Reproductive System

Submitted by

Course

Date

Forum Question: 300 words response

Large and important changes occur in the human body during puberty and they manifest themselves in changes in appearance, well-being and mood, as well as in the intensity of development and formation of organs of the reproductive system. Around 8 episodes of Grey’s Anatomy were coded for various nonverbal behavior of doctors towards their patients. The practice of the "Kangaroo" method is based on the following principles: position of the child (the child without clothes is located vertically on the mother’s breast), food (completely or mainly breastfeeding)and discharge time (early discharge from hospital)

The male genital organs include the following anatomical elements: internal - the testicles (male genital glands), their ducts, accessory genital glands and external - scrotum and penis (penis). The testicles (testes, or testos) are two rounded glands in which spermatozoa are produced and male sex hormones are synthesized (androgen and testosterone).

The testicles are located in the scrotum, which performs a protective function. The male sexual organ (penis) is located in the lower part of the pubic lobe. Formed by spongy tissue, which is supplied with blood of two large arteries and has the ability to fill with blood when excited, to increase the penis in size, changing the angle of inclination (erection). The penis has a body and a head covered with a fold of skin and mucous membrane, called "foreskin." The urethra, or urethra, is a thin tube that connects to the bladder and the spermatic duct. Through it, urine and semen are brought out. The seminiferous ducts are two thin tubes through which spermatozoa fall from the testicle into the seminal vesicles, where they accumulate and mature. The prostate gland, or prostate gland, is a muscular organ in which white fluid is produced, which, mixed with sperm, forms sperm. With contraction of the muscles of the prostate, semen is pushed out through the urethra. This is called ejaculation. (Sweeney, Hasan, Soto& Sonnenschein, 2015)

Female genital organs include the following anatomical elements: internal - ovaries, uterine or fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina - and external - small and large labia, clitoris, hymen (maiden). The ovaries are two glands resembling a large bean in shape and size. They are located on both sides of the uterus in the lower abdomen of the woman. In the ovaries, female sex cells develop - the eggs - and female sex hormones are synthesized - estrogens. The ovum matures in a small vesicle of the ovary for 24-30 days, after which the vesicle breaks, and the egg exits into the fallopian tubes. This is called ovulation. (Hoffmann, 2018).

Uterine (fallopian) tubes connect the uterine cavity with the ovaries. In the fallopian tubes, the egg is fertilized by the sperm cell. The uterus is an abdominal muscular organ resembling a pear lined from the inside by mucous membranes. The uterus has three openings: two lateral, connecting it with the fallopian tubes, and the lower, connecting it through the neck to the vagina. When the fertilized egg enters the uterus, it sinks into the mucous membrane, attaching to the wall of the uterus. Here the germ develops, and later the fetus. An unfertilized egg leaves the woman’s body along with parts of the uterine lining and a small amount of blood. This is called menstruation.

The lower part of the uterus is called the cervix. The cervix and the vagina in pregnant women form a birth canal through which the fetus leaves the uterus at birth. The labia minora (vulva) are skin folds that cover the external entrance of the vagina and urethra. Here is the clitoris, which is a lot of nerve receptors, which is important for erection (sexual arousal). From the sides of the small lips are large labia. In girls who have not had sexual contact (coitus), the external entrance to the vagina is closed by a thin connective tissue membrane, which is called the hymen, or the girl's chaff.

Disorder of reproductive system: Endometriosis is a disease in which endometrial tissue (uterine lining) grows beyond its normal localization. It is one of the main causes of infertility and miscarriage. Endometriosis is a benign proliferation of the glandular tissue of the uterus (endometrium) outside the uterus itself: in the ovaries, in the fallopian tubes, in the thickness of the uterus, in the bladder, on the peritoneum, in the rectum and even in other, more distant organs, even in the kidneys and lungs. (Assi, Noor,Haron, & Rajion, 2017). At the same time, endometrial fragments brought to other organs change in the same way as the endometrium in the uterus, that is, menstruate, which is accompanied by pain and bloody discharge. Endometriosis can cause ovarian cysts and infertility.

References

Assi, M. A., Noor, M. H. M., Haron, A. W., Yusoff, M. S. M., & Rajion, M. A. (2017). Male Reproductive System. Pertanika Journal of Scholarly Research Reviews, 3(1).

Hoffmann, K. H. (2018). Oogenesis and the female reproductive system. In Insect reproduction (pp. 1-32). CRC Press.

Sweeney, M. F., Hasan, N., Soto, A. M., & Sonnenschein, C. (2015). Environmental endocrine disruptors: effects on the human male reproductive system. Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders, 16(4), 341-357.

Classmate 1 response: 200 words

Ovarian cancer is the sixth most common cancer among women, and although it usually affects women over the age of 45, there is a risk in young girls. Indications for hysterectomy are: tumor diseases of the uterus, such as uterine fibroids in the case of large nodes or their rapid growth, compression of adjacent organs, the presence of uterine bleeding caused by myoma. Also, a hysterectomy is performed. Women taking a contraceptive pill do not ovulate every month, so their ovaries are less often damaged, and the risk of developing cancer cells is likely to be lower. If you are undergoing an operation, you may have bilateral salpingo-phoreectomy, or complete abdominal hysterectomy. The first is the removal of both ovaries together with the fallopian tubes, while the last is the removal of the uterus, which will not allow you to have children in a natural way. (Hoffmann, 2018).

Subtotal hysterectomy is performed in diseases such as uterine fibroids in women under 50 years old, when the pelvic organs are omitted when performing sacrocervicopexy, and in benign ovarian tumors. This type of operation allows you to save the cervix, which has a beneficial effect on the postoperative period, allowing the patient to have a full sex life. But there remains the risk of developing cervical cancer.

References

Assi, M. A., Noor, M. H. M., Haron, A. W., Yusoff, M. S. M., & Rajion, M. A. (2017). Male Reproductive System. Pertanika Journal of Scholarly Research Reviews, 3(1).

Hoffmann, K. H. (2018). Oogenesis and the female reproductive system. In Insect reproduction (pp. 1-32). CRC Press.

Sweeney, M. F., Hasan, N., Soto, A. M., & Sonnenschein, C. (2015). Environmental endocrine disruptors: effects on the human male reproductive system. Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders, 16(4), 341-357.

Classmate 2 response: 200 words

The most common symptoms of endometriosis are menstrual pain and abdominal pain. They are present in about 70% of all endometriosis patients. The "vagueness" of symptoms and their prevalence in healthy women would explain the long delay in diagnosing endometriosis patients. ( Sweeney, Hasan, Soto& Sonnenschein, 2015).However, the onset of endometriosis pain is characterized by the onset of pain even before actual leakage. Inflammatory diseases lead to impaired reproductive and sexual functions, as well as adversely affect the nervous, cardiovascular, endocrine systems of the body. Mycoplasma infections do not cause disease in all, as the leading role belongs to immunodeficiencies. Problem nutrition, poor ecology, sedentary and stressful lifestyles and other causes negatively affect our immune system, which weakens, and it becomes difficult to resist various infectious agents. (Assi, Noor,Haron, & Rajion, 2017).

Inflammatory diseases without timely treatment can cause:

ectopic pregnancy;

adhesions in the pelvis;

chronic pelvic pain;

pain during sexual life (dyspareunia);

ovarian dysfunction;

infertility;

habitual miscarriage (abortion).

Very often, only acute inflammatory diseases have severe symptoms, but chronic inflammations can occur without a clearly defined clinic. Most women do not attach much importance to a slight itching, burning, or discharge. They self-medicate or completely ignore the disease, which in the meantime becomes chronic. And any chronic process is already considered a serious threat to women's health, resulting in infertility, ectopic pregnancies, pelvic pain, and suffering for women.

References

Assi, M. A., Noor, M. H. M., Haron, A. W., Yusoff, M. S. M., & Rajion, M. A. (2017). Male Reproductive System. Pertanika Journal of Scholarly Research Reviews, 3(1).

Hoffmann, K. H. (2018). Oogenesis and the female reproductive system. In Insect reproduction (pp. 1-32). CRC Press.

Sweeney, M. F., Hasan, N., Soto, A. M., & Sonnenschein, C. (2015). Environmental endocrine disruptors: effects on the human male reproductive system. Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders, 16(4), 341-357.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Dissection Of Research Article

Dissection of Research Article

Name

Institution

Dissection of Research Article

1. Show how you would cite the article in a bibliography presented in a scientific paper

This article cited in the APA citation styles as follows:

Sison-Mangus, M. P., Mushegian, A. A. & Ebert, D. (2015). Water fleas require microbiota for survival, growth and reproduction. The ISME Journal, 9, 59–67.

2. What are the major sections (and subsections) included in this paper?

It is a quantitative research study having experimental research design. The main sections include abstract, introduction, materials and methods (animal, daphnia from parthenogenesis eggs, daphnia from resting eggs, mortality and fecundity experiment), statistical analysis, results, discussion, conclusion, conflict of interest, acknowledgements and references. These sections encapsulate the purpose of research, strong literature support of the subject matter, detailed methodological description, findings and in-depth analysis of the obtained results.

3. Outline the general information presented in the introduction and describes at least two main ideas about the study presented by the authors in the introduction

Authors presented various studies in the introduction section in order to make the reader realize the significance of current topic within the biological world. They presented valuable information about the benefit of micro-organisms like bacteria and parasites for the survival and appropriate functioning of eukaryotes. They called the surrounding micro-organisms as micro-biota. Authors suggested that micro-biota carries immense importance for the eukaryotic community because some eukaryotes require micro-organisms to catalyze their cellular or organic functions for example, bacteria-free drosophila larvae has higher chances of death and developmental arrest; bacteria-free adult flies have been observed to have reduced life-spans as compared to the other counterparts; post fertilization observation of zebra-fish demonstrates a clear degeneration of intestinal tissues in the 100% absence of bacteria and various fatal interruptions in the gastrointestinal and immune- development have been observed when mice and rats were deprived of the bacteria within their gut track. Hence, introduction section highlights the three main points of host-parasite relationship; symbiotic, mutualism and parasitic. In the pre-existing literature, a considerable attention was paid to the negative effects of micro-biota on the associated host organisms however this article countered the trend and attempted to highlight the symbiotic relationship between these two counter-stones of eco-system.

4. The introduction presented background information about the research system. The information came from a literature review of relevant scientific articles. How many articles were cited in the introduction? How many of the articles do you think were peer-reviewed?

Aristotle suggested that we can make our message impactful and persuade others dexterously using three techniques; ethos, pathos and logos. Here, logos is what authors utilized in this research article; they used logical (research based) explanation and references from the credible literature sources to make their words more acceptable for all. Approximately 30 literature articles were added in the study out of which 20 studies were used in the introduction section in order to settle the arguments on the logical grounds of pre-existing literature. After deliberate painstaking analysis, it was found that nearly all the studies included in introduction section appeared to be peer-reviewed because they were picked from the journals that offer only peer-reviewed articles with greater number of citations worldwide such as Biology Bulletin, Genetics, journal of gerontology, biology and medicine and so on.

5. What were the goals or objectives of the study, and where were they presented?

This study intends to explore the biological effects of micro-biota such as growth, reproduction and survival on the daphnia—a miniature crustaceans present in the water, also known as common water flea. Researchers selected daphnia for experimentation because it is a widely-acknowledged model animal in ecology, quantitative genetics, environmental genomics, evolution of sex and host-parasitic interaction and eco-toxicology. These goals and objective were presented in the end of introduction section where daphnia was introduced.

6. What were the research questions and hypothesis questions presented in the paper?

Research questions included

Are daphnia survival rates different in the presence and absence of bacteria?

Are daphnia reproduction rates different in the presence and absence of bacteria?

Are daphnia growth rates different in the presence and absence of bacteria?

Hypothesis included

In the parthenogenesis eggs of daphnia the growth rates are higher in the bacterial supply solution as compared to the untreated and bacteria absent solutions

In the resting eggs of daphnia the growth rates are higher in the bacterial supply solution as compared to the untreated and bacteria absent solutions

Growth rate in the parthenogenesis eggs is higher than the resting eggs of bacteria supply solution

In the parthenogenesis eggs of daphnia the survival rates are higher in the bacterial supply solution as compared to the untreated and bacteria absent solutions

In the resting eggs of daphnia the survival rates are higher in the bacterial supply solution as compared to the untreated and bacteria absent solutions

Survival rate in the parthenogenesis eggs is higher than the resting eggs of bacteria supply solution

In the parthenogenesis eggs of daphnia the reproduction rates are higher in the bacterial supply solution as compared to the untreated and bacteria absent solutions

In the resting eggs of daphnia the reproduction rates are higher in the bacterial supply solution as compared to the untreated and bacteria absent solutions

Reproduction rate in the parthenogenesis eggs is higher than the resting eggs of bacteria supply solution.

7. What were the types of variables recorded during the research? Which variables were explanatory VS responses?

Three types of variables were recorded during the research; growth rate in millimeters, survival rates in the number of eggs survived after ten days and reproduction rate in the number of eggs hatched in ten days.

8. The methods section presents information on the procedures used during the research. List the types of information described about the study and the main approach to gather data.

It was an experimental study in which three conditions were manipulated; details are presented in the tabular form:

Sr#

Parthenogenesis

Resting eggs

1

Bacteria supply solution

Bacteria supply solution

2

Bacteria-free solution

Bacteria-free solution

3

Untreated solution

Untreated solution

After PCR screening of bacteria 16srDNA from daphnia, a close observation was put to examine the growth, survival and reproductive changes of daphnia.

9. What statistical analyses were conducted during the study?

PCR screening of bacteria at different sampling points was used and rest of the work was done through systematic observation and t-test and percentile analysis command in the SPSS version 21 software.

10. Outline the presented outcomes of the study

Bacterial presence has significant impact on the survival, growth and reproduction of daphnia. Growth, survival and reproduction rates were higher in the parthenogenesis eggs of bacterial solution as compared to the resting egg solution.

11. What types of information were presented in the discussion section?

Discussion section presented the findings thoroughly defining the acceptance or rejection of each hypothesis and how these results contributed to the existing knowledge about micro-biota.

12. How did information presented differ between the results and the discussion sections?

In the result section, information was presented in graphs and statistical language that was difficult to understand for a common individual however discussion section attempted to interpret the information and made it understandable for all. Result section had more formal language whereas discussions section was quite informal and detailed.

13. An important requirement of scientific articles is that claims made in the article must be based on data presented, or references citing other scientific articles. How well did the authors meet this criteria?

Both in-text and end-text citation styles were appropriate and followed the AMA conventions.

14. Scientific conclusions must be based on the results of the study; not speculation or hidden agendas. How well do you think the article's conclusions matched the results presented in the paper?

It matched well because an objective meaning was derived from the findings as we all knew hypotheses were accepted and results confirmed the importance of bacteria for daphnia. Same was defined in the conclusion section.

References

Sison-Mangus, M. P., Mushegian, A. A. & Ebert, D. (2015). Water flea require micro-biota for survival, growth and reproduction. The ISME Journal, 9, 59–67.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

DNA Repaire

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Prevalence of Obesity in USA

Introduction

With the advent of the science and technology, many things that could have been considered inconceivable or impossible few years ago are now done quite easily. DNA repair is one of them. It is a process through which is the cell can identify and correct the damage that has happened to DNA with the passage of time and how the encoding that is being done in the DNA can be repaired with the passage of time (Wood et al, 2001). The process was needed since with the environmental damage as well as the metabolic activities that are carried out in the region, the basic structure of the DNA is being damaged. Most of the times, it is the structural damage that is caused to the DNA is the most serious one and there was an effort for a very long time to make sure that the degree of control is achieved in this regard. Therefore the DNA repair process was needed to make sure that the normal wear and the other damages to the DNA structure can be repaired.

Discussion

Most o the times, when the DNA repair process is activated, it works in the manner that how the activities are carried out in the system that respond to the damage that is happening in the DNA structure at the given point of time. It must be noted that when the normal repair process fails, and the apoptosis of the cell is not occurred, then the DNA repair process is most active. The most damaging of them all is the double strand break as well as the DNA cross linkages that are carried out at the point of time (Wood et al, 2001).

Rate of the DNA repair

There are many factors that are involved in the whole process that tend to make sure that the process of the DNA repair is being sped up or halted. For instance, the cell that has accumulated the large amount of DNA damage or the one that is not able to repair or function in the normal manner goes through three states which are as followed.

An irreversible state of the dormancy which is also called as the senescence

The cell suicide, in which the programmed cell death occurs

Unregulated cell division, which is the most damaging of them all as it is likely to cause the formation of the tumor that is bound to be cancerous.

It must be noted that the ability of the DNA to repair itself is quite important when it comes to the integrity of the genome and thus this process has to be carried out all the cost. The functionality of many organisms that are prevailing in the body. There were many genes that were initially shown to have an influence on the overall life span of the entities were the ones that were involved in the DNA repair system (Wood et al, 2001).

Mechanism of the DNA repair

It has to be noted that the cells cannot function with themselves if the DNA damage is such that they are corrupted and the integrity and the accessibility of the information genome is missing during the course of the whole process. It must be noted that even during this process, the cell remains to the functional at the superficial level specially when there is a case that the non essential gene is damaged or missing during the whole process. The whole thing is also dependent on the type of damage that is inflicted on the DNA’s double helical structure. To combat these, there are variety of strategies are being and the core premises of these strategies is to make sure that the information does not have to be lost during the whole process. The other possibility that is needed to be kept in mind is that how the cells are going to be using the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or even the sister chromatid. The idea behind it is to make sure that the template is being created that allows the recovery of the initial information that was stored in the DNA. If there is no access to the template, the cells are then going to be using the trans lesion synthesis to make sure that the whole thing is being done as a matter of the last resort of all the other available options of the DNA repair are not working out (Wood et al, 2001).

Direct Reversal

It has been known that how cells are supposed to be making sure that they eliminate three types of the damages that is happening to the DNA and the way it is being done is that the chemical process is being used as a rationale to reverse the whole process. Most of the times, these mechanisms are not requiring a template due to the fact that the type of the template that they are supposed to be counteracting is such that it is likely to occur in only three to four basis at the particular point of time. The other thing that must be noted about these direct reversal mechanisms is that they are quite specific in terms of the way they work and how the type of damage that is incurred during the whole process is going to be avoided at the particular point of time. The formation of the pyrimidine dimers also plays an important role during the whole process (Wood et al, 2001). One key aspect of this process is that how the photo reactivation is going to be carried out. Most of the times what happens is that the direct reversal of the damage is needed to be done in order to make sure that the enzyme that comprises of the photolyase process is carried out. It is other matter that how its activation is going to be done and how the dependency on the enzyme is also supposed to be carried out based on the energy constraints at the particular point of time.

Single Strand Damage

If there is a case that only one or two strands are damaged during the process of the DNA repair, then the double helix effect must be there and the underlying defect at that point of time has to be resolved in an appropriate manner (Farmer et al, 2005). What happens most of the times in such processes is that the other strand can be used as a template to make sure that there is guidance in terms of the way correction of the underlying issues is carried out. Not only that, in order to ensure that the corresponding damage to the cell has been repaired, the effort is needed to be made to ensure that at least one of the two paired molecules of the DNA and its composition must be appropriate. The next thing that can be done is to make sure that the removal of the damaged nucleotide must be done and then it has to be replaced with DNA strand that is not damaged (Farmer et al, 2005). While large numbers of epigenetic alterations are found in cancers, the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes, causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins, appear to be particularly important. Such alterations are thought to occur early in progression to cancer and to be a likely cause of the genetic instability characteristic of cancers.

Double Strand Breaks

If there is a case of the double strand break, the both the strands are being repaired with the help of the double helix. The idea behind the whole process is to make sure that the hazardous cells are covered as there is a likelihood that they can lead towards the rearrangement of the genome. It has been noted in some of the studies that how the double strand break that is witnessed in the given issue acts as a cross linkage that is joining both the strands and how the whole point is going to be irreparable. This is happening since how none of the strand can be used as a template for the repair. If that is the likely scenario, then what happens most of the times is that the cell is going to die in the next mitosis. There are some rare instances that even the mutation of the cells is being carried out (Farmer et al, 2005). The other thing that must be noted about the whole process is that how the damage that occurs in these cases is intermediate in nature. Classically, cancer has been viewed as a set of diseases that are driven by progressive genetic abnormalities that include mutations in tumour-suppressor genes and oncogenes, and chromosomal aberrations. However, it has become apparent that cancer is also driven by epigenetic alterations.

Trans lesion Synthesis

Trans lesion synthesis which is also known as the TLS is one of the major ways through which the whole process of the DNA repair is being carried out. The idea is to make sure that the DNA’s must be developing damage tolerance. This damage tolerance is going to allow them to make sure that the DNA replication mechanism ca be placed so that the thymine dimmers and the functionality of the AP sites works in the right manner. Not only that, the whole process work out in the manner that is about making sure that the regular DNA polymerases is going to be done and the specialized trans lesion about the polymerases is carried out at the particular point of time (Farmer et al, 2005). The other purpose of the whole exercise is to make sure that there should be facilitation of the insertion of the opposite damaged nucleotides during the course of the whole process. What happens next is that the polymerase are going to be mediated along with the other factors (Farmer et al, 2005). The post translational modification of the replication and the processivity factor of the PCNA is a major factor that is needed to be kept in mind during the whole process. What it does is that when the lesion is encountered, then the replication fork is going to be stalled. What happens next is that the PCNA would be making the switch from the processive polymerase to the TLS polymerase so that the lesion can be fixed (Farmer et al, 2005). The PCNA is then going to make sure that the extension in the given case is being managed in the right manner. The last thing that is going to be done during the whole process is that the switch to the processive polymerase is going to be made to make sure that the process of the replication is continued in the given point of time.

Global Response to the DNA Damage

The important factor that must be kept in mind during the course of the whole process is to make sure that the ionization of the radiation and the usage of the ultraviolet lights is going to be used (Cleaver, 1968). There are instances where even the usage of the chemical is being talked about as a major process to control the damage that is happening to the cells at that point of time. The next thing is that how the global response to the damage is going to be working out and how the management of the multiple pathways. It also includes the repair of the lesion bypass as well as the development of the tolerance level and apoptosis during the whole process (Cleaver, 1968). DNA damage response mechanisms trigger cell-cycle arrest, and attempt to repair DNA lesions or promote cell death/senescence if repair is not possible. Replication stress is observed in preneoplastic cells due to increased proliferation signals from oncogenic mutations. Replication stress is characterized by: increased replication initiation/origin firing; increased transcription and collisions of transcription-replication complexes; nucleotide deficiency; increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS).

DNA repair Mechanism and Cancer

At the moment, there are some inherent limitations to the process as far a the way DNA repair mechanism is supposed to work. If the humans are living long enough, at times, the process of the repair work is augmented and thus it is bound to cause cancer to the person. There are about 34 inherited gene mutations that are likely to increase the risk of the cancer. What happens is that many these mutations work in the manner that it causes the DNA repair. Specially if one talks about the hereditary non polyposis colorectal cancer, then it is strongly associated with the mutations that are rather specific in nature and thus cause the DNA mismatch repair pathway to be broken at the particular point of time. Then there are cancer therapy procedures such as the chemotherapy and radiotherapy that might function in the manner that the they can overwhelm the capacity of the DNA repair process to be faulted and thus resulting in the death of the cell. Not only that, the cells that are rapidly dividing, which are mostly cancer cells are going to be affected preferably due to that. The important thing that has to be noted in this regard is that how the side effect in the given case is going to work in the manner that the rapid division of the cells act as a progenitor that are placed in the gut, skin and some of the other hematopoietic systems of the body that are affected in this manner. The good thing is that there are many drugs that are sorting out the residual DNA repair mechanism and the likelihood is on the higher side that the how the commonly found things and cancer causing processes are going to be controlled (Cleaver, 1968). The prevalence of DNA damage response mutations differs across cancer types; for example, 30% of breast invasive carcinomas have mutations in genes involved in homologous recombination.

Conclusion

There are replication errors and the DNA damage that is going on in the cell all the time as well as our bodies. The idea is to make sure that how the element of control is needed to be developed to make sure that these mutations can be controlled. Most of the times they are detected and the DNA itself works in the manner that the proofing is carried out and the structure fixed itself. If that is not happening, then cells would go the programmed death which is known as the process of the apoptosis (Cleaver, 1968).

Works Cited

Cleaver, J. E. "Defective repair replication of DNA in xeroderma igmentosum." nature 218.5142 (1968): 652.

Farmer, Hannah, et al. "Targeting the DNA repair defect in BRCA mutant cells as a therapeutic strategy." Nature434.7035 (2005): 917.

Wood, Richard D., et al. "Human DNA repair genes." Science291.5507 (2001): 1284-1289.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 8 Words: 2400

DNA Through The Process Of Protein Synthesis

DNA through the Process of Protein Synthesis

[Name of the Student:]

[Name of the Institution:]

DNA through the Process of Protein Synthesis

DNA Structure and Genetic Characteristics

DNA is an abbreviation of Deoxyribonucleic Acid that is a molecule made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a phosphate group that is a phosphorus-containing region, deoxyribose that is a sugar group based on carbon, and a nitrogenous base that is a nitrogen-containing region. A nucleotide is made up of two chains that coil around each other in the form of a double helix. They carry genetic information needed by an organism for development, reproduction, growth, and all the functions of the body. This implies that genetic characteristics are associated with the DNA molecules. Genetic characteristics are the hereditary characteristics that offspring inherit from their parents. These characteristics include the physical structure and related attributes, biochemistry of the body, and behavior, though the behavior is inherited to a little extent. During the reproductive process, both parents contribute to the offspring in terms of genetic characteristics. However, it is not the fact that offspring is a copy of its parents. Instead, almost half the genetic characteristics of an individual or organism are transferred to the offspring. The two halves, each originating from a parent, combine to make a complete whole. Further, it is essentially important to note that new patterns of genetic coding or a combination of nucleotides emerge from the combination of two halves coming from each parent. The zygote thus formed undergoes a series of developmental changes and ultimately transforms into a grown-up individual, which demonstrates new characteristics although it demonstrates traits of both parents as well. In humans, a body cell contains a set of 46 chromosomes (containing complete information for the organism’s body structure and function for the whole life), and reproductive cells contain 23 chromosomes. Therefore, each parent contributes a set of twenty-three chromosomes to the formation (a whole new combination) of a set of forty-six chromosomes of zygote.

Steps in the process of Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is one of the most important functions of a cell. The entities involved in protein synthesis are DNA, RNA, Ribosomes, and Plasma proteins. DNA’s primary role is to direct the process of protein synthesis. Protein synthesis starts with the unzipping of DNA in the nucleus. Double-stranded nucleotides are converted to single-stranded nucleotides constituting mRNAs, which contain DNAs’ message for protein synthesis. This process is referred to as Transcription. Complementary information from within the DNA is transcribed on to the mRNAs (messenger RNAs) who are responsible to carry this information from the nucleus to the ribosomes present outside, which are the sites or factories for synthesizing new proteins. The mRNAs get attached to ribosomes and the process of Translation starts (Simon, Dickey, Hogan, & Reece, 2015). It entails decoding DNA message to specify what type of proteins would be made by giving directions about the sequence of the polypeptide chain. A codon (referred to three nucleotides) is read, proper amino acids are fetched from Plasma to connect with the codon. The tRNAs do the job of transporting amino acids from Plasma to ribosomes. When two amino acids reach a ribosome, a connection builds between them named peptide bond. The next peptide bond is formed when two other amino acids get attached to the ribosome. This process is called Elongation. It refers to building up the amino acids as directed by DNAs’ message. A series of peptide bonds gives rise to a polypeptide chain that is specific in its characteristics. The process is stopped when some mRNA (uracil involved) gives out a stop signal, referred to as Termination. Consequently, a new polypeptide chain is formed.

DNA to be Responsible for Ultimate Expression of Characteristics in an Organism

DNA also referred to as the genetic material is responsible for carrying information that controls the overall biological issues of an individual. This information is called genetic information. DNA creates the genetic code as well which is a set of rules used in translating the genetic information stored in DNA into proteins, which ultimately direct functions of cells (Plomin, 2019). Cells receive instructions from the brain, which response to the external as well as internal stimuli. The cell functions are regulated by the brain, internal regulatory system of the body, and stimuli from the environment. An individual's characteristics are controlled by the internal and external (biological, psychological, or environmental) stimuli. These stimuli are responded at the cellular level by DNA, which releases relevant responding information for creating respective proteins to regulate cell functions accordingly. Therefore, it can be concluded that DNA is responsible for the final expression of characteristics in an individual. The process of protein synthesis is directly associated with the ultimate expression of characteristics in the individual. DNA works as the potential control center that automatically regulates cell functions by adjusting protein types and amounts it makes.

Effects of Interference in Protein Synthesis on Cellular and Bodily Processes

Proteins have been proved by researches to be responsible for dictating cell functions and controlling the biological (and behavioral as well, to some extent) characteristics of an organism. This implies that protein synthesis is a very critical process in the cell. Interference occurring in protein synthesis disrupts a cell's proper functioning, eruption of disease phenotypes, and other disturbances. Proteins contribute to building the body structure, i.e., making parts of the body. Proteins help in supporting the immune system of the body. Errors occurred protein synthesis can lead to the development of undesired body structures or a decrease in immunity. Interference in protein synthesis occurs at all stages from the transcription of genetic information to the ultimate folding of functional proteins. The genetic code determines the unique type of every polypeptide chain, that is, the sequence of amino acids arranged to make polypeptides. When an interference occurs in the nucleotides’ sequence in the translational stage, it affects the sequence of amino acids in the ultimate polypeptide chain by placing a different amino acid in place of the desired one.

Poor Nutrition Disrupts Important Body Functions

Nutrition can have positive or negative effects on the body functions of an individual, depending upon the quality and quantity of nutrition provided. However, the study of nutritional effects on body functions can be done using different perspectives. One of the approaches used in studying the effects of nutrition is to consider the process of protein synthesis being affected by poor nutrition, which ultimately affects the body functions. Several body functions are regulated by enzymes, which are made up of amino acids. The body has different glands in its various parts, which release enzymes as their products. These enzymes help in increasing the speeds of chemical reactions taking place in almost all the cells of the body. Enzymes help in regulating the systems of the body, such as helping in digestion and expediting the process of metabolism. Enzymes also assist cells to communicate with one another, as well as assist in controlling cell growth.

Poor nutrition can disrupt protein synthesis, and erroneous enzyme production can lead to disturbed body functions. Diseases or dysfunctions caused due to the enzymes imbalance can result in poor nutrition. Lack of proteins means lack of amino acids, and this can result in weak immune system, poor digestion, depressive disorders, fertility problems, inability to focus on something, growth problems in children, and many more. Enzymes are needed by the body in specific amounts for particular functions to be performed well. Poor nutrition will affect enzymes concentration produced in protein synthesis processes and used in chemical reactions that will ultimately affect the functionality of body organs.

Works Cited

Plomin, R. (2019). Blueprint: How DNA makes us who we are. /z-wcorg/.

Simon, E. J., Dickey, J. L., Hogan, K. A., & Reece, J. B. (2015). Campbell essential biology with physiology. Pearson.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

DNA Vs RNA- Differences/similarity

DNA vs RNA- Differences/Similarities

Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees

DNA vs RNA- Differences/Similarities

RNA stands for ribonucleic acid while DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. They are similar in a way as they both carry genetic information however, there are several differences as well. RNA encompasses sugar ribose while DNA encompasses sugar deoxyribose (Saladin, 2017). DNA is double-stranded while RNA is a single-stranded molecule. Typically, DNA consists of a long chain of nucleotides. In contrast, RNA consists of shorter chains of nucleotide. Another important feature of DNA is that it has the ability to self-replicate while RNA is synthesized from the DNA and does not contain the self-replicating properties.

While discussing the alkaline conditions, DNA is stable in the alkaline conditions but RNA is not stable. As mentioned earlier, RNA and DNA both contain genetic information but they do have different functions in humans. It is the responsibility of DNA to store and transfer genetic information. In contrast, it is the responsibility of RNA to code for amino acids that act as a messenger between ribosomes and DNA (Saladin, 2017).

Specifically discussing the base-pairing, there is a slight difference between RNA and DNA. The three nitrogenous bases that are adenine, guanine and cytosine are present in both DNA and RNA. However, there is also a slight difference between the bases of DNA and RNA. RNA contains uracil while DNA is comprised of thymine (Li & Cheung, 2011). The difference between uracil and thymine is that thymine does not contain a methyl group on its ring.

In the context of stability, DNA is more stable as compared to RNA. This is because DNA contains the C-H bond. Also, the enzymes that may attack DNA are destroyed by the body itself. As the ribose of RNA is made from the O-H bond, it is more reactive than DNA, yet lacks stability and is more prone to enzyme attacks (Li & Cheung, 2011). Moreover, RNA is a bit resistant to UV damage as compared to DNA.

References

Li, M., Wang, I. X., Li, Y., Bruzel, A., Richards, A. L., Toung, J. M., & Cheung, V. G. (2011). Widespread RNA and DNA sequence differences in the human transcriptome. science, 333(6038), 53-58.

Saladin, K. (2017). Essentials of anatomy and physiology (8th ed.). New York: Mcgraw-Hill.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Do PART 2 (based On The Food You Entered In Part 1 - MPW-94510)

Student’s Name

Professor’s Name

Course Code

Date

Diet Report

Analysis of the diet

The analysis of the food intake reveals a complex trend. The analysis is done based on food intake for the last three days. Based on the analysis it is evident that the plate intake does not meet the target. The target is 1800 calories and based on the analysis he only manages 60%, which means that 1080. It is also evident that a lot of food taken for the last three days is protein food. The dairy, fruits, and vegetable targets are not met. This means that Lee takes a lot of protein food when compared to other types of food and this may not be good.

The protein intake is 30.45 against the target of 23.59 and therefore, the protein intake is 129 %. The carbohydrates intake is 87.60 against the target of 260.47, which means that the carbohydrates intake are 34%. It means that Lee takes fewer carbohydrates food than required. The dietary fiber is also poor because the intake is 7.1 against the target of 26.52. It means that Lee only took 27% of fiber required by the body. This means there is a deficit of 73% and therefore, this could expose his body to a lot of medical problems. The analysis also indicates that he took 53% of sugar required by the body, 47% of fat, 30% of Cholesterol and 0% of water. It also shows that he took 0% of minerals and 23% of calcium and 44% of iron.

Recommendation

Based on the diet analysis, it is evident that Lee had a poor balance diet three and therefore, a change in diet is required. In the last three days, the analysis indicates that he took a lot of protein compared to other food. Though the body requires a lot of protein, too much of it could be dangerous and therefore, it is recommended for Lee to reduce the protein intake by at least 23%. Without reducing the amount of protein intake, he can develop some health conditions related to too much protein in the body. The body also requires vitamins and the analysis indicates that Lee had taken 0% of vitamins in the last three days. It is recommended for him to take a lot of vitamins because vitamins are required by the body to build the immune system. It is, therefore, recommended to take 900.00 of vitamins, which is the target.

Lee should take foods to enrich in vitamin for breakfast and some during lunch. It is evident that he takes protein for breakfast, lunch, and supper. The diet should change and the meal should comprise of a variety of foods. The amount of cheese and other fast food being taken should reduce by 50% and this is the reason his intake is of protein-enriched food. The analysis reveals that he takes a lot of fats and this should be checked as well to avoid developing any health condition because of a lot of fat in the body. The intake of minerals is also very low at 23% and therefore, it is recommended to increase the amount of mineral food especially iron and calcium because of the essential function of iron and calcium in the body,

Conclusion

In order to remain fit and avoid getting disease base on his diet. It is recommended for Lee to do a lot of exercises. The exercise will help in burning a lot of fat and therefore, it will be able to keep fit and avoid heart-related diseases. It is also important to take a lot of vitamins, required protein and also increase the intake of carbohydrates.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Earth Science

Name: Christine Jones #6860018

Date: 4/29/19

Instructor: Jordanna Sheer mohamed

Course:

This worksheet is scored on a “point system”: each question lists the total possible points for a correct answer. The entire worksheet is worth 100 points

Section 1: Plate Tectonics

1. How many “plates” do you notice (easier to count on the egg)? (5 points)

There are seven tectonic plates in total

2. How many landmasses do you see present? (5 points)

Total of five landmasses are present when we see the surface of earth colored in green.

1924050312420

3. Are X and Y on the same plate? (5 points)

No, X and Y are present at different plates because they are completely separated by the cracks on earth’s lithosphere.

4. Are Y & Z on the same plate? (5 points)

No, Y and Z are present at different plates because they are completely separated by the cracks on earth’s lithosphere

5. Are X & Z on the same plate?(5 points)

Yes, X and Z are still present at the same plate because X and Y plates are having incomplete divergent boundary which will end up separating X from Z.

6. Complete the table below based on the map shown above. (5 points total for the table)

Plates

Type of Boundary

North American Plate and the Pacific plate

Transform boundary

North American Plate and the Caribbean plate

Transform boundary

North American Plate and the Juan de Fuca plate

Divergent (due to subduction)

Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate

No boundary

Nazca Plate and South American Plate

Convergent

7. Describe what happens at each type of boundary. (5 points for each plate boundary: 15 points total)

Divergent

Divergent boundary is formed when two boundary plates collide with each other where one plate eventually slides under the other boundary which is known as the process of subduction.

b. Convergent

In convergent plate boundaries, plates moves away from each other.

c. Transform

Transform fault is created when one lithosphere plate slide past the other in horizontal manner.

8. Study the direction the plates are all moving. What do you think this map will look like in another 50 million years, how do you think the location of the continents will have changed? Response should be at least 2 – 3 sentences. (5 points total)

System of plates makes up earth’s continents and they constantly travel with the speed of 30mm per year. After fifty million years, it is estimated that Australia might collide with Southeast Asia, South Europe might put up against Africa and Atlantic Ocean might be bigger than what it is now.

Section 2: Volcanoes

9. Which type of volcanoes are most often found in oceans? (5 points)

Low silica shield magma volcanoes are found in the oceans because ocean crust is comparatively thinner than that of continental crust and it takes less time to for magma to reach surface due to which silica does not find enough time to incorporate in magma.

10. In which type of volcano does the oceanic crust descend beneath the thicker continental crust? (5 points)

In Strato-volcanoes the oceanic crust descends beneath the thicker continental crust.

11. Describe each type of volcano, with 2 to 3 sentences, and give an example. You will use your textbook for this question. (5 points for each volcano type: 15 points total)

a. Stratovolcano:

These volcanoes contain viscous high silica magma with gaseous pressure due to which, eruption of magma fragments is triggered. Here, the oceanic crust descends beneath the thicker continental crust.

b. Cinder Cone:

They are conical in shape and contain low silica magma with plenty of dissolved gasses due to which volcanic activity can be seen similar to “shaken cane” giving away soda spraying.

c. Shield:

Low silica shield magma volcanoes are found in the oceans because ocean crust is comparatively thinner than that of continental crust and it takes less time to reach surface due to which silica does not find enough time to incorporate in magma.

Section 3: Earthquakes

Atlantic Ocean

Indian Ocean

Arctic Ocean

Southern Ocean

12. Do earthquakes occur around the coastlines of all oceans? (2 points)

No, they do not occur around the coastlines of all the oceans.

13. If you responded no, give an example of an ocean with no earthquakes around the edges. (3 points)

Antarctic Ocean does not have earthquakes around the edges.

14. Do earthquakes occur only along coastlines? (2 points)

No, they do not occur only along coastlines.

15. If you responded no, give an example of an area where earthquakes occur in the middle of an ocean and in the middle of a continent. (3 points)

Indonesia is located in the southern Asia between pacific and Indian ocean that is having quite active seismic area.

16.Do earthquakes occur only in one particular climate, such as where it is hot? (2 points)

They occur in hot climate but on “only” in the hot one. They may occur around the cold areas, coastal areas and fault lines.

17. If you responded no, give an example of an area where earthquakes occur in hot climate and a cold climate. (3 points)

Indonesia is the example of hot area where earthquake occur whereas Tibet (China) is the example of cold climate that is conductive to earthquake activities.

18. Compare the Named Plate Tectonics map in Section 1 and the Earthquake Map in Section 3. Based on these, why do earthquakes occur where they do? Response must be at least one complete sentence. (5 points)

The areas located at ocean edges and where tectonic plate boundaries are present earthquakes are more likely to occur; for example Japan, because it comprises a long island chain between the sea of Japan, Philippine and Okhotsk. It is in the Pacific Ocean—the east and north Asia.

19. Find Japan on the Earthquake map (labeled with a black star). Explain why Japan has so many earthquakes. Response must be at least two complete sentences. (5 points)

Ring of Fire (ROF) is referred to as a major area in the Pacific Ocean Basin which is the center of many volcanic eruptions and earthquake activities. Approximately 90% of the earthquakes in the world happen in this area. Japan is located along the ROF this is why it has so many earthquakes.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Effect Of Overusing Lasers

Effect of overusing laser

[Authors Name]

Effect of overusing laser

In the field of medical science laser is one of the most significant discoveries in the present century. It includes a new inconceivable perspective in medical practice and biological research. A laser is a term that stands for the amplification of light by the stimulated emission of radiation. It is infrared radiation and an intense beam of light. there are many kinds of laser such as diode; laser, solid state laser, fiber laser, excimer laser and gas laser. All these types of laser share some common set of components. The laser has the following properties.

Monochromatic: it is consists of only one wavelength. This means that it can be focused on the smaller area for a longer distance without a decrease in the laser beam power intensity

Coherent: It means that laser emits coherent light and can be used in lithography and cutting.

Collimated: In this laser follows the path which is narrow and for a greater distance.

Today the technology of laser has emerged from the operating room of hospitals and available in clinics, office practices, private enterprises without the appropriate and adequate benefits. The safety of laser is everyone's concern. A laser can be safe or hazardous as the knowledge and skills of users define how well its safety is managed. Proper laser safety management requires appropriate knowledge of standards, identification of risk and hazards, implementation of proper control measures and program audits to determine quality assurance.

The unprotected human eye is very sensitive to the laser radiation and it can be damaged permanently from reflected and direct beams ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Joukar</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Joukar, Nammakie, &amp; Niroomand-Oscuii, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1573127080">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Joukar, Amin</author><author>Nammakie, Erfan</author><author>Niroomand-Oscuii, Hanieh</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A comparative study of thermal effects of 3 types of laser in eye: 3D simulation with bioheat equation</title><secondary-title>Journal of thermal biology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of thermal biology</full-title></periodical><pages>74-81</pages><volume>49</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>0306-4565</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Joukar, Nammakie, & Niroomand-Oscuii, 2015). Due to the characteristics of tissue the area of the eye that is damaged by the laser is dependent on the incident laser beam wavelength. When the laser light is in the infrared and visible spectrum they will cause damage to the retina. These regions are usually defined as retinal hazard region. The overuse of laser can damage the eye. The conditions associated with the overuse of laser include cataract, squamous cell carcinoma, damage to the surface of the eye and any other irritation. The overuse of laser is associated with the retinal spots that can arise from burns and the severity of these is dependent on the laser beam size to which the eye was exposed. As larger beam cause greater damage.

Overuse of laser can have a damaging effect on different human organs,' thermal effects of laser occurs when the laser radiation is absorbed by the skin. Tissue reaction occurs that relates to the temperature elevation of the organism and the duration of the process of heating. If temperature rises to 41 degrees in the first ten minutes, then it can lead to cellular death. Another effect of the overuse of laser is that it can leads to irreversible necrosis without immediate destruction of tissue. In this process, the temperature of tissue rises between 50 and 100 degrees. In one second. This causes retraction and whitening of tissue, desiccation due to collagen and protein denaturation.

The overuse of a laser can lead to the photochemical reaction. These are basic changes that occur in skin cells when they are exposed to ultraviolet light. This type of photochemical reaction leads to a carcinogenic effect in the skin cells and represents the initial stage of cancerous tumors. The laser which emits light in an ultraviolet region is associated with the photochemical reaction. However, for the occurrence of photochemical reactions, exposure of greater than 10 seconds must be induced.

The overuse of laser is also associated with skin damage. Ultraviolet rays can penetrate at a different depth inside the skin. These rays are absorbed in the external layer that is epidermis. On the prolonged use, it can cause red blotches similar to the sunburn. These rays also cause many other skin diseases such as increased pigmentation, erythema, aging, light sensitization, and even skin cancer. These days laser hair removal is very common. The prolonged and overuse of this can lead to skin irritation, redness and swelling and change in the color of the skin. Other than this it can lead to crusting, scarring, blistering and any other changes in the texture of the skin ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Farivar</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>235</RecNum><DisplayText>(Farivar, Malekshahabi, &amp; Shiari, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>235</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1573127135">235</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Farivar, Shirin</author><author>Malekshahabi, Talieh</author><author>Shiari, Reza</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Biological effects of low level laser therapy</title><secondary-title>Journal of lasers in medical sciences</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of lasers in medical sciences</full-title></periodical><pages>58</pages><volume>5</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Farivar, Malekshahabi, & Shiari, 2014).

The cosmetic laser damages the skin to encourage it to recover soon. If the overuse of laser is done then it can make the skin more sensitive to exposure to sun and in turn cause sunburn. Ablation is another condition that is caused by the overuse of the laser. This condition occurs at a temperature greater than 100 degrees. In these elements which cell constitutes evaporate in a relatively short time. At the border necrosis, the coagulated area can be observed. Sometimes the overuse of laser can also lead to infections but it is not much common.

The laser can bring great benefits such as they are used in the treatment of cancer, diagnosing bone disease, smoothing skin but they should not be misused. Different types of laser such as argon laser, pulsed dye laser, and the copper vapor laser are used in the treatment of different diseases. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McBurney</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>232</RecNum><DisplayText>(McBurney, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>232</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1573126968">232</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McBurney, Elizabeth I</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Side effects and complications of laser therapy</title><secondary-title>Dermatologic clinics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Dermatologic clinics</full-title></periodical><pages>165-176</pages><volume>20</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><isbn>0733-8635</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McBurney, 2002)

If these are overused then many harmful effects such as eye damage, cancer, burn and scarring can occur. Many side effects that are associated with the prolonged use of a laser can be avoided by the use of appropriate procedure ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schindl</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>236</RecNum><DisplayText>(Schindl, Schindl, Pernerstorfer-Schön, &amp; Schindl, 2000)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>236</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="2s2s0zrapsf0pbe5efuvv20f9rszvx0sd2fe" timestamp="1573127219">236</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schindl, Andreas</author><author>Schindl, Martin</author><author>Pernerstorfer-Schön, H</author><author>Schindl, Liesbeth</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Low-intensity laser therapy: a review</title><secondary-title>Journal of investigative medicine: the official publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of investigative medicine: the official publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research</full-title></periodical><pages>312-326</pages><volume>48</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2000</year></dates><isbn>1081-5589</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Schindl, Schindl, Pernerstorfer-Schön, & Schindl, 2000).

References

ADDIN EN.REFLIST Farivar, S., Malekshahabi, T., & Shiari, R. (2014). Biological effects of low level laser therapy. Journal of lasers in medical sciences, 5(2), 58.

Joukar, A., Nammakie, E., & Niroomand-Oscuii, H. (2015). A comparative study of thermal effects of 3 types of laser in eye: 3D simulation with bioheat equation. Journal of thermal biology, 49, 74-81.

McBurney, E. I. (2002). Side effects and complications of laser therapy. Dermatologic clinics, 20(1), 165-176.

Schindl, A., Schindl, M., Pernerstorfer-Schön, H., & Schindl, L. (2000). Low-intensity laser therapy: a review. Journal of investigative medicine: the official publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research, 48(5), 312-326.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Egg Lab Report

Kaylon Wright

Instructor Name

Art 101

06 November 2019

Lab Report

Claim

Osmosis is a process that causes the solvent to move from a lower concentration gradient to a higher concentration gradient across the membrane. The hypertonic solution allows the solvent to move inside the cells and resulted in an increased mass of the cell ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FxQDjQ2Z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). A hypertonic solution has a greater concentration of fluid particles and consequently when the cell is sited in this type of solution it causes the water to move outside ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GxrI0Pro","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). The hypotonic solution which has a poorer concentration of liquid particles will cause the water to travel inside the cells ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"STdrHmJS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). The solution in which the liquid movement is not detected across the membrane is an isotonic solution.

When an egg is placed in a solution of vinegar and another egg is placed in a solution of corn syrup, the egg will gain weight in the solution of vinegar because the water will move inside the egg as vinegar is a concentrated solution.

Evidence

When water from an area of less concentration gradient of soluble particles moves toward a high concentration gradient through a semi-permeable membrane is a process called osmosis. This happened because of the concentration gradient. There are three types of solutions, hypertonic solution, hypotonic solution, and isotonic solution. A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of liquid particles and therefore when the cell is placed in this type of solution it causes the water to move outside the water ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"17rjmOXs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). The hypotonic solution which has a lower concentration of liquefied particles will cause the water to move inside the cells. The solution in which the water movement is not observed across the membrane is an isotonic solution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7cElj4xX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). These concentration gradients allow the liquid to maintain the equilibrium across the membrane.

Movement of water across the membrane occurs because of the difference in concentration. When an egg is placed in different solutions, it changes its volume and mass. The mass of the egg increases when it is placed in the water because of the hypertonic solution as water will act as a hypertonic solution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EXchpDPx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). When the egg is placed in 95% corn soup it will decrease its mass because the water will be parting from the egg. The length of the egg placed in the vinegar increased whereas the egg placed in the corn syrup decreased its size. The fluid concentration of the corn syrup increased and the solution of vinegar the fluid level decreased. Keeping the time as an independent variable and mass and fluid level as dependent variables. The egg placed in the syrup of corn will shrink in size due to the movement of the water outside the egg. Whereas the egg will gain mass and fluid when placed in a hypertonic solution.

Table 1

Category

Length of Egg

Mass of Egg

Egg 1 before soaking

16.5 cm

50 grams

Egg 2 in the solution of vinegar

17.5 cm

68 grams

Egg 3 in the solution of corn syrup

15.5 cm

47 grams

Graph 1

Reasoning

Osmosis is a type of transport by which the solvent moves from a lower concentration gradient to a higher concentration gradient across the semi-permeable membrane. An area with having a higher number of particles will have a higher concentration gradient and an area or space having minimum particles will have a low concentration gradient ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6SWnXUZT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). Passive transport allows the movement of the particles to move across the membrane without using energy. The hypertonic solution causes the egg to gain mass and a hypotonic solution will cause it to shrink in size by losing its water ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DZ91XLlD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","plainCitation":"(Vujovic et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":176,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/RL72WL4B"],"itemData":{"id":176,"type":"article-journal","title":"Learning (by) osmosis: an approach to teaching osmolarity and tonicity","container-title":"Advances in physiology education","page":"626-635","volume":"42","issue":"4","author":[{"family":"Vujovic","given":"Predrag"},{"family":"Chirillo","given":"Michael"},{"family":"Silverthorn","given":"Dee U."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vujovic et al.). The level of fluid rises when an egg is placed in a solution of corn syrup because the syrup allows the fluid from the egg to move outside.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Vujovic, Predrag, et al. “Learning (by) Osmosis: An Approach to Teaching Osmolarity and Tonicity.” Advances in Physiology Education, vol. 42, no. 4, 2018, pp. 626–35.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

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